RSC Bulletin Template Affinity · fact, between my work, my hobbies and my activities withtheRSC’sEnvironmentalChemistryGroup,Ineed tobecarefulthatIgetenoughsleep! RoyalSocietyofChemistry–EnvironmentalChemistryGroup–Bulletin–

July 2020Environmental Chemistry Group

Bulletin

Covid-19 Tom Sizmur reports on our lastpre-Covid-19 meeting Early Careers andValerio Ferracci reflects on air quality inthe time of Covid-19

Bees Continuing our series on beesRobin MacArthur looks at the effects ofmite acaracides on honeybee health

Public Engagement Laura Alcockoutlines a wet scrubber publicengagement activity Laura Hobbs usesMinecraft to engage children withenvironmental chemistry and Rowena

Fletcher-Wood reviews training on PublicEngagement with Impact

Articles Fereshteh Hojatisaeididiscusses porous boron nitride ChinonsoOgbuagu looks at biochar for remediationand Jamie Harrower at fugacity modelling

Early Career Environmental Briefs NatWood explores microplastics in soil andElla Yarrow diesel particulate matter

Also in this issue Laura Alcock tells usabout her role as a development chemistand Tom Sizmur reviews Urban Soils

Royal Society of Chemistry ndash Environmental Chemistry Group ndash Bulletin ndash July 2020 2

ECG BulletinISSN 1758-6224 (Print) 2040-1469 (Online) Publishedby the Royal Society of Chemistryrsquos (RSC) EnvironmentalChemistry Group (ECG) Burlington House PiccadillyLondon W1J 0BA UK

See wwwenvchemgroupcom for articles published inthe ECG Bulletin since 2007

Executive EditorRowena Fletcher-Wood Science OxfordCommissioning EditorTom Sizmur University of ReadingProduction EditorClare Topping Northampton General Hospital

EditorsRupert Purchase Haywards HeathRoger Reeve University of SunderlandGlynn SkerrattValerio Ferracci Cranfield UniversityLaura Newsome University of ManchesterLaura Alcock Edwards LtdSteve Leharne Greenwich University

Editorial BoardDominik Weiss Imperial College London CarolineGauchotte-Lindsay University of Glasgow David OwenTreatChem Limited Tomaacutes Sherwen University of York

EnvironmentalChemistry GroupWebsite wwwenvchemgroupcomTwitter RSC_ECGFacebook RSCEnvironmentalChemistryGroupMembership details wwwrscorgecg

Chair Tom Sizmur University of Reading(tsizmurreadingacuk)Vice-Chair Zoeuml Fleming University of Leicester(zf5leicesteracuk)Honorary Secretary Glynn Skerratt University ofStaffordshire (glynnskerrattgmailcom)Honorary Treasuer Valerio Ferracci CranfieldUniversity (vferraccihotmailcouk)

This and previous issues of the ECG Bulletin are availablewithout charge at wwwenvchemgroupcom andwwwrscorgecgBulletin copy RSC ndash ECG 2020Registered charity number 207890

The ECG Bulletin is printed on paper made from wood pulp sourced from sustainableforests and is suitable for archival storage This issue of the ECG Bulletin was printedby Lemonade Print Group httpslemonadeprintcom 01444 239000All articles represent the informed view of the author(s) at the time of writing notthat of the ECG or the RSC They were not peer reviewed and no guarantee regardingthe accuracy or otherwise can be given by the author(s) the ECG or the RSC

ContentsECG Interview Laura Alcock 3

Book Review by Tom Sizmur 4

Review Public engagement with impact by Rowena Fletcher-Wood 6

Meeting Report Early Careers by Tom Sizmur 8

Article Air quality in the time of Covid-19 by Valerio Ferracci 10

Article Bees and Mites by Robin MacArthur 12

Article Porous boron nitride by Fereshteh Hojatisaeidi 16

Article Biochar for remediation by Chinonso Ogbuagu 18

Article Elements of construction ndash Minecraft and the Periodic Table by Laura Hobbs et al 21

Article Multimedia modelling of organic pollutants The fugacity approach by Jamie Harrower 24

Public Engagement How To Wet Scrubbers by Laura Alcock 28

ECG Early Careers Environmental Brief No 7 Microplastics in soil an important issue by Nat Wood 29

ECG Early Careers Environmental Brief No 8 Diesel particulate matter by Ella Yarrow 31

Cover image A pollution detector inthe park with a group of peoplestanding together and wearing facemasks Image via Shutterstock


The ECG Interview Laura AlcockLaura Alcock is a committee member ofthe Environmental Chemistry Group Hercareer so far has taken her throughmicrobiology metal ore analysis materialrecovery and quality compliance to hercurrent role as a development chemistengineering support chemist at amanufacturer of exhaust gasmanagement systems for the electronicsindustry

What inspired you tobecome a scientistWhen I was around 5 my Mumgave me a book for my birthday ndashScience with Dinosaurs It haddescriptions and instructions forexperiments to do at home usinghousehold items all demonstratingvarious scientific concepts Sincethen I have been hooked onpractical science Every time Ilearnt something new about theway the world works I becamemore entrenched in my passion forscience

How did you come tospecialise in abatementcombustion chemistryWhilst applying for University I met the Head ofAdmissions to the School of Biochemical Sciences atLiverpool John Moores University who advised me thattheir forensic science degree would suit my desire tostudy analytical science including analytical chemistrymicrobiology and physics From there my career led methrough analytical microbiology chemical analysis ofmetal ore concentrates precious metal recovery andquality compliance to my current role

Could you describe your current jobMy day-to-day activities vary greatly My role includesthe development of the combustion chemistry inputs toachieve efficient and clean abatement of semiconductorprocess gases which would otherwise present a great riskto human life andor the environment I also investigatecustomer queries and problems including root-causeanalysis for product incidents This can then lead toliaising with the Companyrsquos engineering teams todevelop a solution to solve the issues or prevent furtherincidents

What advice would you give to anyoneconsidering a career in environmentalchemistryKnowing what you like about chemistry is vital toensuring you follow a career you enjoy It is alsoimportant to remember that careers in academia orindustry can provide opportunities for research anddevelopment

What are some of the challengesfacing the environmental chemistry

communityHalf-considered conclusions andsweeping generalisations With allaspects of our lives being examinedand in many cases challenged it isimportant that we combatpremature solutions by consideringall of their impacts (eg wind farmsas a major electricity source canrequire nearly as much energy tomaintain as they generate)

What is the mostrewarding aspect ofyour career so farBeing able to contribute toprotecting our environment frommanufacturing practices has been aseriously rewarding aspect of my

career so far Knowing that I have reduced the pollutionreleased during the manufacture of everyday devices aswell as being able to raise awareness in the generalpublic of the energy and potentially harmful materialsinvolved in manufacturing these devices provides mewith a great sense of achievement

If you werenrsquot a scientist what wouldyou doIf I werenrsquot a scientist I would probably be a weddingand events planner I coordinated a number of events forcharity fundraising when I was at school and sixth formand really enjoyed it Planning my own weddingillustrated to me how much I enjoyed the task and I gaveit real consideration but I enjoy science too much

And what do you do when you are notworkingI have a vast series of hobbies including sports ndashfootball trail-cycling squash surfing etc crafts ndashknitting woodwork embroidery reading and writing Infact between my work my hobbies and my activitieswith the RSCrsquos Environmental Chemistry Group I needto be careful that I get enough sleep


Book Review

Urban SoilsTom Sizmur (University of Reading tsizmurreadingacuk)

Estimates of the global land area currentlybeing covered by urban conurbationsrange from 05 to 3 but ourunderstanding of how soils functionlargely stems from research undertaken insemi-natural or farmed ecosystemsUrban soils are highly disturbed becausethey are used as waste dumps exposedto air pollution subjected to urban heatisland effects or sealed entirely byconcrete or asphalt

Urban Soils is part of the lsquoAdvances in Soil Sciencersquo seriesThis boasts an impressive collection of volumes mostlyedited as this book is by the Rattan Lal and B AStewart This book contains 18 chapters that span topicssuch as soil organic matter food security environmentalcontaminants and ecosystem services in urban soils Idipped into a few chapters that particularly appealed tome

Chapters 3 to 6 deal with the impact of urbanisation onthe soil carbon cycle There is a lack of consensus onwhether urban soils are a net sink or a net source ofcarbon Globally urban areas are more likely to besituated on soil types with lower than average soilorganic carbon content (you donrsquot find many cities builton peat bogs) and so the potential to mineralise andemit large quantities of carbon to the atmosphere islimited Chapter 3 provides case studies based inMoscow to illustrate how land management throughhistory can increase the carbon stocks of urban soils

A new paradigm describing how soil organic carbonbecomes stabilised in soils is introduced This points tothe roles of microorganisms environmental conditionsand the soil physical structure as key mediators Chapter4 applies the new paradigm to urban soils Urbanenvironments are generally warmer wetter andenriched in aerially deposited nitrogen which mayaccelerate microbial mineralisation of soil organic matterand the release of carbon from soils as carbon dioxideUrban soils also contain elevated concentrations ofheavy metals which negatively impact plantproductivity thus decreasing the potential for urban soilsto sequester carbon However a considerable portion of

the carbon in urban soils is fossil fuel-derived blackcarbon (ie soot) which has a slower turnover in soilsthan plant litter Chapter 4 also highlights several directanthropogenic drivers of the soil carbon cycle in urbansoils related to changes in land use or land cover andincluding the introduction of land managementpractices such as the use of organic and inorganicfertilisers the removal of above-ground biomass (iemowing the lawn) compaction topsoil removal andorsealing

Chapter 5 discusses how the carbon and nitrogen cyclesin urban soils underpin the delivery of ecosystemfunctions and services such as the mitigation of heatstress regulating the storage and flow of water andproviding space for recreation and a habitat for urbanwildlife The delivery of these ecosystem services(particularly the latter) is hampered by poorinterconnectivity of urban soils that are isolated inpatches across the urban landscape


The relationships between urban soil organic carbon andsoil forming factors (climate parent material timevegetation and anthropogenic influence) are explored inChapter 6 The chapter also compiles internationaldatasets to estimate a global urban soil organic carbonstock of 657 Gt of carbon However the authorsacknowledge that true stock may be much higherbecause most datasets only report carbon stocks in theuppermost 30 cm highlighting a key knowledge gap

One of the most well-studied aspects of urban soils is theelevated concentrations of contaminants they containWhile this is mentioned in several chapters of the bookit is dealt with directly in Chapter 8 where thebioavailability and fate of four common urbancontaminants (lead arsenic cadmium and polyaromatichydrocarbons (PAHs)) are discussed comprehensivelyLead is not readily taken up by plants but poses thegreatest risk to human health when lead contaminatedsoil is directly ingested or inhaled The fate of arsenic insoils is often dictated by itsvalence with arsenate As(V)generally less mobile andbioavailable than arseniteAs(III) The extent to whichcadmium leaches from urbansoil is largely influenced by soilpH with its mobility greatlyincreased in acidic conditionsUnlike lead arsenic andcadmium some PAHs may be remediated by microbialdegradation Their environmental fate depends onmolecular weight with low molecular weight PAHs morelikely to be taken up by plants than high molecularweight compounds Molecular structure along withmass determines their rate of microbial degradation

Chapters 14 and 15 tackle the issue of food productionin urban environments While much attention andscientific research has been directed towards how wemight produce food to feed a global population of 9-10billion by 2050 much less attention has been focussedon how this food might be supplied to the approximately65 billion people that are likely to be living in urbanareas by this time Chapter 14 explains the role urbanagriculture might play in satisfying the future demandfor food However urban soils are generally less fertilethan rural soils primarily due to chemical and physicaldegradation This degradation can include the presenceof contaminants (eg heavy metals) compaction andlow levels of soil organic matter As a result manyauthors report lower yields of vegetable crops on urbanfarms compared to rural farms although this issometimes reversed if urban soils are irrigated or receivehigher chemical inputs (eg fertilisers and pesticides)Urban soils are particularly well placed to benefit fromnutrients from liquid and solid waste materials producedby the residents of urban areas through the

transformation of urban wastes into valuable productsfor soils (eg composts) as explained in Chapter 10

Chapter 15makes a strong case for empowering cities tomeet their demand for food by exploiting hydroponicsand aeroponics to establish vertical farming as a steptowards fully integrated resilient and sustainable citiesBy contrast Chapter 14 highlights the need for moreresearch before best management practices for urbansoils and agriculture may be formulated anddisseminated Chapter 18 urges us to look to the pastand learn from the lessons (both successes and failures)of ancient civilisations (eg Mayan ByzantineHarappan and Mesopotamian) and build upon thishistoric knowledge to restore our urban soils Itrecommends that we should blend well-understoodapproaches (eg use of vegetation and compost) withmore innovative ones (eg bioremediation green roofsand synthetic soils) to secure an urban food supply for anuncertain future

