Reservation Policy in Indiadalitstudies.org.in/download/wp/0602.pdf · 2014. 8. 19. · Reservation Policy in India - Dimensions and Issues Sukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati

Reservation Policy in India -Dimensions and Issues

Sukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati

Working Paper Series

Indian Institute of Dalit Studies

New Delhi

Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1 The Composition of the Scheduled Caste Population 21.2 The Composition of the Scheduled Tribe Population 3

1.3 Objectives of the Working Paper 4

1.4 Database and Methodology 6

1.5 A World of Contradictions 6

1.6 Nature and Objectives of the Reservation Policy in India 7

1.7 Constitutional Provisions 8

1.8 Impact of Reservation 11

2. Reservations in Central Government Services - 1960-2003 14

2.1 Composition of Total Employment 14

2.2 Employment Composition in Central Government Services by

Categories of Jobs- 1960-2003 18

2.3 Group A 21

2.4 Group B 22

2.5 Group C 25

2.6 Group D 27

3. Representation in Public Sector Enterprises 1971-2004 29


3.2 Composition of Employment by Categories of Jobs 323.3 Group A 36

3.4 Group B 38

3.5 Group C 40

3.6 Group D 41

4. Reservations in Public Sector Banks - 1978-2004 43

4.1 Composition of Total Employment in Public Sector Banks 43

4.2 Employment Composition of Public Sector Banks by

Categories - 1978-2004 46

4.3 Officers 49

4.4 Clerks 51

4.5 Sub-Staffs 53

5. Employment in Insurance Companies - 1993-2000 55


5.2 Group A 57

5.3 Group B 58

5.4 Group C 58

5.5 Group D 58

6. Concluding Observations 59

6.1 Employment in Central Government Jobs 59

6.2 Employment in Public Sector Undertakings 59

6.3 Employment in Public Sector Banks 60

6.4 Employment in Public Sector Insurance Companies 60

6.5 Emerging Issues 60

End Notes 62

Bibliography 63List of TablesList of Figures

List of Tables

Table 1 A, Percentage Trends of the Scheduled Caste PopulationTable 1 B, Percentage Trends of the Scheduled Tribe PopulationTable 1 C, Present Percentages of Reservation for the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs

in Government ServicesTable 1 D, Numbers and Percentage Share in Central Government Employment,

Decadal Point to PointTable 1 E, Central Government Employment (Decadal Average)Table 1 F, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the Total Employees in

Government Jobs by Categories (Excluding Sweepers)Table 1 G, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST

Employment in Central Government Jobs to their respective Totals byCategories

Table 1 H, Government Employment - Decadal Average of the SCs, the STs, and theNon SC/STs by Categories

Table 1 I, Government Employment of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs -DecadalPoint to Point by Categories

Table 1 J, Numbers and Percentages of Employees in the Public Sector Enterprises-Decadal Point to Point

Table 1 K, Employees in Public Sector Enterprises - Decadal AverageTable 1 L, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the Total Employees in Public

Sector Undertakings by Categories (Excluding Sweepers)Table 1 M, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST Employees

in Public Sector Undertakings by Categories of Jobs, 1971-2004Table 1 N, Numbers of Employed SC, ST, and Non SC/ST in the Public Sector

Undertakings - Decadal Point to PointTable 1 O, Decadal Average of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST Employment in the

Public Sector Undertakings by CategoriesTable1 P, Employment in Public Sector Banks, Decadal Point to PointTable 1 Q, Decadal Average of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs in the Public

Sector EmploymentTable 1 R, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the Total Employees in Public

Sector Banks by CategoriesTable 1 S, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST Employees

in Public Sector Banks by Categories, VerticalTable 1 T, The Composition of the SC, the ST and the Non SC/ST Bank Employees,

Decadal Point to Point by CategoriesTable 1 U, Decadal Average of the Public Sector Bank Employees by CategoriesTable 1 V, Total Number of Employment in Insurance Companies - Point to PointTable 1 W, Percentage Share of Social Groups to Total Employees in Public Sector

Insurance Companies by CategoriesTable 1 X, Employment by Social Groups the Public Sector Insurance Companies –

Decadal Point to Point, 1993-2000Table 1 Y, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST Employees

in the Public Sector Insurance Companies by Categories

List of Figures

Figure 1 A, Annual Growth of the Social Groups in Central GovernmentJobs, 1960-2000

Figure 1 B, Trends of Central Government Employment by Social Groups,1960-2003

Figure 1 C, Annual Growth of Employment in Group A Jobs

Figure 1 D, Annual Growth of Employment in Group A Jobs

Figure 1 E, Annual Growth of Employment in Group A Jobs

Figure 1 F, Annual Growth of Employment in Group A Jobs

Figure 1 G, Annual Employment Growth of the Social Groups in PublicSector Undertakings, 1971-1004

Figure 1 H, Trends of Employment under Reservations for the SocialGroups in Public Sector Undertakings, 1971-2004

Figure 1 I, Annual Growth of Employment in Public Sector Banks, 1980-2004

Figure 1 J, Trends of Employment under Reservations in Public SectorBanks for All Social Groups, 1978-2004

Figure 1 K, Trends of Employment under Reservations in the PublicSector Insurance Companies by Social Groups, 1993-2000

Foreword

The Indian Institute of Dalit Studies has initiated this Working Paper Series forthe first time. This Working Paper on Reservation Policy in India is the second inthe series. The purpose of this Series is to disseminate and share the findings ofthe core research concerns of the Institute for a wider circulation, and tofacilitate informed discussions on a variety of focal issues.

The Working Paper Series disseminates both, empirical and theoretical findingsof the ongoing research on issues pertaining to the forms and nature of socialexclusion and discrimination, caste and untouchability-based discrimination,and inclusive policies for the marginalized social groups in Indian society and inother countries etc.

It is hoped that the Working Paper Series will be beneficial to researchers,students, academics, and activists alike, and will also benefit policymaking bodiesand civil society organizations.

