CHAPTER 6Section 6.1

Cognitive Development

Factors of DevelopmentMaturationLearningGenetic predisposition and environment

(nature vs. nurture)Developmental Niche

Cognitive Development

Types of developmental researchLongitudinal research (correction)

Cross-sectional design (correction)

Cognitive Development Brain Development

Universal baby characteristics in humans○ Sucking○ Grasping○ Visual and auditory abilities

Neuroplasticity○ Mirror neurons?

Chugani (1999) PET scan of brain○ Little activity in cerebral cortex (higher level learning)○ High activity in brain stem and thalamus (reflexes)○ Also active in newborns:

Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex)- Memory, emotional processing, and bonding

Cognitive Development 6-9 months

Frontal lobes and prefrontal area of cortex begin to function more fully.

Growth in lower-lying areas of brain such as hippocampus (memory) and cerebellum (body movements.)

1 yearContinued increase in glucose metabolism in frontal

cortex. ○ *continues to increase to above adult levels, but levels

out during adolescense.*

Pruning

Cognitive Development

Middle childhoodContinued growth in frontal lobe.

○ Case (1991)hypothesize of brain change patterns that occur

between 5 and 7 enables frontal lobe to develop more complex behaviors.

Attention control, explicit plans, and engaging in self-reflection.

Research came from people with damage to frontal lobe who have no self-control or stick to plans.

Cognitive Development Adolescence

Able to think in more abstract waysLess dramatic brain change.Reorganization and myelinization occur in higher

brain.○ Help with strategic planning.○ Giedd (2004)

Impulse control not fully developed until around 20.Longitudinal study using MRI scans every 2 years.95% of brain structure formed by age 5 or 6.Areas in prefrontal cortex grow again just before puberty.

- Different parts of the brain mature at different times.- Frontal cortex matures late.

Cognitive Development

Brain Development TheoriesHow can brain research be used to

understand development and education policies?○ Enrichment programs○ Governmental intervention programs for

disadvantaged children.

Cognitive Development Theories Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist who studied his own children’s behavior.

Constructionist approachClinical Interview (open-ended)“Genetic epistemology” schema emergenceAdaptation (innate repertoire of schemas)

○ Assimilation – new information integrated into existing schemas.

○ Accommodation – altering existing schemas because they no longer match new experiences.

Cognitive Development Theories Jean Piaget

Intelligent progresses through a series of stages.Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)

○ Child learns through movements and sensations (looking, touching, hearing, sucking, grasping, and putting things in the mouth.)

○ Object Permanence – objects exist when they can no longer be seen. 4 month – will not look for object 8 month – will continue to look for the object 8 to 12 months – Will keep looking where object was found

the last time (even if child watches it hidden in a new place.) 18 to 24 months – fully developed object perminance.

Cognitive Development Theories Jean Piaget

Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)○ Learn to speak○ Think is symbolic terms (idea formations)○ Single idea focus.○ Egocentrism – Can only see the world from one’s own

viewpoint.Seen as cognitive limitation.

○ Conservation – physical properties remain the same even if appearance changes.Conservation experiment on a glass of water.Li et al (1999) – repeated Piaget’s experiment with 486 Chinese

children and found that the percentage of children who get it right increases with age.

Cognitive Development Theories Jean Piaget

Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)○ Formal schooling○ Start to use rules of logic in problem solving during concrete

tasks.○ Problem solving more random than systematic.

Formal operational stage (from age 12)○ Can use formal, abstract logic. ○ Can mentally manipulate ideas, concepts or numbers and

can think hypothetically.○ Perform problem solving in systematic ways. ○ Piaget believed that everyone reaches this stage by the age

of 20. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue8y-JVhjS0&feature=B

F&list=PLD040BA09E49C1E63&index=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

Cognitive Development Theories Sigmund Freud

Stages of psychosexual development○ Oral Stage (0-18 months)○ Anal Stage (18 months – 3.5 years)○ Phallic Stage (3.5 years – 6 years)○ Latency (6 years – puberty)○ Genital (puberty – adulthood)○ http://wilderdom.com/personality/L8-5FreudPs

ychosexualStagesDevelopment.html○ http://www.a2zpsychology.com/great_psychol

ogists/freud_psychosexual_thoery.htm

Evaluating the theories Piaget:

Child-centered learning First to suggest a comprehensive account of cognitive

development. (basis for many primary schools.) Children are active in searching out knowledge and

constructing mental representations of the world. Small sample size and cultural bias. Competent thinkers instead of deficient (underestimated

children’s cognitive ability)○ Cognitive capacities appear earlier than Piaget suggested.○ Baillargeon and DeVos (1991) – object perminance

develops earlier than Piaget thought. 3-month olds and carrot study.

Underestimated the role of social learning.

Evaluating the theories

FreudTheory is very one sided (male development)Almost impossible to test theoriesTheories based on case studies, not empirical

research.How can we know that a current behavior was

directly related or caused by a childhood experience?

Freud studied adults and did not observe children.

Cognitive Theories Lev Vygotsky

Had a sociocultural approach to cognitive development.

Argued that it is impossible to discuss the process of children acquiring knowledge without social environment and culture.

Culture provides children what and how to think.Cognitive development based on:

○ Interaction with people.○ Cultural tools:

Specific tools used in culture (tractors, computers, fishing gear.)

Implicit and explicit rules or norms in culture.

Cognitive Theories

VygotskyZone of proximal development

○ Difference between self accomplishment and that can be done with help.

○ ScaffoldingAgreement with Piaget that new knowledge is

best learned by expanding existing knowledge and abilities.

Cooperative learning (instead of child-centered learning)○ It is wrong to focus on a child in isolation.

Other Cognitive Information Paul Krugman (economist)

commented on findings of very poor families, with low social status, experience high levels of stress hormones.

50% of children from poorest parents have the risk of remaining in this situation.

17.4% of children live below the poverty line. Poverty is one of the major factor in cognitive

development.Factors include: poor nutrition, poverty-related health

problems, home environment, parenting practices, living in poor areas with high crime and unemployment.

Other Cognitive Information Inadequate food intake limits children’s ability. Ernesto Pollitt (Professor of Paediatrics at University of California)

Nutrition and prenatal care for pregnant women, school breakfast programmes, and special food supplement programmes for women and children have a positive effect on cognitive development.

1/3 of children from low SES enter Kindergarten behind their peers. After 4th year, 50% of those children do not meet the standard for

reading proficiency. Wertheimer (2003)

Poverty children:○ Less likely to be identified as academically gifted.○ More likely to repeat a year in school.○ Less likely to participate in extracurricular activities.○ More likely to suffer from learning disabilities and developmental delays.○ Less likely to enter university.○ More likely to become teen parents and unemployed.

Other cognitive information Pungello et al (2006)

Benefits of the longitudinal Abecedarian Project (1972-1977)○ ½ of 111 participating children chosen at random for early

educational intervention.○ ½ as control group.○ Offered only to children from poor families.○ Participants received all-day, centre-based care throughout

the year before kindergarten.○ Still being followed.○ Used educational games focusing on developing cognitive

and linguistic skills. ○ One-on-one adult-child interaction.○ General health care.

Other cognitive Information Major Findings of Abecedarian Project

Children who participated in the early intervention program had higher cognitive test scores from the toddler years to age 21.

Academic achievement in both reading and math was higher from the primary grades through young adulthood.

Intervention children completed more years of education and were more likely to attend a four-year college.

Intervention children were older, on average, when their first child was born.

The cognitive and academic benefits from this program are stronger than for most other early childhood programs.

Enhanced language development appears to have been instrumental in raising cognitive test scores.

Mothers whose children participated in the program achieved higher educational and employment status than mothers whose children were not in the program. These results were especially pronounced for teen mothers.

Other Cognitive Information Schoon et al (2002)

Study in Britain that followed 30,000 individuals from birth with 2 cohorts (1958 and 1970.)

Found that children raised from low SES have increased risk of poor academic performance and poor success later in life.

Hypothesized that being born into a relatively disadvantaged family increases the probability of accumulated risk factors.