While the Preface Chapter 1(Introduction) and Chapter 18(the final chapter) provide aglobal picture of urbanisationand the impact of futureurbanisation on the functioningof urban lsquoAnthrosolrsquo orlsquoTechnosolrsquo soils the authorsare largely drawn from the US

with contributors also from Russia Poland Mexico andIndia As a result the book lacks perspectives on howurbanisation impacts soils in South America Africa andSouth East Asia This omission is particularlydisappointing since almost all the future increases inurbanisation in the 21st century are expected to occur indeveloping nations (particularly Africa and Asia)

This book is a collection of papers by different authorsand should be approached as such Some of thesechapters provide primary data while others offer areview of the literature on a particular subtopic Thebook is an ideal starting material for graduate studentswho wish to obtain a grounding in soil science within anurban setting Some chapters will also be useful for cityplanners who need to consider urban soils ecosystemservices natural flood management green infrastructureand food security when planning the expansion of ourcities However I do not recommend reading this bookfrom cover to cover Identify key chapters as I did thatinterest you the most

ReferenceLal R and Stewart BA Urban Soils CRC Press BocaRaton Florida 2018 eBook ISBN 9781315154251

[A]n ideal starting materialfor graduate students whowish to obtain a groundingin soil science within an

urban setting


Review

CPD training course PublicEngagement with ImpactRowena Fletcher-Wood (Freelance Science Communicatorrowenafletcherwoodgmailcom)

In May 2020 public engagementprofessional Dr Sophie Morris ran two 2-day training sessions on ldquoEngagementwith Impactrdquo a programme that aims toequip its participants with the tools toemploy the logic model framework to planand execute a public engagement activitywith impact ndash whether to serve theResearch Excellence Framework orindustrial outreach targets

These training sessions ordinarily delivered face-to-facepiloted use of the online platform Zoom Although Iregularly use online platforms for distance teaching Ifound the training as much a tutelage in Zoom as impactWhilst the platform itself was a bit glitchy with a fullroom of video participants Dr Morris is a motivationaltrainer who delivers hercontent with conciseness andclarity ndash essential online whereevery task takes longer Sheencouraged the concurrent useof chat to streamline feedbackas well as hands-up toolsfeedback quizzes beforebetween and after the twosessions and doodling on on-screen charts It was my firstexperience using breakoutrooms in Zoom which have the advantage of nurturingnetworking and the disadvantage of wrenching youabruptly out of spaces mid-sentence according to thetimetable Additional tools included email and theresource sharing platform OneDrive

The two training sessions were distinguishable in theirstyles information density and level of engagement Thefirst 2-hour session was primarily trainer-led acting asan introduction to the logic framework From theperspective of a participant for whom the training served

as a reminder of best practice rather than guide to newmaterial it could have included more participation ndashlistening alone can be exhausting During part 2however we concentrated on the more participatorypractical application of case studies and the evolution ofour own projects including reflection discussion andsmall group feedback The differences between impactand outcomes were explored and the relationshipbetween these and inputs when it comes to planningengagement activities Essential considerations includingGDPR ethics and audience limitation arose and toolsfor gathering feedback were specified and detailed in ane-handout

This is not the only training Dr Morris offers Her otherprogrammes include ldquoPublic Engagement 101rdquo andldquoThree Minute Pitchrdquo ndash which are best suited to thosenew to public engagement and public speakingAlthough there is not at present a follow up toldquoEngagement with Impactrdquo more seasoned

communicators could benefitfrom a third session exploringthe history of development ofand ongoing challenges inpublic engagement strategyThis for example might coverwhen and when not to evaluate(and the risks of over-interpreting evaluation data)and how to pitch the benefits ofpublic engagement activities tothe professionals who willdeliver it Dr Morris is currently

in the process of upgrading her training provision andoffers tailored 11 courses

RecommendationsI would recommend this training to academic andindustrial professionals especially those who haveprevious experience in public engagement but are yet toplan and execute their own activities

I would recommend thistraining to hellip those who

have previous experience inpublic engagement but areyet to plan and execute their

own activities


Dr Sophie Morrisrsquo training suitePublic Engagement 101 The what why and how ofpublic engagementA workshop designed for those new to publicengagement this course includes different methods ofengagement knowing your target audiences andtailoring engagement activities to them and the role thatpublic engagement plays in our society

Three Minute Pitch Developing your elevator pitch tosummarise the highlights of your work in three minutesA workshop for those working on communication andpresentation skills This course focusses on getting toknow your target audience (and what they may want tohear) working out a pitch structure and practising itsexecution

Engagement with impact How to manage and evaluateyour public engagement project to achieve impactThis workshop uses a case study to teach practical publicengagement project planning including references totarget audiences budgeting and evaluation It uses thelogic framework approach to project management andoffers peer-to-peer feedback and networking

Dr Sophie Morris has over 6 years of experience in publicengagement and is an accredited educator in the highereducation sector After completing a PhD in CancerImmunotherapies she went on to develop her skills inscience communication public engagement and researchimpact in various roles Current work includes designingand delivering public engagement training for differentorganisations across the UK and beyond

You can contact Sophie about her training provision atDrsophiemorrisoutlookcom or read more on herwebsite httpsdrsophiemorriscom

Training slide Attendees were asked to tell themselves the statement ldquoI am confident using the logicmodel framework to plan impact with my engagement projectsrdquo On a scale from 1 (being low) and4 (being high) attendees were asked to reflect on how much they agreed with that statement by

annotating a doodle of choice into the above columns


Meeting Report

Environmental chemistry of watersediment soil and air Early careerresearchersrsquo meetingTom Sizmur (University of Reading tsizmurreadingacuk)

On Wednesday 11th March 24 earlycareer researchers gathered at the RSCrsquosvenue in Burlington House London forwhat was the first and probably last in-person scientific meeting organised by theEnvironmental Chemistry Group in 2020The day proceeded with 8 oralpresentations (including two keynotelectures) separated by coffee and lunchbreaks that provided an opportunity fordelegates to discuss research findingsshowcased in 7 poster presentations

The day started with a talk from MD Hanif (ImperialCollege London) who presented research findings fromthe use of geochemical surface complexation models(DampM and CD-MUSIC) to simulate the competitiveadsorption of Zn on ferrihydrite and goethite in salineBangladeshi groundwater

This was followed by a presentation by AM Amira(Hassan II University of Casablanca Morocco) on the useof dolomitic (CaMg(CO3)2) rocks from the Khenifraregion of Morocco as adsorbents for cationic and anionicdyes (methylene blue and Congo red) from wastewaterBatch sorption reactions revealed very high and very fastremoval of methylene blue which followed 2nd orderkinetics This indicated chemical sorption whichincreased with increasing temperature mass of sorbateand pH The dolomitic rocks showed a high potential aslow-cost adsorbents in wastewater treatment plants

The next talk was given by Chinonso Ogbaugu(University of Reading) who presented experimentaldata on the construction of Langmuir isotherms for theadsorption of lead on biochars made from a variety ofdifferent source materials A relationship between theCN ratio of the biochar feedstock and the Langmuirsorption capacity was demonstrated which indicatesthat feedstocks for making biochar with optimal sorptioncapacities could be selected based on CN ratio withoutprior experimentation Mr Ogbaugu was awarded theprize for the best oral presentation (Figure 1)

Before lunch Dr Laura Carter (University of Leeds)delivered a keynote lecture that took the audience on ajourney through her career path from her PhD at theUniversity of York to a job in industry at UnileverPostdocs in Adelaide and York and finally herappointment as an Academic Fellow at the University ofLeeds In her recent article in the RSC journalEnvironmental Science Processes and Impacts (1) forwhich she was recognised as an Emerging InvestigatorDr Carter highlighted that there is currently not enoughdata to generate thresholds for safe levels ofpharmaceuticals in the environment Her research todate has focused on how the physiochemical propertiesof pharmaceuticals the soil type and the environmentalconditions affect their uptake and sub-lethal impact onplants Dr Carter provided on-point and practical advicefor early career scientists interested in an academiccareer (Figure 2) Her future work will focus on scalingup her research to help understand how pharmaceuticalsmay impact pollinators within the landscape Afterlunch Antony Poveda (Mangorolla CIC) provided an

Figure 2 Top tips for academic careers from DrLaura Carter

Figure 1 Chinonso Ogbaugu delivering hisprizewinning oral presentation


exciting introduction to lsquoIrsquom a Scientist Get me out ofherersquo an online public engagement programme thatpairs scientists with school children Mr Poveda startedby challenging us to compose one sentence to describeour research to a 13 year old (Figure 3) illustrative ofthe tasks he uses to select participating scientists

Mr Poveda explained that approximately 48 of the UKpopulation live more than a 30 minute drive from aresearch-intensive institution and schools that are morethan 30 minute drive away are likely to receive half asmany visits from a scientist (httpsimascientistorgukdistance) lsquoIrsquom a Scientist Get me out of herersquo thereforeprovides a valuable service to children who may have noother contact with scientists by raising their sciencecapital and increasing the likelihood that they might goon to become a scientist or an engineer

The scientific programme continued after a well-earnedcaffeine and poster break with a presentation fromElmustapha Ennesyry (Hassan II University ofCasablanca Morocco) on the development of a low-costand non-hazardous catalyst using Moroccan oil shale forthe green synthesis of hydroxyphosphonates for use asplant protection products He was able to demonstrateregeneration and re-use of the catalyst up to 4 times witha 70 yield

Christopher Wallis (Polymateria Limited) then providedan engaging introduction to the soil ecotoxicology testshe has carried out on additives to plastic products thathave been designed to facilitate the completebiodegradation of the plastic in the environment Testsconducted following OECD guidelines reveal that theadditives that allow shrink wrap to degrade to less than90 of the original mass in 266 days are not toxic toearthworms plants or water fleas

The final talk of the day was given by Nina Schleicher(Imperial College London) who presented her researchon the mercury concentrations in particulate matter inBeĳing She used data collected during the 2008Olympic Games as a large-scale field experiment sinceseveral factories and power stations were shut down andvehicle use restricted during the two week period whilethe games took place Her data indicated that theprimary source of particulate mercury in Beĳing air wasfrom coal combustion She also revealed that there wasmore mercury present in the smallest particles that areknown to be more associated with human healthimpacts

During the lunch and afternoon coffee breaks posterswere displayed by delegates on topics ranging from VOCemissions from personal care products to carbonsequestration in the alkaline waste materials of steelslag and the synthesis of bionanocomposites for use asphotocatalysts for the degradation of organic dyes Theprize for the best poster presentation was awarded toFereshteh Hojatisaeidi (London South Bank University)for her work on the modification of porous boron nitridewith nickel to increase its capacity to adsorb carbondioxide as a novel low cost carbon capture technologywith high thermal and oxidation resistance (Figure 4)

References1 Carter LJ Chefetz B Abdeen Z and Boxall

AB Environmental Science Processes amp Impacts21 605-622 (2019)

Figure 4 Fereshteh Hojatisaeidi (left) receivesthe prize for best poster presentation from ECG

Treasurer Valerio Ferracci (right)

Figure 3 Antony Poveda challenges the audienceto communicate our science to non-academic

audiences


Article

Air pollution in the time of Covid-19Valerio Ferracci (Cranfield University vferraccicranfieldacuk)

With strict lockdown policies enforced inmany countries across the globe theemissions of many atmospheric pollutantshave decreased dramatically What arethe implications for urban and regional airquality human health and the future of airpollution

The ongoing Covid-19 pandemic has had enormous andfar-reaching repercussions across the globe in the firsthalf of 2020 Nationwide lockdowns and socialdistancing have been enforced to prevent the spread ofthe virus and reduce the death rate These measureshave caused a rapid decline in economic activities aswell as road and air traffic leading to dramatic changesin the emissions of atmospheric pollutants

Analyses have focused on metrics commonly used forurban air quality monitoring such as abundances ofnitrogen oxides (NOx consisting of two rapidlyinterconverting species nitrogen monoxide NO andnitrogen dioxide NO2) and particulate matter (typicallywith dynamic diameter lt 25 μm referred to as PM25)both emitted primarily by vehicle exhaust