This Working Paper “Reservation Policy in India – Dimensions and Issues”examines the employment status of the marginalized social groups in India,notably, the SCs and the STs with regards to public sector employment. Itdelineates the public sector into four categories, i.e., Government Services;Public Sector Undertakings; Nationalized Banks; and Insurance Companies andthereby, traverses the trends in public sector employment and the impacts ofthe reservation policy on the relative employment coordinates of the SCs andthe STs. It further, ascertains the levels, share, changes, and growth rates inemployment among the social groups in India.

Despite, the provisions of reservation in public sector employment in theConstitution of India, the paper brings out disquieting inter-social groupvariations in the realm of public sector employment. It specifically, reviews theimplications in employment after the initiation of the liberalization regime orthe New Economic Policy.

Importantly, the working paper aligns with empirical evidences and decadalchanges to provide the policy implications of the emerging trends.

The Indian Institute of Dalit Studies gratefully acknowledges the support providedby Christian Aid (India) for the publishing of this Series.

Sukhadeo ThoratManaging Trustee

About the Authors

Sukhadeo Thorat is Managing Trustee, Indian Institute of DalitStudies, India, Professor of Economics, Jawaharlal Nehru University,India and Chairman, University Grants Commission, Government ofIndia. His areas of interest are agricultural development, economicinstitutions and development, poverty, labour, agrarian structure,caste and economic discrimination, economic problems of theScheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, economic ideas of DrBabasaheb Ambedkar, human rights, and urban slums.

He can be contacted at [email protected].

Dr. Chittaranjan Senapati is currently Research Associate at the IndianInstitute of Dalit Studies, New Delhi, India and PhD in InternationalPolitics from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. His areasof interest are employment, industrial development, exclusion andgender in South Asia.

He can be contacted at [email protected].

Reservation Policy in India - Dimensionsand Issues

Sukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati

1. Introduction

The Indian society is characterized by a high degree of structural inequalitybased on the tenets of the caste system.he caste system is based on theprinciples of purity and pollution, which involve the division of people intocastes with unequal and hierarchal assignment of economic and civil rightsascribed by birth. Social exclusion among the castes is ensured through thepractices of endogamy and social separation. Exclusion is, thus, internal tothe system, and a necessary outcome of its basic features.

Though, every caste has suffered from the unequal and hierarchal assignmentof rights to some extent, but the erstwhile untouchable* castes located at thebottom of the caste hierarchy suffered the most as they were historically deniedthe rights to property, business (except to occupations considered as impureand polluting), education, civil, cultural, and religious rights. Besides, theScheduled Castes (SCs) also suffered from the deleterious effects of residentialsegregation and social isolation (Akerlof: 1976; Scoville: 1991; Lal: 1988;Ambedkar: 1936 and 1987; and Thorat: 2005).

The SCs are one of the most oppressed and backward communities in theIndian society, and suffer the stigma of untouchability and discriminatoryforms of social exclusion even in the contemporary times. They were referredto as ‘Broken Men’ and ‘Protestant Hindus’ by Ambedkar, and ‘Harijans’ orchildren of God by Gandhi. The Scheduled Tribes (STs) on the other hand,comprise of social groups, the nature of whose marginalization and deprivationis primarily due to geographical and spatial isolation.

Besides, there are other erstwhile untouchables who have converted to otherreligions, primarily to Sikhism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They account for

Indian Institute of Dalit StudiesVolume I, Number 02

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about 4 percent of the population and suffer from caste-based discriminationin some spheres, if not all. Two of them, the Sikhs and the Buddhists, infact, are already a part of the positive discrimination (reservation) policy ofthe Government. The petitions of the Dalit Christians are lying with theGovernment and the Courts for the consideration of inclusion into the list ofthose eligible under the reservation policy in the public domain.

The Government in recognition to the peripheral status of the marginalizedsocial communities has consistently promulgated various legislations andstatutes, which are influenced by two main considerations, namely:

a. to overcome the multiple deprivations of the marginalized socialgroups inherited from exclusion in the past, and to the extent possiblebring them at par with the others; and

b. to provide protection against exclusion and discrimination in thepresent by encouraging their effective participation in the generaleconomic, social and political processes of the country.

Towards these ends, the Government had utilized two-fold strategies, whichinclude:

a. anti-discriminatory and protective measures; and

b. development and empowering measures.

The extension of the reservation policy in India to the marginalized socialgroups is primarily drawn from such considerations and is only applicable tothe public domain. As such, the vast private sector, which comprises of asizable section of the marginalized social groups, remains outside the purviewof the reservation policy.

1.1 The Composition of the Scheduled Caste Population

According to the 2001 Census, the SC population in India (excluding thepopulation of four sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur) stood at166,635,7001 persons, which constituted 16.2 percent of the total population.Of the total SC population in 2001; 79.8 percent resided in the rural areasand conversely, the rest 20.2 percent in the urban areas. Further, the sexratio of the SCs stood at 936 females per thousand males and was slightlyhigher than the national average of 933. The largest proportion of the SCpopulation to the total population, in the order of ranking, was found for the

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Reservation Policy in India Dimensions and IssuesSukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati

states of Punjab (28.9 percent) followed by Himachal Pradesh (24.7 percent),and West Bengal (23 percent) respectively. In Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,and Pondicherry, the proportion of the SC and the ST population to the totalpopulation was an exact equal of the national average of 16.2 percent. Thelowest concentration of the SCs was found in the north-eastern region,presumably so due to a high concentration of the tribal population in theregion. States such as Mizoram (with negligible or 272 persons) followed byMeghalaya (0.5 percent) and Arunachal Pradesh (0.6 percent) had negligibleSC population.

The highest percentages of the SC population to the total population werereported for the states of Uttar Pradesh (21.1 percent) followed by WestBengal (11.1 percent), Bihar (7.8 percent), Andhra Pradesh (7.4 percent),and Tamil Nadu (7.1 percent) respectively. In fact, almost 55 percent of thetotal SC population resides in these five states. Table 1 A provides thepercentages of the SC population in India since the 1961 Census.

Table 1 A, Percentage Trends of the Scheduled Caste Population

Census Year Total Population (in millions)

SC Population (in millions)

Percentage of the SC Population to the Total Population

1961 439.2 64.4 14.7

1971 547.9 80.0 14.6

1981* 665.3 104.8 15.7

1991** 838.6 138.2 16.5

2001*** 1028.6 166.6 16.2

Note: * Excludes Assam in 1981, ** excludes Jammu and Kashmir in 1991, and ***excludes

the Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district inManipur.