Cumulative effect of positive or negative factors related to SES.Werner and Smith (1992) – longitudinal study of high-risk

children found that 1/3rd had adjusted well to adult life.

Cognitive/Identity Theorists Eric Erikson

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 mths)○ Drive and hope

Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt (18 mths to 3yrs)○ Self-control, courage, and will

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5yrs)○ Purpose

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12yrs)○ Method and Competence

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18yrs)○ Devotion and Fidelity

Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation (18-35yrs)○ Affiliation and Love

Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (35-55 or 65 yrs)○ Production and Care

Integrity vs. Despair (55 or 65 to death)○ Wisdom

http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Eric Erikson

1. The world gets bigger as we go along 2. Failure is cumulative.Stages of development

○ Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) *Drive and HopeOral sensory stage with an emphasis on mother’s

positive and loving care along with visual contact and touch.

If we pass this stage, we will learn trust and have basic confidence in the future.

If we fail we are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met and may end up deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Autonomy vs. Shame *and doubt (18 months – 3 years) * Self-control, Courage, and Will.Learn to master skills for ourselves including finer motor

development including toilet training. We have the opportunity here to build self-esteem and

autonomy. We learn right from wrong (the powerful “NO!” which is a

pain for parents, but develops important skills of the will.Vulnerable during this stage. If shamed in the process of toilet training or other important

skills we may suffer from shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer from low self-esteem.

The most significant relationships are with parents.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 years) *PurposeExperience a desire to copy adults around us and

take initiative in creating play situations. We experiment with the blueprint for what we believe

it means to be an adult. (play roles)Use the word “WHY?” to help explore the world. Involved in “Oedipal-struggle” but resolve this

through “social role identity.”If we are frustrated over natural desires and goals,

we may experience guilt.The most significant relationship is with basic family.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) *Method and CompetenceSimilar to Freud’s latency stage.We develop a sense of industry through learning,

creating, and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge.

This is a very social stage where inadequacy and unresolved feelings along with inferiority among our peers have serious problems in terms of our self-esteem and competency.

The most significant relationship is with school and neighborhood. Less authority to parents.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) * Devotion and Fidelity Up to this stage it’s all about what is done to us, now it’s based on

what we do. We attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social

interactions, and grapple with moral issues. Our task is discover who we are as individuals within a wider society. Many go into a period of withdrawal and responsibility. (aka

moratorium) Unsuccessful navigation of this stage can result in role confusion

and upheaval. We tend to think in terms of ideals which are conflict free rather than

reality, which is not. We find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. We can develop strong devotion to friends and causes.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation (18 – 35 years.) * Affiliation and LoveWe seek one or more companions and love with the initial

stage as an adult.We attempt to strive for mutually satisfying relationships

with marriage and friends while beginning to start a family. If we negotiate this stage successful, we experience

intimacy on a deep level. If we are not successful, isolation and distance from

others may occur and the world seems to shrink as we defend ourselves by feeling superior to others.

Our significant relationships are with marital partners and friends.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (35 – 55/65) * Production and Care Work is most crucial in our lives and we tend to be occupied with

creative and meaningful work and issues surrounding our family. This is the role we are “in-charge” which we’ve envied for a long

time. Our task is to perpetuate culture and values of the culture through

our family and work to establish a stable environment. Generativity comes through the strength in caring for others and

production of something that contributes to the betterment of society.

We fear inactivity and meaninglessness. We can become self-absorbed and stagnate as our children leave

home and we face major life changes including “mid-life crisis.” Significant relationships are within the workplace, the community,

and the family.

Cognitive/Identity Theorist Erikson

○ Integrity vs. Despair (55/65-death) *Wisdom Most of the life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage

while this is recovering from it. We can look back at our lives with happiness and a content

feeling with a deep sense of meaning that we have made contributions which Erikson called integrity.

We accept that death is a completion of life. Some reach this stage and despair at their experiences and

perceived failures. There may be a fear for death and a struggle to find a purpose

to their life. Some may feel they have all the answers and end with a

strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct. The significant relationship is with all of mankind “my-kind.”