The first signs of changes in air quality came from Chinathe first country to be hit by the virus Satellitemeasurements revealed significant decreases (~40-60) in NO2 columns over urban and industrial regionsin February and March 2020 relative to the same periodin 2019 (1) This was confirmed by ground-levelobservations from the Chinese air quality monitoringnetwork In Wuhan the first city where cases of Covid-19were reported and to undergo strict lockdown NO2 andPM25 concentrations were 54 and 31 lowerrespectively during lockdown than in the same timeperiod in 2019 (2) However ground level ozone asecondary pollutant formed from the interaction ofsunlight with NOx and volatile organic compounds roseby a factor of 2 This is due to the titration of ozone byNO and a drop in NOx will result in reduced ozoneremoval under the conditions found in most urban areas

Similar trends were observed in other countries thatenforced lockdowns with reports of plummeting NO2levels in the Po Valley (Italy) and Madrid (Spain) amongmany others (Figure 1) In the UK data from thenational monitoring network analysed by the NationalCentre for Atmospheric Science showed decreasing NO2and PM25 levels in many cities relative to the 2015-19average (3) In London a recent report by Kingrsquos CollegeLondon paints a more complex picture while NO2

concentrations were falling across the whole city PM25and ozone concentrations appear to have increased (4)As in Wuhan the change in ozone is primarily driven bythe reduction in NOx (and also by the warm springweather) while the rise in PM25 is attributed to theprevailing easterly winds during the lockdowntransporting air from continental Europe and affectingparticulate levels in the capital

The ldquonew normalrdquo enforced by lockdown measures alsoresulted in people spending more time in their homesThis produces a knock-on effect on personal exposure aspollutants such as PM25 are often more abundantindoors as a result of activities such as cooking smokingand wood-burning (5)

Figure 1 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) columns overEurope as reported by satellite measurementsLarge decreases were observed in April 2020(bottom) relative to the April 2015-19 average

(top) Credit NASA

httpsso2gsfcnasagovno2no2_indexhtml


A number of recent studies (6-8) also highlighted thepotential link between the Covid-19 fatality rate andpoor air quality as some of the worse-hit regions (egLombardy in Italy) are also chronically affected by airpollution It is argued that the health conditions causedby exposure to poor air quality such as cardiovasculardisease asthma and general chronic respiratory stressmay contribute to an increase in the lethality of Covid-19 However compelling there are also a plethora ofother factors at play in densely populated areas severelyaffected by Covid-19 (eg income levels access toservices) that contribute to the incidence of the verysame health conditions and it might simply be too earlyto determine a clear effect of air pollution on the Covid-19 death rate (9)

With most economic activities brought to a nearstandstill during lockdown the emissions of carbondioxide (CO2) have also decreased As increasingatmospheric concentrations of CO2 and othergreenhouse gases due to anthropogenic emissions aredriving the ongoing warming of the planet trends intheir emission rates are closely scrutinised (10) Fluxmeasurements by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology(CEH) in central London have shown that CO2 emissionsin the capital during lockdown decreased ~60 relativeto the 2015-19 average matching the observedreduction in road traffic (11) These were accompaniedby similar trends in other European cities such as BerlinBasel and Florence (12) However the overall global CO2emissions for the year 2020 are projected to be only4-7 lower than those in 2019 (13) While this would beone of the largest drops in emissions on records it alsopoints out the difficult road ahead on the path todecarbonisation and how systemic changes are neededto reach the milestones set by the Paris Agreement

At the time of writing of this article a number ofcountries are reporting a decline in infection and deathrates As a result lockdown measures are beinggradually relaxed and road traffic and industrialactivities begin to bounce back A number of differentscenarios lie ahead with a ldquobusiness as usualrdquo approachleading to a return of emissions to their pre-lockdownlevels or with more long-lasting changes in behaviourdictated by social distancing (eg more people workingfrom home less travel) leading to a lasting reduction inemissions from the transport sector Whatever theoutcome the effects of the pandemic on anthropogenicemissions have offered an unprecedented glimpse intothe air we might be breathing in the (near) future asregulations become more stringent and may also helpdraft more informed abatement policies in years tocome

References1 Bauwens M et al Impact of coronavirus outbreak

on NO2 pollution assessed using TROPOMI andOMI observations Geophysical Research Letters(2020) httpsagupubsonlinelibrarywileycomdoiepdf1010292020GL087978

2 Shi X and Brasseur GP The Response in AirQuality to the Reduction of Chinese EconomicActivities during the Covid-19 OutbreakGeophysical Research Letters (2020) httpsnewsaguorgfiles2020052020GL088070RR-Brasseurpdf

3 httpswwwncasacuken18-news3057-air-pollution-falling-across-uk-cities-latest-data-shows(March 2020)

4 httpswwwkclacuknewsmixed-pollution-results-london-during-lockdown (May 2020)

5 Bramwell L and Ferracci V Meeting ReportIndoor air quality ECG Bulletin January 2020httpswwwenvchemgroupcomindoor-air-quality-2019html

6 Ogen Y Science of the Total Environment 726138605 (2020)

7 Conticini E et al Environmental Pollution 261114465 (2020)

8 Travaglio M et al (2020) Links between airpollution and Covid-19 in England MedRXiv(2020) httpsdoiorg1011012020041620067405

9 Lewis A (2020) What we do and donrsquot knowabout the links between air pollution andcoronavirus httpstheconversationcomwhat-we-do-and-dont-know-about-the-links-between-air-pollution-and-coronavirus-137746

10 Ferracci V (2018) Update on WMO GreenhouseGas Bulletin No 13 ECG Bulletin July 2018

11 httpswwwenvchemgroupcomwmo-greenhouse-gas-bulletin-13html

12 httpswwwcehacuknews-and-mediablogslondon-co2-emissions-fallen-60-percent-lockdown(May 2020)

13 Papale D et al (2020) Clear evidence of reductionin urban CO2 emissions as a result of Covid-19lockdown across Europe httpsdataicos-cpeuobjectsw6pTmRGYKqAm3c-siQrg5kgd

14 Le Queacutereacute C et al Temporary reduction in dailyglobal CO2 emissions during the Covid-19 forcedconfinement Nature Climate Change (2020)httpsdoiorg101038s41558-020-0797-x


Article

Efficacy of treatments for Varroainfestation and their side effects onhoneybeesRobin McArthur (Reading University robinmcarthur1gmailcom)

Honeybees (the Apis genus) are insectsknown principally for producing honey andfor their valuable service as pollinators(1) Pollination of agricultural crops (muchof which is provided by honeybees) hasbeen valued at $215 billion per year to theglobal economy (2) Honeybees are alsoa key part of many ecosystems aroundthe world especially in the regions wherethey are native (3) Despite theirundeniable importance honeybees facegrave threats in the forms of pesticides(particularly neonicotinoids see ECGBulletins July 2015 February 2017January 2019) habitat loss (due to themechanisation of farming and the loss ofmany field-bordering hedgerows andnatural spaces) and the global spread ofvarious pests and parasites (4)

Honeybee colonies support a wide variety of otherspecies (5) The reasons for this are obvious any invaderthat can survive within the colony benefits from thestable environmental conditions maintained by the bees(eg the warmth and humidity of the colony interior) aswell as the abundant stored foodstuffs (wax pollenhoney and for predatoryparasitic invaders honeybeesat all life stages and other colony inhabitants) (5 6)Since honeybees jealously guard their colonies againstinvasion from most organisms of similar size (such aswasps and bumblebees) the most common andsuccessful co-habitants of honeybee colonies are mites(the Acari taxon) Mites have different lifestyles andeffects on the honeybee colony some are detrivores orfungivores eg Tyrophagus putrescentiae (7) some arekleptoparasites (waxpollenhoney thieves) egMelittiphis alvearius (8) some are predators egParasitellus fucorum (7) and some are direct parasites ofhoneybees such as the internally parasitic tracheal miteAcarapis woodi (6)

The most infamous pest of European honeybees (Apismellifera) is Varroa destructor an external parasitic mitewhich feeds on honeybee brood and adults (9 10)Somewhere in Japan or Korea around the mid-1900s Vdestructor spread from Asiatic honeybees (A cerana)which can naturally resist and tolerate this mite speciesto European honeybees which cannot (11) Thisdevastating parasite enters the colony through phoresyie the use of one organism by another for transportation(12) Once an unfortunate worker bee is boarded(typically during a foraging trip or while robbing from aninfested colony) by an adult female Varroa mite andbrings it within the colony the mite detaches and entersan uncapped brood cell containing a developinghoneybee larva (10) Once the cell has been capped themite lays several eggs and the resulting offspringdevelop in roughly the same time it takes for the nearbylarvae to reach the adult stage of development Haploidmale Varroa mate with their diploid sisters within thebrood cell after both have matured and shortlyafterwards the males die During this time the Varroamother and her mobile offspring feed freely on the beelarva and after the developed honeybee emerges thenow mature and mated female Varroa mites will spreadthroughout the colony parasitising other honeybees andtheir brood Varroa mites prefer to invade drone (male)brood cells as the longer development time of drones

Honeybees visiting flowers copy Kevin Meehan


allows for roughly twice as many Varroa offspring todevelop compared to worker (female) cells Drones alsocontain more fatty esters than workers which makesthem more attractive to the Varroa mites (6 9) Varroapopulations within honeybee colonies will growexponentially as long as there are brood cells available toexploit (6) The typical feeding activity of V destructorinvolves squeezing beneath a honeybeersquos abdominalsclerites (where the mite is relatively safe from beingdislodged by grooming behaviour) or attaching to theback of the beersquos head before piercing the softintersegmental tissues to feed on the haemolymph andfat body within (9)

As you might expect this is not good news for thehoneybees Varroa destructor acts as a vector for variousdiseases including Deformed Wing Virus (DWV)Sacbrood virus and up to 16 other viruses that can haveserious negative impacts (9 13) The open wounds leftby their feeding mean that the parasitised honeybees aremore susceptible to bacterial infections such as Europeanfoulbrood (Melissococcus pluton) (14) The spread andproliferation of V destructor results in deformed andweakened workers and drones encourages the spread ofdiseases and can lead to the rapid decline and death ofthe colony as a whole in under a year if untreated(15 16) This pathway of deterioration and disease incolonies infested by Varroamites is called varroosis (17)

Common acaricides and their sideeffectsTo combat the effects of Varroa destructor infestations onhoneybee colonies a range of treatments (calledacaricides) have been developed to kill Varroa and otherinvasive mites The most commonly used syntheticacaricides (and the products that contain them) areamitraz (Apivar and Varidol) coumaphos (Checkmite)flumethrin (Bayvarol) and fluvalinate (Apistan) Theseare often called the lsquohardrsquo acaricides and are typicallyapplied to colonies using specially treated strips of paperor card placed between combs Various organiccompounds are also used for this purpose such as formicacid (Apivarol and Miteaway) oxalic acid (Api-Bioxal)hops beta acid (Hopguard) and thymol (Apilife and

Apiguard) an aromatic extracted from thyme oil Theseorganics are commonly called lsquosoftrsquo acaricides and havea wider range of application methods A comparison ofavailable acaricides is provided in Table 1

Alternative treatments and bestpracticeNon-chemical methods have been trialled to reduceVarroa infestations These range from sticky boardsplaced beneath a mesh screen colony base whichcapture and kill any Varroa mites which fall through themesh to tobacco smoke fumigation through the colonyand even the use of entomopathogenic fungi as a form ofbiological control (10 37) The use of entomopathogenicfungi such as Beauveria bassiana appears to be the mostpromising of these methods with great successes inlaboratory experiments and limited success in field trialsthough it seems that the conditions within honeybeecolonies may inhibit the reproduction and spread of thisfungus between V destructor mites (10 37 38) None ofthese methods are thought to have significant impactsupon honeybee health however on their own they arefar less effective in treating Varroa infestations than thechemical treatment options (10 38)

Given that the 8 most common acaricides (Table 1) havevarying effectiveness against Varroa mites (with somehaving negative effects on the honeybees andor theirstored honey) and that mite populations resistant to thelsquohardrsquo acaricides have already emerged therecommended best practice for treating Varroainfestations is Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Theuse of a rotating range of different treatment optionsthroughout the year should be utilised in order toprevent strong resistance to any one acaricide emergingin Varroa populations and to keep Varroa infestationswithin honeybee colonies below the economic injurylevel throughout the year Ideally beekeepers shouldfocus on using the lsquosoftrsquo acaricides and alternatives suchas biological control wherever possible However lowercosts and ubiquity of the lsquohardrsquo acaricides combined witha lack of public knowledge relating to IPM and bestpractice for combatting varroosis make this an unlikelyprospect for the time being (10 17 37 38)