Source: Primary Census Abstract, Office of the Registrar General, New Delhi, India, 2001.

1.2 The Composition of the Scheduled Tribe Population

In 2001, the ST population in India stood at 84,326,240 persons andconstituted about 8.2 percent of the total population. Of the total STpopulation in 2001, 91.7 percent were residing in the rural areas, whereas,only 8.3 percent resided in the urban areas. The sex ratio of the ST populationstood at 978, and was higher than that for the SCs and even the nationalaverage. The proportion of the STs to the total population was the highest in


4

Mizoram (94.5 percent) and Lakshadweep (94.5 percent) followed by Nagaland(89.1 percent) and Meghalaya (85.9 percent). Within the major states,Chhattisgarh (31.8 percent) had the highest percentage of the ST populationfollowed by Jharkhand (26.3 percent) and Orissa (22.1 percent) respectively.On the contrary, the lowest proportion of the ST population was found in thestates of Uttar Pradesh (0.1 percent), Bihar (0.9 percent), Tamil Nadu (1.0percent), and Kerala (1.1 percent) in that order. The other states, wherein,the proportion of the ST population was high were Madhya Pradesh (14.5percent), Maharashtra (10.2 percent), Orissa (9.7 percent), Gujarat (8.9percent), Rajasthan and Jharkhand (8.4 percent), and Chhattisgarh (7.8percent). In fact, 68 percent of the total ST population resides in theseseven states. Table 1 B provides the percentages of the ST population inIndia since the 1961 Census.

Table 1 B, Percentage Trends of the Scheduled Tribe Population

Census yearTotal

Population (inMillions)

ST Population(in millions)

Percentage of the STPopulation to theTotal Population

1961 439.2 30.1 6.9

1971 547.9 38.0 6.9

1981* 665.3 51.6 7.8

1991** 838.6 67.8 8.1

2001*** 1028.6 84.3 8.2

Note: * Excludes Assam in 1981, ** excludes Jammu and Kashmir in 1991, and***excludes the Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district inManipur.

Source: Primary Census Abstract, Office of the Registrar General, New Delhi, India,2001.

1.3 Objectives of the Working Paper

This working paper attempts to examine the employment status/situation

among the SCs and the STs in the public sector in India, and also, ascertainsthe measures taken by the Government through the various promulgations

in the Constitution, namely, the reservation policy and its socio-economic

and political impacts on the marginalized social groups. The scope of this

paper is limited to the public sector, which includes the Public Sector

Undertakings (PSUs), the nationalized banks, and the insurance sector. The

5


impacts and changes in the reservation policy are studied under these sectors

and a special emphasis is given to understanding changes in employment

under reservation with the inception of the New Economic Policy (NEP) or theliberalization regime in India.

Specifically, the working paper attempts to examine:

The employment trends of the SCs and the STs in the public sectorcomprising of Government services, PSUs, nationalised banks, andinsurance companies. The analysis undertaken, assimilates data forthe time periods for which it was available and also includes themost current year, i.e., 2003-2004;

The decadal trends in employment under reservation in the publicsector, to make a comparative analysis with the post-reform periodsince 1990 and also to note the policy implications of the emergingtrends;

To ascertain the levels of employment of different social groups inthe public sector in India;

To ascertain the proportional share in employment of the SCs, theSTs, and the Non SC/STs to the total employment in the public sector;

To delve into the Constitutional obligations of the Government withregards to the implementation of the reservation policy and toascertain whether the Government has fulfilled the stipulated quotasof reservation for different categories of jobs in the public sectoremployment or not.

To delineate the changes in the levels of employment of differentsocial groups from 1960 to 2003 in the Central Government services;from 1971 to 2004 in PSUs; from 1978 to 2004 in the public sectornationalised banks; and from 1993 to 2000 in public sector insurancecompanies;

To circumscribe the patterns of employment growth among the SCsand the STs under the reservation policy; and

To demarcate the emerging issues for the reservation policy in India.


6

1.4 Database and Methodology

For the methodological purposes of examining the relative employment statusamong the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs under the reservation policy inIndia, the working paper aligns with data from the Annual Reports of variousMinistries of Government of India for different time periods. It is importantto conceptually clarify at the outset that for the purposes of this workingpaper, the category ‘Non SC/STs’ was computed by a subtraction of the SCand ST population from the total population. Further, for the purposes of ananalytical understanding, the percentages (both, vertical and horizontal2) ofemployment of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs, their net percentagechange over decadal time periods; and their annual compound growth rateswere also computed utilizing the regression analysis. Also, the decadal averageof absolute numbers, the change in percentages (net change), and growthrates over the periods irrespective of the social groups were computed toenhance the abilities of the analysis.

This working paper undertakes an analysis four categories of employmentunder the public sector in India - firstly, the Central Government services;secondly, the PSUs; thirdly, the public sector nationalized banks; and finally,the public sector insurance companies. The analysis of each category isconcomitantly, accompanied by an analysis of the composition of totalemployment in the respective sector; and reservations by categories such asGroup A, Group B, Group C, and Group D within that sector or category.

Finally, in the concluding observations the paper summarizes the discussionsand makes relevant observations pertaining to the policy implications andalso underlines the emerging issues for the reservation policy per se.

1.5 A World of Contradictions

Social and political equality is imperative for realizing the democratic normsin any country, and is fundamental to the acceleration of economic equalityand dignity. After independence, the SCs and the STs, alike the others, acquiredequal rights under the Constitution of free India; despite that they weredenied the right to social equality among other rights, a situation, which hasmore or less maintained a status quo. Ambedkar in his address to theConstituent Assembly on the 26th of November 1950 observed:

“On 26th January 1950 we are entering into a world of contradictions. Inpolitics, we will have equality and in society inequality. In politics, we will be

7


recognising the principle of one man, one vote and one vote, one value. Onthe social plane, we have a society based on the principle of group inequality,which means the elevation for some and degradation for others. On theeconomic plane, we have a society in which there are some who have immensewealth as against many who live in abject poverty. In our social and economiclife, we shall, by reason of our social and economic structures continue todeny the principle of one man, one value. How long shall we continue to livethis life of contradictions? We must remove this contradiction at the earliestpossible moment or else those who suffer from inequality will blow up thestructure of political democracy which this Assembly has so laboriously builtup.”3

After independence, India committed itself to a socially just and an egalitariansocial order. The Constitution, promulgated in 1950, recognized the SCs andthe STs as two of the most marginalized social groups needing specialprotections. A number of provisions, therefore, were specifically incorporatedfor the two social groups with a view to abolish all forms of discrimination,untouchability, and social exclusion emanating from the caste system and toalleviate the peripheral position of these social groups.