Honeybee with DWV dead honeybees or otherto show negative effects

Varroa on a honeybee or developing broodvisiting flowers

Treatment Chemical structure Usage methods Efficacy vs Varroa Resistance Effects on honeybees Effects on honeyand wax

References

Amitraz Strips aerosol beefeed topicalapplication

Effective againstnon-resistantmites

Widespread in USA Damaged honeybee healthand metabolism weakenedcolonies lowered broodsurvival

Residues present inhoney and wax

(16 18-23)

Coumaphos Strips bee feedtopical application


Reported in Europewidespread in USA

Reduced drone sperm qualitylowered brood survival effectson bee gut microbiome


(22-29)

Flumethrin Strips Effective againstnon-resistantmites

Reported globally Adversely effects honeybeemetabolism increased toxicstress biomarkers


(10 16 22 3031)

Fluvalinate Strips Effective againstnon-resistantmites

Reported globally Adverse effects on dronehealth and survival increasedworker mortality


(22 23 32 33)

Formic acid Fumigant tabletsgels strips

Rapidly effective No reportedresistance

High concentrations harmbrood

Trace residues inhoney does notbind to wax

(6 10 31 32)

Oxalic acid Direct application tohoneybees in syrup

Effective over time No reportedresistance

Increased brood and adult beemortality

No significantresidues in honeyor wax

(6 10 31 32)

Hops beta acids Strips Moderatelyeffective over time

No reportedresistance

Increased adult bee mortality No residuesreported

(32 34-36)

Thymol Fumigant stripstablets and gelsthyme essential oil


Reduced brood numbers andbrood area within colony andincreased brood mortality

No significantresidues reported inhoney residues arepresent in wax

(10 16 31 32)

Table 1 A comparison of eight acaricide treatments used to reduce or eliminate Varroa destructor infestations within honeybee colonies Due to thestaggering numbers of studies conducted under an incredibly broad range of environmental and contextual conditions the ldquoEfficacy vs Varroardquo ldquoEffects

on honeybeesrdquo and ldquoEffects on honey and waxrdquo categories are generalised and no specific figures are given


References1 Gould JL and Gould CG Scientific American

Library (1995)

2 Gallai N et al Ecological Economics 68 (3) 810-21 (2009)

3 Hung K-LJ et al Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB Biological Sciences 285 20172140 (2018)

4 Goulson D et al Science 347 6229 (2015)

5 Zawislak J In University of Arkansas System DoAeditor (2019)

6 Sammataro D Gerson U and Needham GAnnual Review of Entomology 45 519-48 (2000)

7 Chmielewski W J Apicultural Science 47 (2) 87-92 (2003)

8 Gibbins BL and van Toor RF J ApiculturalResearch 29 (1) 46-52 (1990)

9 Ramsey SD et alProceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences 116 (5) 1792-801 (2019)

10 Rosenkranz P Aumeier P and Ziegelmann B Jof Invertebrate Pathology 103 S96-S119 (2010)

11 Anderson DL and Trueman JWH (2000)Experimental amp Applied Acarology 24 (3) 165-89

12 Houck MA and OConnor BM Annual Review ofEntomology 36 (1) 611-36 (1991)

13 Tentcheva D et al Applied and EnvironmentalMicrobiology 70 (12) 7185-91 (2004)

14 Kanbar G and Engels W Parasitology Research90 (5) 349-54 (2003)

15 Gerson U et al Africanized honey bees and beemites404-8 (1988)

16 Tihelka ESlovenian Veterinary Research 55(2018)

17 Boecking O Genersch E J fuumlr Verbraucherschutzund Lebensmittelsicherheit 3 (2) 221-8 (2008)

18 Rinkevich FD PLoS ONE 15 (1) (2020)

19 Marchetti S Barbattini R and DAgaru MApidologie 15 363-78 (1984)

20 Toth PL University of Florida (2009)

21 Kayode A Mellifera 14 33-40 (2014)

22 Wallner K Apidologie 30 (2-3) 235-48 (1999)

23 Sammataro D et al International J of Acarology31 (1) 67-74 (2005)

24 Pettis J Apidologi 35 (1) 91-2 (2004)

25 Della VG Lodesani M and Milani N ApeNostra Amica 19 (1) 6-10 (1997)

26 Burley LM Virginia Tech (2007)

27 Burley LM Fell RD and Saacke RG J ofEonomic Entomology 101(4) 1081-7 (2008)

28 Kakumanu ML et al Frontiers in Microbiology 71255 (2016)

29 Berry JA et al PloS ONE 8 (10) (2013)

30 Nielsen SA Broslashdsgaard CJ and Hansen HAlternatives to laboratory animals ATLA 28 (3)437-43 (2000)

31 Norain SZ et al Saudi J of Biological Sciences27 (1) 53-9 (2020)

32 Gregorc A et al Insects 9 (2) 55 (2018)

33 Rinderer TE et al American Bee J 139 134-9(1999)

34 DeGrandi-Hoffman G et al Experimental andApplied Acarology 58 (4) 407-21 (2012)


36 Rademacher E Harz M and Schneider SApidologie 46 (6) 748-59 (2015)

37 German P Pheromite Available from httpspheromitecomvarroa-treatments-mode-action-resistance (2019)

38 DEFRA PH0506 Affairs DfEFaR Editor (2009)


Article

Porous boron nitride an effectiveadsorbent for carbon dioxide captureHojatisaeidi Fereshteh (London South Bank University hojatisflsbuacuk)Mureddu Mauro (Sotacarbo SpA) Dessigrave Federica (Sotacarbo SpA) PettinauAlberto (Sotacarbo SpA) Durand Geraldine (London South Bank Universityand The Welding Institute) and Saha Basudeb (London South Bank University)

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) will beessential to implementing the ParisAgreement to limit global warming to15 degC above pre-industrial levels (1)Adsorption-based materials areassociated with lower energyconsumption in carbon capturetechnologies compared with conventionalsolvent-based materials Theseadsorbents which are mostly poroussolids have been applied to CCS under awide range of temperature and pressureconditions (2) Porous boron nitride (BN)materials are a promising class of solidadsorbents for carbon captureapplications due to their low cost andease of manufacture

Global greenhouse gas emissionGreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have brought aboutsignificant challenges including but not limited to therise of sea levels and devastating social effects Carbon

dioxide (CO2) is the most common GHG emitted byhuman activities particularly the burning of fossil fuels(Figure 1) Different approaches to reduce CO2accumulation in the atmosphere include using naturalgas instead of coal adopting renewable energies andapplying carbon capture and storage Figure 2 showsthat the demand for fossil fuels doubled between 2000and 2016 This massive increase calls for an increasedefforts in carbon capture

Technology based on adsorbentsAlthough there are a myriad of techniques in theliterature for carbon capture (Figure 3) physicaladsorption is the most effective process owing to its fastkinetics cycling capability and low regeneration energyIt is crucial to develop a material with a high potentialCO2 adsorption and selectivity capacity Porous materialsare excellent candidates for physical adsorption becauseof their cost-effectiveness high selectivity and highadsorption capacity (5) Among porous materialshexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) has been a popularcandidate for CO2 adsorption due to its uniqueproperties including large surface area total porevolume polarity and various structural defects Despitethese features CO2 adsorption on BN has been studied toa lesser extent than other technologies

Figure 1 The interannual variation in radiativeforcing by greenhouse gases [3]

Figure 2 Annual global fossil fuel carbonemissions [4]


Synthesis and surface modification ofporous boron nitrideThe porous structures of h-BN are synthesised via eithertemplate or non-template methods The non-templatemethod has relatively fewer steps as there is no need toremove the templates Previous studies demonstratedthat choice of synthesis method has significant effects onBN (7) One of the main targets for designing porous BNsis to achieve a material with a high surface area andporosity for CO2 adsorption In view of this a surfacemodification strategy was applied to tune BN aiming toenhance the adsorption performance The results of ourprevious study indicated that modified BN increased theinteraction between BN and CO2 molecules by creating ahigher level of porosity The CO2 adsorption anddesorption performance of the BN sample wereevaluated by thermogravimetric analysis (Mettler ToledoTGADSC 3+) The capacity of the sorbents wasdetermined by measuring the mass uptake of the sampleduring CO2 adsorption The results showed that CO2uptake on modified BN was enhanced by about 345relative to pristine BN (269 mmol g-1 for BN-P123 vs200 mmol g-1 for pristine BN under ambient conditions)(8) Figure 4 offers a schematic representation ofthermogravimetric analyser for capturing CO2 usingporous BN

ConclusionAn overview of research on carbon capture technologyand the potential of BN-based materials as solidadsorbents in CO2 capture has been presented in thisreport Further study could investigate how to tailor theelectronic properties of BN and introduce more activesites to increase CO2 capture The principalcharacteristics of porous BN for CO2 adsorption(adsorption rate adsorption capacity and ease ofregeneration) offer other potential avenues of research

References1 [United Nations Climate Change The Paris

Agreement (2016) [Online] Available httpsunfcccintprocess-and-meetingsthe-paris-agreementthe-paris-agreement [Accessed 16-Dec-2019]

2 Webley PA and Danaci D Chapter 5 CO2 Captureby Adsorption Processes 26 (2020)

3 Butler JH and Montzka SA THE NOAAANNUAL GREENHOUSE GAS INDEX (AGGI)NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory 2019[Online] Available httpswwwesrlnoaagovgmdaggiaggihtml [Accessed 03-Sep-2019]

4 Global Carbon Project (GCP)wwwglobalcarbonprojectorg [Accessed 03-Sep-2017]

5 Oschatz M and Antonietti M Energy ampEnvironmental Science 11 1 57ndash70 (2018)

6 Younas M Sohail M Kong LL Bashir MJKand Sethupathi S International Journal ofEnvironmental Science amp Technology 13 7 1839ndash1860 (2016)

7 Mishra NS and Saravanan P A Chemistry Select3 28 8023ndash8034 (2018)

8 Hojatisaeidi F Mureddu M Dessigrave F Durand Gand Saha B Energies 13 3 549 (2020)

Figure 4 Schematic representation of CO2capture using porous boron nitride as an

adsorbent

Figure 3 Different techniques of CO2 capture [6]


Article

Biochar for soil remediationChinonso Ogbuagu (University of Readingchinonsochukwumaogbuagupgrreadingacuk)

Soil contamination is a global issuepredominant in developing countrieswhere heavy metals are found in the soilabove their naturally occurringconcentrations (1) A major source ofheavy metals occurs as a result ofanthropogenic activities (Figure 1)including point source emissions frommetal mining smelting and industrialactivities and diffuse source emissionsfrom agricultural inputs such as fertiliserscomposts sewage sludge pesticidesand organic manures (2 3)

Studies have shown that plants grown on contaminatedsoils tend to accumulate more heavy metals compared toplants grown on uncontaminated soil (4 5) Whenconsumed these plants serve as a major pathway forheavy metals into the food chain Adverse healthproblems can also result from direct ingestion orinhalation of contaminated dust (6)

Heavy metal contamination of soil in China isresponsible for a decrease in 20 million hectares ofarable land accounting for 20 of the total agriculturalland in China (7) A study carried out in Guangzhoufound rice samples on the open market with Cd levelsabove health standards (8) The consumption ofcontaminated produce has been linked to accumulatedheavy metals in humans which causes adverse healthissues In Nigeria soil contamination arises mainly fromthe mining and extractive industries due to theindiscriminate waste management methods A study bythe United Nations Environmental Programme has

reported that Nigeria has the highest burden of pollutionin Africa For example a United States Centre for DiseaseControl and Prevention study carried out in ZamfaraState observed widespread lead poisoning (9) The studyreported the death of over 735 children and elevatedconcentrations of lead in their blood This outbreak wastraced to artisanal gold mining and processing in thevillages (10) Another study (11) observed elevatedconcentrations of lead in different vegetables grown in afarm close to a lead mine in Enyigba Ebonyi StateNigeria

The persistence of heavy metals in the environmentnecessitates sustainable remediation methods that canbe applied to large areas of contaminated soils in lowresource settings There have been several lsquohi-techrsquoapproaches developed to treat and remediatecontaminated soils such as excavation thermaltreatment bioremediation and soil vapour extraction(12 13) However major drawbacks to their applicationare their high cost and low efficiency