1.6 Nature and Objectives of the Reservation Policy in India

Reservations alone are not enough to mainstream the SCs and the STs to thelevels of the other sections of the society. The system of reservations meantto uplift the weaker sections, has in fact, succeeded in the creation of creamylayers within the marginalized social groups to the extent that the percolationof the benefits have been marginal and differentially accessed. The visionof Ambedkar, Phule, Periyar, and Sahuji Maharaj, as initially envisioned underthe aegis of the reservation policy and reforms in the structure of governancewas to completely negate the deleterious impacts of caste-based discriminationand exclusion. The idea was to create fissures in the hegemonic hold of theimmutable status of the higher castes over public services. Therefore, thehistoricity of reservations included firstly, the amelioration in the relativeposition of the lower castes, and two, restructuring of the institutionalizedsocial relationships in the Indian society on democratic lines.

Thus, the Indian Government’s approach towards these social groups hasbeen primarily shaped by the provisions in the Constitution, which guaranteeequality before the law, and empowers the State to make special provisions


8

for the promotion of the educational, social, political and economic interestsof the SCs/STs, and to further, protect them from any form of discriminationand exclusion.

The Government has used a two-fold strategy for the empowerment of theSC/STs, which includes firstly, the provision of legal safeguards againstdiscrimination and secondly, pro-active measures in the form of the reservationpolicy for the public sector and state-supported sectors. Reservations forthe SC/STs in the Government services, educational institutions, and politicalbodies like the Central and the state legislatures also fall under pro-activemeasures. These measures have been incorporated to ensure the proportionalparticipation of the SC/STs in the public domain –democratic decision-makingbodies. It is equally important to understand that the reservation policy isconfined to the State-run and supported sectors. The private sector, wherein,more than 90 percent of the SC/ST workers are engaged is excluded andtherefore, remains outside the purview of the reservation policy and open topossible discrimination.

The policy of privatisation has further reduced the scope of employmentavailable in the public domain, since the public sector is in itself beingdisinvested. Though, such policy interventions have general outcomes forthe entire population; the populations among the marginalized social groupsremains the most affected. A significant fact is that according to the IndustrialAct, 1984, 18 sectors were reserved as public sector enterprises. Over theyears and under the garb of liberalization, many among these have beendisinvested and presently, only half a dozen remain in the public sector. Thishas obvious implications for the employment opportunities available to theDalits and the tribals4.

1.7 Constitutional Provisions

Specific provisions for the reservation in services, in favour of the membersof the SC/STs have been made in the Constitution of India. They are asfollows:

Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution enabled both the state and CentralGovernments to reserve seats in public services for the members of the SCand ST, thereby, enshrining equality of opportunity in matters of publicemployment.

9


Article 15(4) states that:

“Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any provisionfor the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward classor citizens, which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately representedin the services under the State.”

Article 16(4 A) states that:

“Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provisionsfor reservation in the matter of promotion to any class or classes of posts inthe services under the State in favour of SCs and STs which in the opinion ofthe State are not adequately represented under the State”(Constitutional77th Amendment, - Act, 1995).

Article 16 (4 B) states that:

“Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from considering any unfilledvacancies of a year which are reserved for being filled up in that year inaccordance with any provision for reservation made under clause (4) or clause(4A) as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year oryears and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with thevacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for determining theceiling of fifty percent reservation on total number of vacancies of thatyear” (Constitutional 81st Amendment, - Act, 2000).

Article 46 states that:

“The State shall promote with special care the educational and economicinterests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the SCand ST, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms ofexploitation.”

The Constitution prohibits discrimination (Article 15) of any citizen on groundsof religion, race, caste, etc.; untouchability (Article 17); and forced labour(Article 23). It provides for specific representation through reservation ofseats for the SCs and the STs in the Parliament (Article 330) and in the StateLegislative Assemblies (Article 332), as well as, in Government and publicsector jobs, in both the federal and state Governments (Articles 16(4), 330(4)and 335).


10

Table 1 C, Present Percentages of Reservation for the SCs,the STs, and the OBCs in Government Services

.oN.S tnemtnioppAfoedoMfoegatnecrePdexiF

rofnoitavreseR

CS TS CBO

)a(

nepoybsisabaidnIllananotnemtiurcertceriDcilbuPnoinUehthguorht,.e.i(noititepmocnettirwfosnaemybronoissimmoCecivreSnoitceleSecivreSybdlehtsetevititepmoc

)ytirohtuarehtoynaroeettimmoC

51 5.7 72

)b(

esiwrehtosisabaidnIllananotnemtiurcertceriDnoitceleSecivreSyb,.e.ievoba)a(nahttonybytirohtuarehtoynaroeettimmoC

tsetevititepmocnettirwagnitcudnoc

3/261 5.7 72

)c(puorG(stsopVIdnaIIIssalCottnemtiurcertceriDsetadidnactcarttayllamronhcihw,)stsopDdnaC

noigerroytilacolamorf

otnoitroporpni,yllareneGeht,sCSehtfonoitalupopehtehtnisCBOehtdna,sTS

sTU/setatSevitcepser

CS TS

)d(

nisecivresrospuorGninoitomorpybdellifstsoP,ynafi,tnemtiurcertceridfotnemeleehthcihw

tnecrep57deecxetonseod

evititepmoclatnemtrapeddetimilhguorhTDdna,C,B,AspuorGnisnoitanimaxe

rognurrewolehtotBpuorGmorfnoitceleSyBDdna,C,BspuorGroApuorGniyrogetac

nissentifottcejbusytiroinesfosisabehtnODdna,C,B,AspuorG

51

51

51

5.7

5.7

5.7

Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions,Government of India, New Delhi, 2002-2003, Chapter 5, Paragraph 5.2.