What is biocharIn recent years biochar has received considerableattention due to its effectiveness for carbon storageimproving soil productivity mitigating climate changeand as an adsorbent for environmental contaminants insoil and water (14-16) Biochar is a carbon-basedmaterial obtained from the pyrolysis of feedstocks underanaerobic conditions (17) The process of biocharproduction also serves as a waste management approachfor dealing with large amounts of organic waste biomass(18) China alone produces approximately 30 milliontons of sewage sludge (19 20) and 998 million tons ofdry agricultural biomass annually (18) SimilarlyNigeria produces approximately 168 million tons ofagricultural waste annually (21) The use of agriculturalbiomass waste for biochar production shows promise asa cost-effective way to remediate contaminated soil byadsorbing and immobilising heavy metals

Farmers can prepare biochars by burning agriculturalwastes in low-oxygen conditions using a modified oilbarrel with holes at the bottom which regulates theinflow of oxygen (Figure 2) The holes underneath thebarrel facilitate the in-flow of primary air and larger L-shaped holes on the top sidewalls of the barrel facilitatethe flow of secondary air An opening is cut into the lidto support a tall chimney made from a metal pipe

As the pyrolysis temperature increases moisture is lostvia evaporation volatile matter is released anddecomposition of lignocellulosic material occurs

Figure 1 Main sources of heavy metals in soil


depending on feedstock type Additionally P K Ca andMg minerals are enriched after pyrolysis (22-24)

Biochar as a heavy metal adsorbentStudies on the use of biochar for soil remediation haveshown that different biochars have different capacities toreduce the bioavailability of heavy metals andcorresponding uptake in plants (18 1) Effectiveness forsoil remediation depends on biochar physiochemicalproperties such as cation exchange capacity (CEC)surface area elemental composition pH and functionalgroups (14) The difference between biochars in terms ofadsorption of heavy metals can be linked to feedstockproperties (25) The major properties of feedstocks thataffect metal sorption include its CN ratio phosphatecontent and lignin content Biochars produced from thepyrolysis of plant-based materials will have more lignincompared to biochars produced from manure

The CN ratio of the biochar feedstock has beenobserved to influence the sorption capacity with anincrease in the sorption of Cu and Zn increasing with adecrease in the biochar feedstock CN ratio (25) Biocharproduction from materials with high lignin and carbonand with low nitrogen content favour the developmentof macropores on the biochar surface which collapse aspyrolysis temperature increases thus blocking sorptionsites on its surface (15 22) Biochar feedstocks withlower lignin content demonstrated this differently withgreater microporosity enhancing metal sorption (26) Adecreased CN ratio may be linked to the presence of lowlignin content on the biochar feedstock Converselygreater sorption capacity has been observed frombiochars produced from manure which have highcarbonate nitrogen and phosphate content Highsorption capacity for this these biochar types may beattributed to the mineral components which serve asadditional sorption sites (27)

Biochar physiochemical propertiesand heavy metal adsorptionGenerally increasing pyrolysis temperature leads to anincrease in the surface area of the biochar which carriesa considerable negative charge and demonstrates astrong affinity for metal cations Thus biochars reducethe concentration of metals in soil solutions Increasingpyrolysis temperatures (to 300-500oC) increases the pHof the resulting biochar due to the transformation andrelease of basic alkali elements like Ca+ Mg2+ and K+

from the feedstocks (22 24 28) Therefore theapplication of biochar to soil increases soil pH and thesorption of heavy metals to both the biochar and soil dueto the deprotonation of pH-dependent cation exchangesites on soil and biochar surfaces (29) Its surfacefunctional groups also affect metal sorption Oxygen-containing functional groups that exist on the surface ofbiochars are pyrolysed at lower temperatures butdecrease in abundance with increasing pyrolysistemperature and are dependent on feedstock typeGreater adsorption at lower pyrolysis temperaturescould be due to the deprotonation of oxygen-containingfunctional groups (carboxyl and hydroxyl) andadsorption by complexation with metal ions (30 31)

Application of biochar to contaminatedsoils

The use of biochar in heavy metal contaminated sitesachieves remediation by limiting the mobility and fate ofthe metals in the soil The reduction in the mobility ofmetals decreases their bioavailability for plant uptakeBy immobilising contaminants biochar breaks the sourcendash pathway ndash receptor linkage (Figure 3) thus reducingcontaminant availability to the receptor (29) Severalstudies have demonstrated that biochar application tocontaminated soils reduces and immobilises metalseliminating the pathway to receptors (3 13) However

Figure 2 Picture of a pyrolysis kiln locallymade in Nigeria from an oil barrel

Figure 3 Conceptual model showingremediation of contaminant using biochar tobreak the source-pathway-receptor linkage


one of the major drawbacks to the use of biochar for soilremediation is the presence of volatile organiccompounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) within the biochar itself Thesecompounds pose concerns and can have a major impacton organisms and the environment (32 33) Studieshave shown that the concentrations of VOCs and PAHs inbiochars is dependent on the feedstock type pyrolysistemperature and time (34) greater concentrations ofPAHs were observed with shorter pyrolysis duration andlower pyrolysis temperatures This was attributed to thecondensation of the PAHs produced on the biochar itself

Research gapsOverall the literature to date suggests that pyrolysistemperature and feedstock type play an important rolein the adsorption of heavy metals from the soil bybiochar due to their impact on pH surface areaelemental composition and surface functional groupsHowever several knowledge gaps and uncertaintiesremain regarding the type of feedstock pyrolysistemperature and application rate to optimise sorptioncapacity In addition there is a need to pay attention tothe production of biochars that meet the needs ofremediation without introducing organic contaminants(PAHs and VOCs) that may have deleterious effects onthe environment

References1 Beesley L et al Environmental Pollution 159 12

3269-3282 (2011)

2 Pan L et al International journal of EnvironmentalResearch and Public Health 15 11 2364 (2018)

3 Alaboudi KA Ahmed B and Brodie G Annals ofAgricultural Sciences 64 1 95-102 (2019)

4 Wang Q-R et al Journal of Environmental Scienceand Health Part A 385 823-838 (2003)

5 Pullagurala VL Reddy et al Science of the TotalEnvironment 636 1585-1596 (2018)

6 Steffan JJ et al European Journal of Soil Science69 1 159-171(2018)

7 Zhang X et al Environmental Science andPollution Research 20 12 8472-8483 (2013)

8 OConnor D et al Science of the Total Environment619 815-826 (2018)

9 Tirima S et al Environmental Health Perspectives124 9 1471-1478 (2016)

10 Udiba U Akpan ER and Antai EE Journal ofHealth and Pollution 9 23 190910 (2019)

11 Wilberforce Oti JO and F I NwabueEnvironment and Pollution 2 1 19 (2013)

12 Lombi E and Hamon RE Encyclopedia of Soils

in the Environment Vol 3 379ndash385 ElsevierAcademic Press Amsterdam (2005)

13 Li J et al Geoderma 350 52-60 (2019)

14 Lucchini P et al Agriculture Ecosystems ampEnvironment 184 149-157 (2014)

15 Komnitsas K et alWaste and BiomassValorization 6 5 805-816 (2015)

16 Anyanwu IN et al Data in brief 18 1064-1068(2018)

17 Kavitha B et al Journal of EnvironmentalManagement 227 146-154 (2018)

18 Lahori AH et al Pedosphere 27 6 991-1014(2017)

19 Yu J Advanced Materials Research 335-3361316-1320 (2011)

20 Cai L et al Water Research 90 44-51 (2016)

21 Simonyan K J and Fasina O African Journal ofAgricultural Research 8 40 4975-4989 (2013)

22 Tan X et al Chemosphere 125 70-85 (2015)

23 Zhao S-X Ta N and Wang X-D Energies 10 91293 (2017)

24 Figueiredo C et al Archives of Agronomy and SoilScience 64 6 881-889 (2018)

25 Rodriacuteguez-Vila A et al Environmental Science andPollution Research 25 8 7730-7739 (2018)

26 Bogusz A Oleszczuk P and Dobrowolski RBioresource Technology 196 540-549 (2015)

27 Xu X et al Environmental Science and PollutionResearch 20 1 358-368 (2013)

28 Zhang R-H et al Ecological Engineering 98 183-188 (2017)

29 Sizmur T et al Agricultural and EnvironmentalApplications of Biochar Advances and Barriers 63295-324 (2016)

30 Han L et al Scientific Reports 7 1 1-11 (2017)

31 Wang S et al Royal Society Open Science 4 9170402 (2017)

32 Spokas KA et al Chemosphere 85 5 869-882(2011)

33 de Resende MF et al Chemosphere 200 641-648 (2018)

34 Hale S E et al Environmental Science ampTechnology 46 5 2830-2838 (2012)


Article

Elements of construction ndash Minecraftand the Periodic TableDr Laura Hobbs Sophie Bentley Dr Mark Ashby Dr Jackie Hartley RebeccaRose Carly Power (Science Communication Unit UWE and LancasterUniversity sciencehunterslancasteracuk or extendingSTEMuweacuk)

Minecraft is a popular computer game thatallows the construction of almost limitlesscreations and is used in learning contextsaround the world The widespread appealand familiarity of the game makes it idealfor engaging children and young peoplewith topics that might not otherwiseinterest them With this in mind theScience Hunters project with supportfrom a Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)Outreach Fund grant developed fiveMinecraft-based informal learning andengagement sessions about the periodictable carbon helium uranium and goldas part of the 2019 International Year ofthe Periodic Table (IYPT)

Minecraft is a construction-based open-world game inwhich players can move freely and build items placingand breaking blocks with a wide range of appearancesand properties Not only are the possibilities almostendless but the game is extremely popular it is thesecond-best selling game in the world (1) When asked95 of UK school students across all year groups hadheard of it (2) It has been described as one of the mostimportant games of the current generation (3)

There are many real-world analogies in Minecraft whichcombined with its popularity make it a great tool forcommunicating scientific concepts (3-5) ScienceHunters an outreach project based at the ScienceCommunication Unit at UWE Bristol and LancasterUniversityrsquos Environment Centre uses Minecraft toengage children with science Sessions take place inschools at public events and in dedicated MinecraftClubs for specific groups under-represented in science(5-7) Not only do participants greatly enjoy thesesessions (6) they also increase their subject knowledgeand understanding (7) Minecraft enables activeconstruction of knowledge interaction and teamworking It is simple affordable and accessible makingit viable for classroom use (8) Detailed descriptions ofMinecraft and its application in a range of formaleducational settings can be found elsewhere (3 8)

Engagement with chemistry and theIYPTResults of the lsquoPublic Attitudes to Chemistryrsquo report (9)suggest that chemistry could benefit fromcommunication through the novel use of media thatchildren already enjoy and associate with leisureOverall public engagement with chemistry was reportedas low and the subject was commonly associated withlessons chemicals and medicines School was cited asputting off 25 of respondents Therefore to promotepositive perceptions of chemistry in young people in2019 (IYPT) the RSC funded Science Hunters to createfive Minecraft sessions about the periodic table and fourselected elements explained from an environmentalscience perspective The sessions were developed for anddelivered to the projectrsquos Minecraft Clubs for childrenwith Special Educational Needs (Lancashire) and LookedAfter Children (Cumbria and Worcestershire)

Science Hunters lsquoelementsrsquo sessionsThe Periodic TableIn this session the periodic table how it is constructedand basic atomic structure (protons neutrons andelectrons) are introduced visually using a small numberof presentation slides Participants are provided withsmall items to lay out the subatomic structure of aselected atom (for example sweets can be used for thisactivity due to the variety of shapes and coloursavailable) and then build atoms of other elements in

The element lsquoSophiumrsquo (Sh) as created by aMinecraft Club participant and added to the

periodic table during a lsquoPeriodic Tablersquo session


Minecraft using the hands-on activity to plan if desiredSince elements with low atomic numbers are simpler tobuild these are suggested initially Selected elements canbe related to real-world uses to demonstrate the practicalrelevance of chemistry Popular examples includehydrogen (space rocket fuel) helium (balloons) lithium(batteries) or beryllium (structural material for high-speed aircraft) Participants may wish to create their ownelements as an extension activity For example childrentaking part in one of the Science Hunters clubs createdan element named Sophium (after the session leader)and identified its use as lsquomaking bananas explodersquo Theyassigned it a symbol (Sh) atomic mass and atomicnumber and added it to a copy of the periodic table

UraniumThe properties of uranium its discovery radioactivityand 235U application in nuclear power generationthrough fission are introduced briefly through aslideshow Common samples emitting low and safe levelsof radiation such as granite rock and bananas are usedalongside a Geiger counter to demonstrate radioactivityIn Minecraft children are provided with a prebuilt mapmade with the Minecraft modification (lsquomodrsquo) BigReactors They can complete the build of a nuclearreactor mine lsquoYellorium orersquo (the Minecraft equivalent ofuranium ore) from the quarry then process it to makeYellorium ingots These are then placed in the reactor togenerate heat creating steam which turns the turbinesand then the generator producing electricity