Reservations for the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs are available for all groupsof posts in the Central services, PSUs, public sector nationalized banks, andthe public sector insurance companies in the case of direct recruitment onan all India basis by open competition at 15, 7.5, and 27 percentage pointsfor the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs respectively. Further, in case recruitmentis not by open competition, the applicable/stipulated quotas for reservationstand at 16.66 percent for the SCs, 7.5 percent for the STs, and 25.84 percentfor the OBCs in that order.

Reservation for SCs, STs and OBCs is available in all groups of posts in caseof direct recruitment. While in case of direct recruitment on all India bases

11


by open competition, reservation for SCs, STs and OBCs is respectively 15percent, 7.5 percent and 27 percent, otherwise than by open competition itis 16.66 percent, 7.5 percent and 25.84 percent respectively (Annual ReportDOPT 2005). In case of direct recruitment to Groups C and D posts normallyattracting candidates from a locality or a region, percentage of reservationfor SCs/STs is generally fixed in proportion to the population of SCs and STsin the respective States/UTs and reservation for OBCs in such cases hasbeen so fixed that it is not more than 27 percent and total reservation doesnot exceed the limit of 50 percent.

There are also reservations in the promotions of the employed persons fromthe marginalized social groups. The Government services generally includeGovernment civil services, PSUs, statutory and semi-Government bodies,and voluntary agencies etc. which are under the control of the Governmentor receive grants-in-aid. At the Central level, some of the services areexcluded from the purview of the reservation policy and these prominentlyinclude the defence services and the judiciary.5

Also, in case of direct recruitment to Group ‘C’ and Group ‘D’ posts normallyattracting candidates from a locality or a region, the percentage ofreservations for the SC/STs are generally fixed in proportion to theirpopulation in the respective States/UTs and reservation for OBCs in suchcases has been so fixed that it is not more than 27 percent. In any case, thetotal reservation stipulated should not exceed 50 percent.

The main objective of providing reservations for the SCs and the STs inGovernment services was, not only, to provide employment to some personsbelonging to the marginalized communities, and thereby, increase theirrepresentation in the services, but also, to improve their relative status incritical human development indicators.

1.8 Impact of Reservation

This section examines the impact of the reservation policy on employmentin India, with reference to the reserved categories. The analysis sufficientlyestablishes that there has been a remarkable increase in the numbers of SC/ST Government employees over the years. In 1960, the absolute numbers ofthe SC Government employees stood at 228 thousand, which increased to590 thousands in 1990, and further to 540 thousand in 2003. The percentageshare of the SC employees to the total Government employees was 12.24


12

percent in 1960, which increased to about 17 percent in 2003; fairly close totheir percentage share in the population. In the case of the STs, their absolutenumbers increased from 37 thousand in 1960 to 211 thousand in 2003 with acorresponding increase in their percentage share from 2 percent in 1960 to6.46 percent in 2003.

Similarly, the absolute numbers of the SC employees in the PSUs increasedfrom 40 thousand in 1971 to 236 thousand in 2004 and from 12 thousand to114 thousand for the STs. The absolute numbers of the SC employees innationalised banks increased from 55 thousand in 1978 (10 percent) to 143thousand in 2004 (17.6 percent) and from 8 thousand (1.56 percent) to 43thousand (5.72 percent) for the STs. The data mentioned above does notinclude Government spheres like education and it is hoped that with theinclusion of these sectors, the absolute numbers of SC/ST employees underreservation will further increase.

Though, the data clearly elucidates a marked improvement in the absolutenumbers of the SCs and the SCs in Government employment, however, thereare considerable variations among different Groups of jobs. Generally,reservations are close to the stipulated quotas in Group C and Group D jobs,but were less in the case of Group A and Group B categories of jobs.

Employment gained through reservations tends to be clustered in certainservices, departments and Groups of jobs. For instance in 2003, almostninety five percent of the SC/STs were coalesced in Group C and Group Djobs. Interestingly, in the case of Group C and Group D jobs, the percentageshare of both, the SCs and the STs stood at 16 and 7.5 percentage pointsrespectively, which was close to the stipulated quota. Conversely, thepercentage shares of the SC/STs were much below the stipulated quotas inGroup A and Groups B categories. It seems that the implementation of thereservation policy is resisted in various ways; delays in making provisions,in filling up the posts, and in litigations. Though, the low percentage shareof the marginalized social groups in higher categories of employment suggeststhat forms of resistance are higher in the higher echelons of jobs, but thenagain, the forms and manifestations of resistance remain outside the purviewof this working paper.

Over a period of time, the Department of Personnel, Government of Indiahas developed procedural safeguards to overcome these problems. It needs

13


to be mentioned that though, rules regarding reservations are in place, butthe problem lies their implementation. It has been well documented thatthere is selective resistance in various forms by the bureaucracy to theimplementation of the reservation policy. There have been recorded instancesof the SC/STs being discriminated and denied rights through the non-implementation of reservations. Perhaps, what remain even more importantare the unrecorded incidences of the forms of coercion and oppression.6

For the effective implementation of the reservation policy, the Governmenthas developed certain procedural safeguards, which include, the maintenanceof a model roster for giving effect to reservations in posts (i.e., identifyingvacancies as reserved or unreserved), holding separate interviews for theSC/ST candidates, appointing Liaisoning Officers to oversee theimplementation of the reservation policy in each office, appointing therepresentatives of the SC/ST on selection boards, banning de-reservationof reserved posts, and banning the full exchange of posts with the generalcategory candidates if candidates belonging to the SC/ST categories are notavailable.

One of the prominent limitations of the present reservation policy remainsthe absence of a Reservation Act and a provision of checks against thosewho wilfully avoid the implementation of the reservation policy. Recently, theGovernment has given impetus to implement the reservation policy byincorporating several provisions for action against those who are wilfullyfound to derail the implementation of the reservation policy.

Notably, since the inception of the NEP, there has been a steady decline inthe already shrinking public sector. Further, a sizable numbers of the SC/STsare employed in the private industrial, educational, and the service sectorswithout any procedural safeguards. Therefore, the private sector remainsopen to possible discrimination and exclusion of the marginalized socialgroups7. It is not without any reason that the demand for reservations in theprivate sector has reverberated in the Indian civil society. So much so, thedemand for reservations in the private sector also found place in the CommonMinimum Programme of the present United Progressive Alliance (UPA)Government. Presently, the UPA Government has set up a committeecomprising of a Group of Ministers (GoM) to look into the possibility ofextending the purview of the reservation policy to the private sector in India8.


14

2. Reservations in Central Government Services - 1960-2003

2.1 Composition of Total Employment

The Percentage Share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - 1960-2003

In 2003, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs to the total employmentin Government jobs was 16.5 and 7.5 percentage points respectively. On thecontrary, the percentage share of the Non SC/STs stood at a whopping 77percent (See the Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances andPensions, Government of India, New Delhi, 2005).

The percentage share of the SCs in Government jobs declined from 12.24percent in 1960 to 11.66 percent in 1970, whereas, the and the share of theSTs increased marginally from 2.02 percent in 1960 to 2.41 percent in 1970.Further, in 1980, the percentage share of the SCs increased to 15.67 and3.99 percent for the STs. In 1990, the share of the SCs further saw an increaseto 16.97 and to 5.33 percent for the STs. Thereafter, in 2000 it declined to16.05 percent for the SCs, but conversely, increased to 6.23 percent for theSTs. In the case of the Non SC/STs, the percentage share in employment wasalmost constant in 1960 and 1970 at about 85.9 percentage points. Thedecades after the 70s saw a steady decline in the percentage share of theNon SC/STs to 80.34 percent in 1980 to 77.7 percent in 1990. In 2000 and2003, the percentage share remained almost constant (See Table 1 D).

Table 1 D, Numbers and Percentage Share in Central GovernmentEmployment, Decadal Point to Point

SC ST Non SC/ST

As on Jan 1 Numbers Percentage Numbers Percentage Numbers Percentage

1960 228497 12.24 37704 2.02 1600528 85.74

1969 359943 15.24 70313 2.98 1932020 81.79

1970 291374 11.66 60325 2.41 2147584 85.93

1979 467712 15.12 120449 3.89 2504968 80.99

1980 490592 15.67 125004 3.99 2516129 80.34

1989 568600 16.41 174101 5.03 2721420 78.56

1990 590108 16.97 185245 5.33 2701700 77.70

1999 591839 16.70 218653 6.17 2733770 77.13

2000 582446 16.05 225917 6.23 2819519 77.72

2003 540220 16.52 211345 6.46 2517780 77.01

Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions,Government of India, New Delhi, 1985-1986, 1989-1990, and 2004-2005.

15


Employment Change - 1960-2003

In 1960, the absolute numbers of the SCs employed in the Governmentservices stood at 228497, which increased to 540220 in 2003; the increase,was incidentally, more than double. Similarly, for the STs, the absolute numbersstood at 37704 in 1960, which increased to 211345 in 2003. The absolutenumbers for the Non SC/STs in 1960 were 1600528, which increased to2517780 in 2003 (See Table 1 D).

It is pertinent here to note that the absolute net change between the timeperiods 1960 to 2003 stood at 311723 for the SCs, 173641 for the STs, and917252 for the Non SC/STs. In the period spanning almost 44 years, thegrowth in the representation in the Government services stood at 136.42percent for the SCs, 460.54 percent for the STs, and 57.31 percent for theNon SC/STs. Also, the decadal employment change (net change) in the 1960sstood at 131446, 32609, and 331492 for the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs respectively. The figures for the decadal employment change declined inthe ensuing decades, i.e., the 1980s and the 1990s. The figures for decadalemployment change in the 1980s stood at 78008 for the SCs, 49097 for theSTs, and 205291 for the Non SC/STs. Similarly, the figures for the 1990sstood at 1731, 33408, and 32070 for the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs.Importantly, the net change between 2000 and 2003 was found to be negativefor the SCs (-42223), the STs (-14572), and the Non SC/STs (-301739).

In 1960s, the percentage change of employment in the Government jobsstood at 57.53 percent for the SCs and 86.49 percent for the STs. In the1990s, however, it drastically declined to 0.29 percent for the SCs and 18.03percent for STs, and finally, in 2000-2003 became negative for the SCs (-7.2percent) and the STs (-6 percent). As a corollary, the percentage share forthe Non SC/STs stood at 20.71 percent in the 1960s, 1.19 percent in 1990s,and -10.7 percent in 2000-2003.

Decadal Employment Growth - 1960-2003

The decadal average of the SC and the ST employees increased from 296166and 49710 in the 1960s to 398286 and 86600 in the 1970s. The numbersfurther increased to 535323 and 152957 in 1980s and to 602486 and 197641for the SCs and the STs in 1990s respectively (See Table 1 E). The percentagechange between the average decades of 1960-1970 and 1970-1980 for theSCs was found to be constant, but it drastically declined from 34.4 percent


16

to 12.5 percent in the decade of 1980-1990. However, in the case of the STs,the average decadal employment change increased from 74.21 percent in1960-1970 to 76.62 percent in 1970-1980, but declined to 29.21 percent in1980-1990.

Table 1 E, Central Government Employment (Decadal Average)

Years SC ST Non SC/ST

1960s 296166 49710 1884395

1970s 398286 86600 2385697

1980s 535323 152957 2660717

1990s 602486 197641 2728336

2000s* 577142 220266 2704596

* Based on three years, 2000-2003.

Source: Computed from Table 1 D, Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievancesand Pensions, Government of India, New Delhi, 1985-1986, 1989-1990, and 2004-2005.

For the Non SC/STs, the change in decadal employment stood at 26.60 percentin the 1960-1970, whereby it declined to 11.53 percent in 1970-1980, andfurther to 2.54 percent in 1980-1990. Therefore, as the analysis suggests,there was a vertical deceleration, both for the SCs and the Non SC/STs inGovernment services from the 1960s to the 1990s, while the decadalemployment for the STs accelerated during the 1980s, but subsequently,decelerated during the 1990s.