HeliumThe properties and uses of helium are introducedRelevant examples are given including coolingproperties as used in MRI machines and cryostats andbuoyancy demonstrated with balloons Whereappropriate links can be made with the uranium sessionto explain the difference between fission and fusion andthe gold session as cryostat plates are gold plated toprovide shielding for sensitive samples from radiationImages of the sun are used alongside an explanation ofhow nuclear fusion turns hydrogen into helium

releasing energy in the form of heat and light Thesubsequent Minecraft challenge is to build an item thatcontains helium using examples from the introductionThis could be party or weather balloons or blimpsmodel MRI machines particle accelerators or satellitesor the sun There is also the option of building thechemical symbol as it is shown in the periodic table

CarbonElemental carbon can be introduced including itssymbol atomic mass and atomic number Samples ofdifferent forms of carbon are used to give physicalexamples that participants can hold interact with anduse These include a diamond graphite and a sample ofcoal Participants can even draw the carbon atom usingthe graphite samples Global warming and itsconsequences are discussed in the context ofanthropogenic carbon dioxide release from burning coaland other fossil fuels The reason that carbon is oftendescribed as lsquothe element of lifersquo is also explainedalongside a video explaining carbon-based lifeformsImages of the different forms of carbon and molecularmodelling kits are distributed amongst participants tohelp them build a structure in Minecraft To do this theycan either choose blocks to represent carbon atoms andbonds or use forms of carbon that exist in Minecraftsuch as building a structure out of diamond blocks ormining for diamonds

GoldA brief slideshow introduces the atomic structureposition in the periodic table properties and uses of

A Cryostat where liquid helium is used as acoolant and gold plating shields sensitive

samples from radiation Photo credits AndrewGuthrie

Geiger counter indicating low levels of radiationemitted by granite and bananas used as ademonstration during the lsquoUraniumrsquo session


gold Key phrases such as lsquotransition metalrsquo lsquoconductiversquolsquomalleablersquo and lsquocorrosionrsquo are explained within thediscussion Common uses such as in jewellery andsmartphones are explained alongside physical examplesfor participants to examine Lesser known uses such asin dentistry in equipment in laboratory experiments andas radiation protection in space are included

A lsquoBadlandsrsquo biome (known for containing plentiful gold)Minecraft world is set to survival mode and participantsare given the challenge of mining for gold Extensions tothe challenge based on interest and ability include usinggold to build craft-powered rails to speed up mining andcrafting different forms of gold (ores nuggets ingotsand blocks) Participants are also free to build itemsrelated to any of the examples of uses of gold covered inthe introduction

EvaluationIn order to gauge how engaging the sessions were 44participants were asked to indicate their level of interestin the topic both before and after the session rangingfrom lsquo0 ndash not at all interestedrsquo to lsquo3 ndash very interestedrsquoChanges in responses were analysed as a measure ofengagement efficacy Participants were aged between 7and 13 years and attended Minecraft Clubs for under-represented groups Attendees were invited to providewritten feedback the contents of which were alsoevaluated Mean interest before taking part in a sessionwas 19 plusmn 02 (63 on a scale of 0-3) After the sessionsmean interest was 23 plusmn 01 (77) which was astatistically significant (p lt 001) increase

Qualitative feedback from children parents and carerswas assessed against Generic Learning Outcomes (10)and mainly indicated outcomes related to lsquoKnowledgeand Understandingrsquo (eg ldquothey are all types of atomsrdquoldquoO is Oxygenrdquo ldquoarsenic is highly poisonousrdquo ldquoldquotheperiodic table is made up of different elements that makeup the world eg gold (Au) carbon (C) and titanium(Ti)rdquo) Additionally comments revealed aspects relatedto lsquoBehaviour and Progressionrsquo (ldquoIrsquom still learning andtrying to understandrdquo) lsquoAttitudes and Valuesrsquo (ldquoI reallyenjoyed the introduction and I found it interestingrdquo) andlsquoEnjoyment Inspiration and Creativityrsquo (ldquoit is the bestthing everrdquo ldquoThey really enjoyed the video and we evenhad tears of joyrdquo) lsquoEvidence of Skillsrsquo (eg perseverance

cross-referencing information handling materials) wasrecorded observationally

Overall the developed sessions presented an effectivemethod for engaging children with chemistry There ismuch scope for future development of resources utilisingthe Science Hunters approach and Minecraftrsquos functionand appeal to inspire younger generations about asubject that many are known to have less positiveexperiences with in school

AcknowledgementslsquoThe Minecraft Periodic table of Elementsrsquo was funded bya 2019 RSC Outreach Fund grant to Dr Carly StevensLancaster Environment Centre Worcestershire CountyCouncil and an anonymous therapeutic treatment centreassisted with club coordination Dr Calum HartleyLancaster University Department of Psychology assistedwith session delivery Joshua Chawner LancasterUniversity Department of Physics provided assistanceand created the video lsquoThe Worlds Coolest LEGO Setrsquoused in the helium session Andrew Guthrie LancasterUniversity Department of Physics provided images andadvice

References1 Peckham M (2016) lsquolsquoMinecraftrsquo is now the second

best-selling game of all timersquo Time httptimecom4354135minecraft-bestelling

2 Hobbs L et al (2020) School Science Review inpress (2020)

3 Lane HC amp Yi S (2017) Blumberg FC BrooksPJ (eds) Cognitive Development in Digital ContextsAcademic Press Massachusetts USA (2012)

4 Short D Teaching Science 58 (3) 55ndash58 (2012)

5 Hobbs L et al (2019) Journal of ScienceCommunication 18 (02) N01 httpsdoiorg1022323218020801(2019)

6 Hobbs L et al (2019) Using Minecraft to engagechildren with science at public events Research forAll 3 (2) 142-160

7 Hobbs L et al Action Research and Innovation inScience Education 2 (2) 13-21(2019)

8 Nebel S Schneider S amp Rey G D EducationalTechnology amp Society 19 (2) 355ndash366 (2016)

9 TNS BRMB Public Attitudes to Chemistry ResearchReport Royal Society of Chemistry London 78httpswwwrscorgglobalassets04-campaigning-outreachcampaigningpublic-attitudes-to-chemistrypublic-attitudes-to-chemistry-research-reportpdf (2015)

10 Arts Council UK Generic Learning Outcomeshttpswwwartscouncilorgukmeasuring-outcomesgeneric-learning-outcomes

Figure 4 Diamond and graphene modelsusing molecular modelling kits


Article

Multimedia modelling of organicpollutants The fugacity approachJamie Harrower (PhD Researcher Glasgow Caledonian University JamesHutton Institute jamieharrowergcuacuk)Organic Pollutants (OPs) have been amajor concern for the environment fordecades due to their persistence andtoxicity Up until the 1990s non-polarhazardous compounds persistent organicpollutants (POPs) (1) were prioritypollutants and as a result intensivemonitoring campaigns were conductedThese pollutants are still very important tomonitor because of their detrimentalecological effects and persistence (longhalf-lives) In recent years however therehas been more focus on emerging organiccontaminants (EOCs) (2) which includepharmaceuticals personal care productspesticides and endocrine disruptingcompounds (EDCs) EOCs and POPsenter the environment through varioussources including wastewater treatmentplants (WWTP) landfill sites agriculturalrun-off and industryhospital effluent

Monitoring OPs in the environment can be challengingbecause of the considerable time and resources requiredto conduct field and lab work and the complex matriceswhich can interfere with analysis A selective extractionand clean-up step is required to ensure analyticalinstruments can detect contaminants at very low levels(ppbppt)

Concept of FugacityCompound fate in the aquatic environment can bedetermined using mathematical models known widely asfugacity calculations The concept of fugacity was firstdeveloped by Lewis in 1901 (3) Then Donald Mackayapplied this concept to multimedia models inenvironmental chemistry to describe the processescontrolling the behaviour of chemicals in environmentalmedia (45)

The term Fugacity describes a chemicalrsquos escapingtendency (5) Therefore when modelling compounds inthe environment fugacity describes the ability to movebetween two different environmental compartments

Equal fugacity is expected in both phases as is thevapour pressure of the compound The relationshipbetween fugacity (f) concentration (C molm-3) andfugacity capacity (Z molm-3Pa-1) is shown below (Eq 1)The Z value is specific to a chemical and is dependent onthe phase A compartment with a higher fugacitycapacity can accept a higher concentration of a givenmicropollutant

C = Z x f Eq 1

Fugacity models become more complex as more databecomes available and are assigned as different levels(1 2 3 4) These calculations can also be appliedvarious systems including quantitative water airsediment interactions (QWASI) sewage treatment plants(STP) and equilibrium criterion models (EQC) Thesewill be described in more detail later Chemicals flowinginto a (dynamic) system contained in water sedimentbiomass solids and air are driven by processes such asdegradation and advection (more detail later) The ratesof these processes can be described using D values(molh-1Pa-1) In order to fully develop a fugacity massbalanced model determination of D values is necessaryTo determine D values Z values are required as well asspecific information on the compounds being studied(physicochemical properties)rate constants and site-specific information on the STP such as effluentdischarge and size of STP D values can be thought of astransport parameters with units of molh-1Pa-1

Given the scope of multimedia modelling this article willbriefly discuss level 1 2 and 3 models and describespecific applications of fugacity models

Partition CoefficientA key parameter in fugacity calculations is Kow thepartition coefficient (Eq 2) which is derived fromthermodynamics or can be measured experimentally

Octanol is chosen as the solvent because it providessuitable conditions as the organic layer mimicking fattylipid biological tissues (6) In most cases the partitioncoefficient is written as logKow and measurements aretaken of the neutral compound only in each layer Theshake flask method outlined by the OCED guidelines(6) is a simple method to accurately measure logKow Aknown concentration of compound is spiked into a

Eq 2


system of specified ratios of octanol and water (whichhave been saturated with one another) The two layersare mixed thoroughly until equilibrium is obtained andallowed to separate The aqueous layer is then carefullysampled and analysed using a technique such as HighPerformance Chromatography (HPLC) or UV-VisSpectroscopy (78)

Ionisation of Organic CompoundsCompounds with ionising protons in their structure mustbe considered when using fugacity calculations Chargedstructures can be formed at environmental pH levelswhich in turn can impact environmental partitioningThis is due to multiple acid dissociation constants andthe wide range of physicochemical properties that somepharmaceutical drugs such as antibiotics pain killersand anti-inflammatories contain In contrast non-polarcompounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDE) are also frequently found in theenvironment Compounds such as these do not ionise atenvironmental pH values and therefore only onespecies (the neutral) of the compound is consideredPCBs have relatively high logKow values and aredescribed as hydrophobic whereas antibiotics such asciprofloxacin have low logKow values (Figures 1-2)

Therefore their chemical behaviours will differ in-situCiprofloxacin unlike PCB-180 is able to form chargedstructures and zwitterions at environmental pH levels

Level 1 Model ndash Closed SystemA level 1 model describes a compoundrsquos fate in theenvironment by making the following assumptions

1 The system is closed the volumes of thecompartments are fixed and the total amounts ofchemicals distributed amongst the compartmentsare constant (Figure 3)

2 The system is in an equilibrium steady statemeaning that the concentration of a chemical withina compartment is uniform and the chemicalpotentials of a given species in differentcompartments are equal

Calculations then determine the partitioning ofchemicals between compartments labelled a w and s(air water and sediment respectively) with volumes VaVw and Vs respectively The respective concentrations CaCw and Cs in each compartment can be used to calculatethe partition coefficient (Kaw Kws)

Studies demonstrating environmental level 1 fugacitymodelling calculations include one on bisphenol A (BPA)in sewage sludge amended soil (9) In the study a three-compartment soil matrix model (level 1) was describedand the total concentration of BPA in the soil waspredicted The results of the fugacity model indicatedthat the majority of BPA (~96) present remainedstrongly attached to the sewage sludge amended soil(following application of sewage sludge to soil) Whenconsidering the physicochemical properties of BPA these

Figure 3 Illustration of a simple 3-compartment Level 1 model

Figure 2 Chemical Structure of Ciprofloxacin

Figure 1 Chemical Structure of PCB-180


results support the behaviour demonstrated by BPAwithin the environment ndash low vapour pressure moderatewater solubility and high octanol-water partitioncoefficient and organic carbon coefficient (Kow Koc)

Level 2 Model ndash Dynamic Environment(equilibrium assumed)A level 2 model describes a dynamic environment withinflows and outflows of chemicals through thecompartment such that at any given instant thedifferent phases are in equilibrium with one another (5)Partition coefficients can be used to describe thedistribution of chemicals between the compartmentsThe main assumptions of a level 2 model are