The decadal annual growth during the three years i.e., 2000-2003 indicatesthat the employment for the SCs and the STs stood at -2.85 and-3.31percentage points respectively, where as, for the Non SC/STs the figuresstood at -4.3 percent. The decadal annual growth rate figures of the SCs andthe STs in Government services were 4.82 and 5.14 percentage points in the1960s and 4.36 and 7.38 percentage points in the 1970s. Thereupon, in the1980s, they declined to 1.54 percent for the SCs and 3.24 percent for theSTs, and further in the 1990s, the growth rate became negative for the SCs(-0.65 percent) and 1.83 percent for the STs. This decline in the growthrates was accentuated primarily by the shrinking of the public sector in Indiaas a consequence of the NEP. The growth rates for the Non SC/STs, on theother hand, were 2.65 percent in the 1960s, whereby, they declined to 1.53

17


percent in 1970s and further to 0.57 percent in 1980s. In the 1990s, thegrowth rates for the Non SC/STs were negative at -0.75 percent.

As mentioned earlier, the incorporation of the liberalization regime in 1992does seem to have obvious impacts on the employment patterns of the CentralGovernment employees. There is sufficient evidence to show that after theinitiation of the NEP, the public sector employment in India reduced for allthe social groups. Interestingly, the rate of decline was more prominent forthe SCs and the STs than the Non SC/STs.

Figure 1 A, Annual Growth of the Social Groups inCentral Government Jobs, 1960-2000

-6.00

-4.00

-2.000.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-03

Years

Empl

oym

ent

SCSTNon-SC/ST

The trends of employment by social groups in the Central Government aredelineated in Figure 1 B.

Figure 1 B, Trends of Central Government Employmentby Social Groups, 1960-2003

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

1960 1969 1970 1979 1980 1989 1990 1999 2000 2003

Years

Num

bers

ofE

mpl

oym

ents

SCSTNon-Sc/ST

Figure 1 B indicates that at an overall level and during the time periods1960-2003, the annual growth rate of employment in Government jobsincreased at the rate of 2.18 percent for the SCs, 4.48 percent for the STs,and 1.05 percent for the Non SC/STs in that order.


18

2.2 Employment Composition in Central Government Services byCategories of Jobs- 1960-2003

Percentage Share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - 2003

Table 1 F shows the representation of the SCs and the STs in various categoriesof Government jobs. In 2003, the representation of the SCs in Group A,Group B, Group C, and Group D categories of jobs was 11.9, 14.32, 16.29,and 17.98 percentage points respectively. The corresponding figures for the

Table 1 F, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the TotalEmployees in Government Jobs by Categories (Excluding Sweepers)

Group A Group B Group C Group D Years

SC ST Non

SC/ST TOTAL SC ST Non



SC/ST TOTAL

1965 1.64 0.27 97.59 100 2.82 0.34 96.56 100 8.88 1.14 89.71 100 17.75 3.50 78.82 100

1968 2.11 0.59 97.30 100 3.11 0.41 96.48 100 9.22 0.13 90.65 100 18.32 3.61 78.08 100

1971 2.58 0.41 97.01 100 4.06 0.43 95.51 100 9.59 1.67 88.74 100 18.37 3.65 77.98 100

1972 2.99 0.50 96.52 100 4.13 0.44 95.43 100 9.77 1.72 88.52 100 18.61 3.82 77.57 100

1973 3.14 0.50 96.36 100 4.51 0.49 95.00 100 10.05 1.95 87.99 100 18.37 3.92 77.70 100

1974 3.25 0.57 96.18 100 4.59 0.49 94.92 100 10.33 2.13 87.54 100 18.53 3.84 77.64 100

1975 3.43 0.62 95.95 100 4.98 0.59 94.43 100 10.71 2.27 87.02 100 18.64 3.99 77.37 100

1981 5.46 1.12 93.42 100 8.42 1.31 90.28 100 12.95 3.16 83.90 100 19.35 5.07 75.57 100

1982 5.49 1.17 93.34 100 9.02 1.43 89.55 100 13.39 3.47 83.14 100 23.41 7.45 69.14 100

1984 6.92 1.70 91.38 100 10.36 1.77 87.87 100 13.98 3.79 82.23 100 20.20 6.04 73.77 100

1985 7.65 1.73 90.62 100 10.04 1.58 88.39 100 14.88 4.20 80.92 100 20.81 5.70 73.49 100

1987 8.23 2.05 89.72 100 10.41 1.92 87.67 100 14.45 4.23 81.32 100 20.04 5.84 74.12 100

1988 8.67 2.30 89.04 100 11.18 2.10 86.72 100 14.80 4.48 80.72 100 19.88 6.10 74.02 100

1989 8.51 2.24 89.25 100 11.65 2.00 86.35 100 14.85 4.52 80.63 100 20.41 6.46 73.13 100

1990 8.64 2.58 88.78 100 11.29 2.39 86.32 100 15.19 4.83 79.98 100 21.48 6.73 71.79 100

1991 9.09 2.53 88.37 100 11.82 2.35 85.83 100 15.65 4.98 79.36 100 21.24 6.82 71.94 100

1992 9.67 2.92 87.40 100 11.57 2.38 86.05 100 15.74 3.16 81.10 100 20.88 6.75 72.37 100

1993 9.80 3.06 87.13 100 12.17 2.35 85.48 100 15.91 5.43 78.66 100 20.73 6.87 72.39 100

1994 10.24 2.93 86.83 100 12.06 2.81 85.13 100 15.74 5.38 78.88 100 20.47 6.15 73.38 100

1995 10.15 2.89 86.96 100 12.67 2.68 84.65 100 16.15 5.69 78.16 100 20.53 6.48 72.99 100

1996 11.51 3.57 84.93 100 12.30 2.81 84.89 100 15.45 5.65 78.90 100 20.27 6.07 73.67 100

1997 10.74 3.23 86.03 100 12.90 3.04 84.05 100 16.20 6.16 77.65 100 24.06 6.73 69.21 100

1998 10.80 3.44 85.76 100 12.35 3.02 84.63 100 16.32 6.01 77.67 100 18.65 6.95 74.40 100

1999 11.29 3.39 85.32 100 12.68 3.35 83.98 100 15.78 6.07 78.15 100 20.00 7.00 73.00 100

2000 10.97 3.48 85.55 100 12.54 3.09 84.37 100 15.88 6.33 77.79 100 17.38 6.66 75.95 100

2001 11.42 3.58 85.00 100 12.82 3.70 83.48 100 16.25 6.46 77.29 100 17.89 6.81 75.30 100

2002 11.09 3.97 84.94 100 14.08 4.18 81.74 100 16.12 5.93 77.94 100 20.07 7.13 72.80 100

2003 11.93 4.18 83.88 100 14.32 4.32 81.36 100 16.29 6.54 77.17 100 17.98 6.96 75.06 100

Source: Computed from the data provided in the Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel,

Public Grievances and Pensions, Government of India, New Delhi, 1985-1986,1989-1990, and 2004-2005.