1 The system is open meaning that although thevolumes are fixed the total mass of chemicalsdistributed amongst those compartments may varywith time or there may be equal inflows andoutflows of chemicals that lead to steady statedistributions

2 The distributions of chemicals amongst thecompartments at any given instant is determined bythe conditions of the chemical equilibrium andequilibrium partition coefficients K even if there isa throughput of chemicals

In essence it is assumed that the diffusion of chemicalswithin and transfer between compartments are so fastcompared to the rate of reactiondegradationadvectionthat the Nernst partition law is satisfied at all times (5)The total chemical within the environmental regioninterest may vary in time due to the following twogeneral processes (5)

bull Advection a chemical is transported into or out ofthe region of interest by the flow of a supportingmedium The rate of advection (N =molh-1) (Eq 3)is the product of the flowrate of the advectingmedium (G = m3h-1) and the concentration of thechemical in that medium (C = molm-3) (5)

bull Degradation and chemical reactions which leadto a change in the total chemical within the regionof interest

N = G x C Eq 3

Under this assumption there is no need to specify whichcompartment the chemical is being introduced intoinstead the net influx is specified

Level 3 Model ndash Dynamic Environment(equilibrium not assumed)Level 3 calculations include the transport by diffusiveprocesses For instance a chemical takes time to diffusewithin a compartment driven by a concentrationgradient At equilibrium the concentration profile isuniform and there is no net diffusion This allows us toconsider the introduction of some chemical at differentrates into each compartment which causes a non-equilibrium distribution of the chemical and hence a netflow between them this is intermedia transport Onestudy applied Level 3 fugacity calculations to predict theconcentrations of antibiotics in a number of water basinsin China (10) This study proved that the model wascomparable with the available field data at specific sites

Application of Fugacity modelsBased on the theory of the fugacity calculationsresearchers have developed many other models forsystems Among them are the EQC model STP modeland QWASI model

The Equilibrium Criterion modelThe EQC model was designed and based on evaluativelevel 1-3 fugacity models described by Mackay et al(11) It may be employed to systematically revealgeneral features of the behaviour of a chemical in ageneric environment The model enables progressionthrough the sequence of levels 1-3 for a variety ofchemicals The model also separates chemicals intocategories based on different properties including theability to partition into different environmentalcompartments volatility and water solubility (12) Thechemicals are broadly divided into Type 1 (commonpollutants ndash such as PCBs PAHs) Type 2 (cationsanions and involatile chemicals) and Type 3 (long chainhydrocarbons silicones and polymers) An importantadvantage of the EQC model is the ability to treat agreater range of chemicals than other models but it isprimarily utilised for non-polar species (12)

The Sewage Treatment Plant ModelThe STP model was developed by Clark et al (13) andis aims to understand the chemical behaviour and fate ofcontaminants in a conventional WWTP The model isbased on mass balances produced at each stage of theWWTP which correlate and predict steady state phaseconcentrations and process stream fluxes and the fate ofmicro pollutants A limitation of this model is its inabilityto correctly model ionised compounds As such themodel was upgraded to STP-EX incorporating an ionicneutral factor to upgrade Z values based on thecompound under investigation its pKa and the pH of


the wastewater (13) The STP and STP-EX model havebeen applied to conventional WWTPs all over the worldand used as a screening tool for risk assessments(14-16)

The Quantitative Water Air SedimentInteraction ModelThe QWASI level 3 model was developed by Mackay andis used to predict contaminants behaviour in dynamicenvironments such as rivers and lakes Since itsdevelopment the QWASI model has been furthermodified (17) Based on fugacity calculation conceptsthe model has been used to investigate a range ofchemicals in lakes and proved to be accurate comparedto onsite measurements (18) Since its development theQWASI model and modified versions have been appliedto many studies to simulate the concentrationsdistributions transfer fluxes and bioaccumulation ofchemicals in lakes and river systems (17-23)

D values and the fugacity are highly important in QWASIcalculations These are used to calculate rates of thecontaminant (molh-1) where D values are calculated bymultiplying G values (m3h-1) by the Z values(molm-3Pa)

References1 Jones K C and De Voogt P Environmental

Pollution 100 (1-3) 209-221 (1999)

2 Petrie B Barden R and Kasprzyk-Hordern BWater Research 72 3-27 (2015)

3 Lewis GN American Academy of Arts amp Sciences37 (3) 49ndash69 (1901)

4 Mackay D Environmental Science amp Technology 13(10) 1218-1223 (1979)

5 Mackay D Multimedia Environmental Models TheFugacity Approach 2nd Ed CRC Press TaylorFrancis Group Florida USA (2001)

6 OECDOCDE OECD Guideline for the Testing ofChemicals 107 1ndash4 (1995)

7 Harris M F and Logan J L Journal of ChemicalEducation 91( 6) 915-918 (2104)

8 Borrirukwisitsak S Keenan H E and Gauchotte-Lindsay C International Journal of EnvironmentalScience and Development 3 (5) 460 (2012)

9 Zhang Z et al Science of the Total Environment515 1-11 (2015)

10 Zhang QQ et al Environmental Science ampTechnology 49 (11) 6772-6782 (2015)

11 Nishimura C Japanese Journal of BiofeedbackResearch 19 (6) 3ndash9 (1992)

12 Mackay D et al Environmental Toxicology andChemistry An International Journal 15 (9) 1627-1637 (1996)

13 Clark B Henry G L H and Mackay DEnvironmental Science amp Technology 29 (6) 1488-1494 (1995)

14 Wang J et al Chemosphere 69 (11) 1802-1806(2007)

15 Thompson K Zhang J and Zhang CChemosphere 84 (8) 1066-1071 (2011)

16 Kuumlster A et al Integrated EnvironmentalAssessment and Management 6 (S1) 514-523(2010)

17 Mackay D et al Chemosphere 111 359-365(2014)

18 Mackay D and Diamond M Chemosphere 18 (7-8) 1343-1365 (1989)

19 Guo J et al Science of The Total Environment657 87-95 (2019)

20 Xu F L et al Ecological Modelling 252 246-257(2013)

21 Whelan M J Chemosphere 91 (11) 1566-1576(2013)

22 Warren C S et al Water Research 36 (17) 4341-4355 (2002)

23 Mackay D and Hickie B Chemosphere 41 (5)681-692 (2000)


Public Engagement How To

Wet ScrubbersLaura Alcock (Edwards Ltd lauraalcock8yahoocouk)

A fantastically visual way to explain thescience behind wet scrubbers thisdemonstration can be used to stimulatediscussions around their manyapplications in industry and research

TheoryWet scrubbers are used to remove harmful water solublegases from an air flow by dissolving them in water or inaqueous solution In some cases where the primarygases are acidic the water will be dosed with sodiumhydroxide This prevents the release of these gases intothe atmosphere and by capturing them in solutionfacilitates the process of neutralising and treatingharmful compounds so they can be safely disposed of

Kit Listbull Clear tube (preferably acrylic) no more than 7 cm

in diameter approximately 30 cm longbull Funnel ndash to fit snugly over the end of the tubebull Adhesive ndash epoxy resin advisedbull Sieve plate to fit in funnel at bottom of tubebull Clear beads to fill the tubebull Small spoutsbull Aquarium pumpbull Flexible tubing to fit aquarium pump and spoutsbull Large liquid container for drainingbull Dreschel bottlebull Clamp stand with clampsbull Household ammoniabull Red cabbage water (and vinegar in hard water

areas)bull Beaker for pouringbull Tray to hold the apparatus in case of spillage

Set up1 Drill a hole in the side of the funnel below the seat

point of the tube (test fit) Using the epoxy adhesivefit the spout at an angle to prevent water drainingin

2 Fit the sieve into the funnel and fix it to the end ofthe tube using plenty of the epoxy adhesive Whenthe adhesive has cured fill with water and block thespouts to ensure that the assembly is water tight

3 Fill the tube with the beads leaving 5 cm at the topof the tube empty Holding the tube upright with theclamp stand fit a flexible tube to the funnel tip the

end of which is in the liquid container to be kept onthe floor below the demonstration for drainage

4 Fill the Dreschel bottle with household ammoniaand fit another flexible tube to the angled spout theother end of which should be fitted to the Dreschelbottle outlet A third flexible tube should connectthe Dreschel bottle inlet to the aquarium pumpoutlet You will need the pump set to its highestspeed

5 Hold the tube and the Dreschel bottle into the trayto catch any spills Fill the beaker with cabbagewater

6 Turn on the pump and explain the application youhave in mind for the wet scrubber (ie dissolvingacidic fumes from a fume hood in an analytical preplab) It will take around 30 seconds (depending onthe volume of the tube) for the ammonia to fill thetube to a visible level

7 Pour a solution of slightly acidic red cabbage waterinto the open top of the tube Ensure that the wateris well pigmented or the colour change will bedifficult to see As the ammonia dissolves the waterwill change from red to blue

Exhibition CostAround pound40-pound50 All components except cabbage waterand ammonia will be reusable and a 500 mL bottle ofammonia is usually enough for a 4-day event withdemonstrations every 15-20 minutes

Exhibition Weight5-10 kg depending on size of tube and amount ofcabbage water prepared

Exhibition SizeWould fit into a carry-on sized case

Resources RequiredElectrical power for the aquarium pumpFresh water to rinse the kit at the end of each dayDrainage for disposing of the water at the end of the dayThings to look out forDo NOT let anyone sniff the ammonia it can causeserious injury if the fumes dissolve in the lungsEnsure you disconnect the pump betweendemonstrations to avoid ammonia fumes from escapingIf the ammonia fumes are taking longer to fill the tubeyou may need to drain the Dreschel bottle (gas washbottle) into your waste solution neutralise with vinegarand add fresh ammonia It is worth having plenty ofpaper towel for mopping up spills


Early Careers Environmental Brief (ECGECEB No 7)

Microplastics in soil an importantissueNat Wood (University of Reading BSc Environmental Science student)

Whilst the intrusion and subsequentimpacts of microplastics on thehydrosphere are widely realised less isknown about their effects within thepedosphere This environmental brieffocuses on the sources and impacts ofmicroplastics in soil

Microplastics along with larger plastics have become anintegral tool for the efficient functioning of 21st Centurysociety Commonly defined as a synthetic chemicallystable material smaller in length than 5 mmmicroplastics can be a variety of different shapes andsizes but the most frequently used microplasticpolymers are polystyrene polyethylene andpolypropylene all of which contain carbon (1 2) Theirresistance to decomposition along with the length of thechains that polymers form explains why mostmicroplastics last for so long in the environment (1)

Microplastic contamination of soils is a significant issueas soils are a vital global resource Among other thingsthey are essential for carbon sequestration floodprevention and food production Any contamination of

soil must be studied in order to understand the effectsthis contamination may have as well as how to preventfurther contamination

SourcesIf soil microplastic pollution is to be reduced theirsources must first be identified (Figure 1) Theformation of microplastics falls into two distinctcategories ndash primary microplastics those which havebeen intentionally manufactured to the size they areand secondary microplastics which form from thebreakdown of larger plastic particles (1)

Whilst agriculture depends heavily on healthy soil it isone of the major sources of soil microplastic pollution ndashstudies estimate that annually 63000-430000 tonnes ofmicroplastic pollution is deposited in Europeanagricultural soils (3) Water treatment plants removenearly 90 of plastics from wastewater concentratingmicroplastics in the sewage sludge that remains (4)Sewage sludge containing both primary and secondarymicroplastics is widely used as a soil amendment toimprove crop yields with as much as 50 of the totalsewage sludge produced in North America and Europelater applied to fields (3)

Figure 1 Sources of microplastics in soil and some effects on biota


Other major agricultural sources of microplasticpollution in soils stem from the use of plastic mulch (3)Used to conserve soil moisture and prevent competitionfrom weeds China is the largest plastic mulch userswathing over 20 million hectares of land in plastic film(1)

Irrigation is utilised on 18 of the worldrsquos agriculturalland ndash 7 is irrigated with untreated wastewater (4)This attempt to provide water to facilitate optimal plantgrowth inadvertently creates an unregulated flux ofplastic pollution into soils

Outside of agriculture microplastic fallout from theatmosphere can enter even remote soils far from a largepopulace Tire abrasion on road surfaces generates tiredust which can be washed off into soil by rain inSweden anual tire dust emissions total nearly 1000tonnes (4)

Impacts ndash biotaMicroplastics can have impacts both on belowground soilorganisms and on plants (Figure 1) The presence ofmicroplastics in soil has been shown to cause significantstress in perennial ryegrass (5) Seed germinationdecreased whilst increases in root biomass andchlorophyll ab ratios were observed (5) Whilst nodirectly toxic effects were observed these responsesdemonstrate that ryegrass behaviour is forcibly changedby the presence of microplastics

Furthermore a decrease in earthworm biomass wasobserved when microplastics were present (5) Sinceearthworms consume soil they unintentionally swallowmicroplastics (5) Any microplastics that pass throughthe digestive system are expelled in casts distributingmicroplastics further down the soil profile where theycan be consumed by other organisms If they remaininside the worm microplastics can obstruct the digestivetract causing decreased nutrient adsorption weight lossand death (5) As a keystone species a reduction inearthworm populations can have devastating knock oneffects to the entire soil ecosystem as well as plants

Impacts ndash soil propertiesAs well as the indirect effects that microplastic pollutionmay have on soil properties through reducingearthworm biomass there are several direct impacts

For example a lowered soil pH was observed whenmicroplastic particles were present (5) Soil microbialcommunities are particularly sensitive to pH these areessential for various biogeochemical cycles includingthe nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is converted to plant

available nitrates by soil microbes the optimal pH rangeof which lies between 66-85 ndash any change outside ofthese limits could be detrimental to plant growth (7)

Plastic films in soil have also been shown to createchannels which aid water movement resulting inincreased evaporation (6) This causes soil drying aneffect that may be most prevalent in water scarceareas (6) With global temperatures expected to rise by18 degC widespread soil drying could be worsened furtherby the presence of microplastics hindering cropproduction (8)

Conclusionsfurther researchThe pathways through which microplastics enter soil arenumerous (Figure 1) However many of the sourcesparticularly in agriculture are essential for cropproduction Microplastics in soil have been shown tohave several detrimental effects and so where possiblesources should be reduced Further research shouldcontinue to assess the damage inflicted by microplasticsupon the pedosphere as well as researching whetheralternative less damaging materials can be used insteadof microplastics to carry out the same function

References1 Ng EL Lwanga EH Eldridge SM Johnston P

Hu HW Geissen V and Chen D Science of theTotal Environment 627 1377-1388 (2018)

2 Li J Song Y and Cai Y Environmental Pollution257 13570 (2019)

3 Blaesing M and Amelung W Science of the TotalEnvironment 612 422-435 (2018)

4 Corradini F Meza P Eguiluz R Casado FHuerta-Lwanga E and Geissen V Science of theTotal Environment 671411-420 (2019)

5 Boots B Russell CW and Green DSEnvironmental Science amp Technology 53(19)11496-11506 (2019)

6 Rillig MC Lehmann A de Souza Machado AAand Yang G New Phytologist 223(3) 1066-1070(2019)

7 Jalota SK Vashisht BB Sharma S and Kaur S2018 Understanding Climate Change Impacts onCrop Productivity and Water Balance AcademicPress Massachusetts USA (2018)

8 Gupta R and Gregg M 2012 Building andEnvironment 55 20-42 (2012)



Diesel particulate matterElla Yarrow (University of Reading BSc Environmental Science student)

We are becoming increasingly aware ofthe risks that diesel particulate matter(DPM) poses to humans and theenvironment This environmental briefgives an overview of what is alreadyknown about DPM and how it can becontrolled

Source and formationDPM is produced by compression ignition engines andreleased from diesel exhausts Diesel engines are populardue to their energy efficiency durability reliability andlow-operating costs compared to petrol engines (1)They are extensively used for commercial transport(trains cars buses ships trucks) as well as for industrialactivities (mining equipment agricultureconstruction) (2) DPM is formed because of incompletecombustion within a diesel engine Fuel is injected intothe combustion chamber at high temperatures andpressures where it is then atomised The droplets are notdispersed uniformly resulting in local oxygen deficientregions around some fuel particles These conditionslead to incomplete combustion and the formation ofDPM through a series of steps (3)

1 Pyrolysis ndash The oxygen deficient and hightemperature conditions cause the organiccompounds within the fuel to undergo a change inmolecular structure This produces acetylenemolecules which then combine to make benzenerings and dehydrogenate to form polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) precursor molecules

2 Nucleation ndash Hydrocarbons are deposited on thesurface of the precursor molecules which developto form the nuclei This process results in theproduction of numerous small particles less than3 nm in size (4)

3 Surface growth occurs within 005 ms after theformation of nuclei Hydrogen molecules arestripped from the nuclei and form spherules whichsignificantly increase the size of particulate matter(now 20-50 nm) and therefore create soot

4 Coalescence ndash Inter-particle collisions lead to theformation of agglomerated spherules The size ofthese primary spherical particles depends on theengine operating conditions

5 Oxidation ndash The hydrocarbons are oxidised andthen condense on the soot to form DPM

Structure and compositionDPM is a mix of solid and liquid particles suspended in agas and formed as agglomerates of primary sphericalparticles (1) (Figure 1)

The exact chemical composition of DPM is difficult toquantify because it is dependent on several factors (fuelstructure andor composition lubrication oil qualitycombustion conditions and engine type) In generalDPM consists of three main fractions carbonaceous(soot) fraction non-volatile insoluble fraction (IF) andvolatile soluble organic fraction (SOF) IF is composed ofash content (a mixture of oxides sulfates carbonatesmetals and non-metals) and other impurities The SOFconsists of organic carbon sulfate and nitratecompounds which are derived from the lubricating oilunburned fuel and compounds formed duringcombustion (1)

ImpactsMost DPM is classed as lsquoultrafinersquo PM01 as its particlestend to have a diameter of lt 100 nm (01μm) These canpenetrate deep into organs and even enter thebloodstream (2 5) Humans and animals are primarilyexposed to DPM pollution through inhalation where theparticles are deposited within the respiratory systemcausing acute inflammation of the lungs Thetoxicological effects of DPM depends on the exact sizeand surface area of the particles as well as the presenceof absorbed transition metals or other organic materialsFor example PAHs which are usually present withinDPM are known human carcinogens capable of alteringthe DNA within lung tissue In addition to respiratory

Figure 1 A diagram redrawn with permissionfrom Mohankumar and Senthilkumar (3) of

the structure of DPM


illnesses DPM may cause adverse health effects in otherorgans through translocation whereby DPM particlesmigrate to a secondary organ post inhalation Researchhas shown evidence of this exposure within the brains ofmonkeys and rats causing neurological effects (5)

ControlsDiesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) ndash DOCs are catalyticconverters with an open monolith honeycomb structureThey decrease the mass of DPM through catalyticoxidation of hydrocarbons that would otherwise beadsorbed onto the solid carbon sphere Harmful exhaustemissions such as CO PAH and the SOF can also beneutralised through oxidation within the DOC throughthe following reaction

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) - DPFs physically trapparticulate matter (PM) from the exhaust stream andprevent it being released into the atmosphere Theyensure the entrapment of PM with blocked channels atalternate ends forcing the PM through the poroussubstrate (with an efficiency of gt 90) Over timeDPFs accumulate PM and become saturated which canlead to engine failure if left untreated DPFs must belsquoregeneratedrsquo to prevent this build up by oxidising thesoot at high temperature

DOCs and DPFs are both well established and popularpost combustion DPM control techniques Since February2014 MOT tests in the UK have included a check for thepresence of a DPF lsquoA missing DPF where one was fittedwhen the vehicle was built will result in an MOT failurersquoIn May 2018 rules were then made much stricter dieselvehicle exhausts were measured using a diesel smokemeter (6)

Biodiesel ndash Recently there has been an increasingnumber of studies investigating DPM emissions frombiodiesel fuels Overall findings (7) show the following

1 PAH emissions and carcinogenic potency is less withbiodiesel compared to regular diesel

2 PM concentration released from biodiesel fuel is lessthan regular diesel with increasing load (Figure 2)

3 Biodiesel PM primary particle size is smaller and hasa more amorphous structure and

4 Using a blend of biodiesel may improve the ease ofDPF regeneration

Despite these findings relatively little is known aboutthe toxicology of PM emissions from biodiesel fuel useTherefore there is a need for further research todetermine whether using biodiesel could be consideredan effective DPM control technique in a real worldcontext

References1 Resitoglu I A Altinisik K amp Keskin A Clean

Technologies and Environmental Policy January17(1) 15-27 (2015)

2 Prasad R amp Bella V R Bulletin of ChemicalReaction Engineering amp Catalysis 5(2) 69-86(2010)

3 Mohankumar S amp Senthilkumar P Renewable andSustainable Energy Reviews 80 1227-1238 (2017)

4 Khobragade R et al Catalysis Reviews 61(4)447-515 (2019)

5 Ristovski Z D et al Respirology 17(2) 201-212(2012)

6 Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency 2018 MOTinspection manual cars and passenger vehicles[Online] Available at httpswwwgovukguidancemot-inspection-manual-for-private-passenger-and-light-commercial-vehicles_ga=21999258656585098931575059104-19366503091571224239 [Accessed 29 November2019]

7 Wang Y Liu H amp Lee C F F Renewable andSustainable Energy Reviews 64 569-581 (2016)

Figure 2 Effect of engine load on PMreproduced with permission from

Wang et al (7)


ECG BulletinISSN 1758-6224 (Print) 2040-1469 (Online) Publishedby the Royal Society of Chemistryrsquos (RSC) EnvironmentalChemistry Group (ECG) Burlington House PiccadillyLondon W1J 0BA UK

See wwwenvchemgroupcom for articles published inthe ECG Bulletin since 2007

Executive EditorRowena Fletcher-Wood Science OxfordCommissioning EditorTom Sizmur University of ReadingProduction EditorClare Topping Northampton General Hospital

EditorsRupert Purchase Haywards HeathRoger Reeve University of SunderlandGlynn SkerrattValerio Ferracci Cranfield UniversityLaura Newsome University of ManchesterLaura Alcock Edwards LtdSteve Leharne Greenwich University

Editorial BoardDominik Weiss Imperial College London CarolineGauchotte-Lindsay University of Glasgow David OwenTreatChem Limited Tomaacutes Sherwen University of York

EnvironmentalChemistry GroupWebsite wwwenvchemgroupcomTwitter RSC_ECGFacebook RSCEnvironmentalChemistryGroupMembership details wwwrscorgecg

Chair Tom Sizmur University of Reading(tsizmurreadingacuk)Vice-Chair Zoeuml Fleming University of Leicester(zf5leicesteracuk)Honorary Secretary Glynn Skerratt University ofStaffordshire (glynnskerrattgmailcom)Honorary Treasuer Valerio Ferracci CranfieldUniversity (vferraccihotmailcouk)

This and previous issues of the ECG Bulletin are availablewithout charge at wwwenvchemgroupcom andwwwrscorgecgBulletin copy RSC ndash ECG 2020Registered charity number 207890

The ECG Bulletin is printed on paper made from wood pulp sourced from sustainableforests and is suitable for archival storage This issue of the ECG Bulletin was printedby Lemonade Print Group httpslemonadeprintcom 01444 239000All articles represent the informed view of the author(s) at the time of writing notthat of the ECG or the RSC They were not peer reviewed and no guarantee regardingthe accuracy or otherwise can be given by the author(s) the ECG or the RSC

ContentsECG Interview Laura Alcock 3

Book Review by Tom Sizmur 4

Review Public engagement with impact by Rowena Fletcher-Wood 6

Meeting Report Early Careers by Tom Sizmur 8

Article Air quality in the time of Covid-19 by Valerio Ferracci 10

Article Bees and Mites by Robin MacArthur 12

Article Porous boron nitride by Fereshteh Hojatisaeidi 16

Article Biochar for remediation by Chinonso Ogbuagu 18

Article Elements of construction ndash Minecraft and the Periodic Table by Laura Hobbs et al 21

Article Multimedia modelling of organic pollutants The fugacity approach by Jamie Harrower 24

Public Engagement How To Wet Scrubbers by Laura Alcock 28

ECG Early Careers Environmental Brief No 7 Microplastics in soil an important issue by Nat Wood 29

ECG Early Careers Environmental Brief No 8 Diesel particulate matter by Ella Yarrow 31

Cover image A pollution detector inthe park with a group of peoplestanding together and wearing facemasks Image via Shutterstock














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Documents

RSC Bulletin Template Affinity · fact, between my work, my hobbies and my activities withtheRSC’sEnvironmentalChemistryGroup,Ineed tobecarefulthatIgetenoughsleep! RoyalSocietyofChemistry–EnvironmentalChemistryGroup–Bulletin–