19


STs stood at 4.18 percent for Group A, 4.32 percent for Groups B, 6.54 percentin Groups C, and 6.96 percent in Group D jobs. The representation for theNon SC/STs the highest in Group A jobs (83.88 percent), followed by Group B(81.36 percent). Interestingly, their share in both, Group C and Group D jobswas lower at 77.14 and 75.06 percentage points.

Evidently, the representation of the SCs and the ST employees in the Governmentjobs despite reservations fell much below the stipulated quotas especially inGroup A and Group B categories of jobs.

Table 1 G, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and theNon SC/ST Employment in Central Government Jobs to their

respective Totals by CategoriesAs on Jan 1 A B C D

SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1960 0.1 0.07 - 0.2 0.42 - 29.4 21.98 - 70.3 77.53 -

1965 0.1 0.1 0.99 0.3 0.2 1.56 32.2 24.3 51.08 67.4 75.4 46.37

1969 0.2 0.14 - 0.4 0.22 - 38.8 38.13 - 60.6 61.50 -

1970 0.1 0.17 - 0.6 0.31 - 41.9 37.48 - 57.5 62.05 -

1971 0.2 0.17 1.23 0.5 0.28 1.86 37.8 34.92 55.54 61.5 64.62 41.38

1979 0.5 0.36 - 0.9 0.48 - 46.1 44.38 - 52.5 54.77 -

1980 0.5 0.40 - 1.0 0.61 - 48.0 44.27 - 50.5 54.72 -

1981 0.6 0.48 1.89 1.1 0.67 2.17 49.6 48.03 60.23 48.8 50.82 35.71

1989 0.9 0.79 2.01 1.8 0.99 2.73 58.1 57.68 65.90 39.2 40.54 29.36

1990 0.9 0.86 2.03 1.8 1.20 2.97 57.1 57.82 65.63 40.2 40.12 29.37

1999 1.8 1.44 2.92 2.2 1.89 3.22 63.9 66.37 68.51 32.1 30.30 25.35

2000 1.8 1.45 2.84 3.0 1.61 4.14 64.6 66.54 65.34 30.7 30.41 27.69

2003 1.9 1.70 2.86 4.8 3.72 5.88 64.0 65.62 65.03 29.3 28.96 26.23

Source: Computed from the data provided in the Annual Report, Ministry of

Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Government of India, NewDelhi, 1985-1986, 1989-1990, and 2004-2005.

The distribution of jobs within the SCs shows that out of every 100 jobs only1.9 percent were employed in Group A, 4.8 percent in Group B, 64 percent inGroup C and 29.3 percent in Group D jobs. The representation of the STs was1.7 percent in Group A, 3.72 percent in Group B, 65.62 percent in Group Cand 28.96 percent in Group D jobs. Correspondingly, the percentagedistribution of the Non SC/STs stood at 2.86 percent in Group A, 5.88 percentin Group B, 65.03 percent in Group C and 26.23 percent in Group D jobsrespectively.


20


During 2000-2003, the decadal average numbers of the SC and the STemployees in Group A stood at 10862 and 3630 respectively. Similarly, inGroup B, the decadal average numbers of employees were 22496 and 6450for the SCs and the STs respectively. In Group C and Group D categories, thedecadal average numbers of the SC employees were 367061 and 176724,while for the STs, the numbers stood at 143794 for Group C jobs and 66393for Group D jobs. Similarly, the decadal average numbers of the Non SC/STemployees in Group A, B, C, and D categories were 81277, 137382, 1764172,and 721765 respectively (See Table 1 H).

Table 1 H, Government Employment - Decadal Average of the SCs, theSTs, and the Non SC/STs by Categories

Years A B C D

SC ST NonSC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST NonSC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1960-1969

349 73 - 939 117 - 97303 12088 - 197576 37432 -

1970-1979

1213 229 - 2670 329 - 169362 36146 - 225041 49895-

1980-1989

3939 936 - 7110 1191 - 284153 79013 - 240121 71817-

1971-1975

975 165 30333 2170 239 46034 153441 29731 1334803 225798 46910 947519

1981-1989

4112 153 51355 7338 191 63703 289553 11158 1661702 239290 7843 852652

1990-1999

6953 2086 58749 12988 2907 90475 365482 123240 1822808 217063 69409 756304

2000-2003*

10862 3630 81277 22496 6450 137382 367061 143794 1764172 176724 66393 721765

* Based on three years (2000-2003)

Source: Computed from the data provided in the Annual Report, Ministry ofPersonnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Government of India, New Delhi,1985-1986, 1989-1990, and 2004-2005.

However, the annual growth rates of employment under reservations during2000-2003 for SCs and STs were -0.85 and 3.54 in Group A; 15.98 and 23.64in Group B; -3.95 and -4.51 in Group C; and -2.92 and -3.30 in Group Dcategories respectively. Similar figures for the Non SC/STs stood at -3.61, 9,-4.76, and -5.65 percentage points for Group A, B, C, and D categoriesrespectively.

21


2.3 Group A

Percentage Share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - Vertical andHorizontal, 1965-2000

In 1965, only 1.64 percent and 0.27 percent of the SCs and the STs were inGroup A jobs. Their percentage share in Group A jobs increased to 2.58percent and 0.50 percent respectively in 1971 and further to 5.46 percentand 1.12 percent in 1981. In 1990, the percentage share of the SCs and theSTs increased to 8.64 and 2.5 percentage points respectively. In 2000, thepercentage share of the SCs stood at 10.97 percent, while that for the STsstood at 3.48 percent. The figures clearly establish that the share of the SCsand the STs was much below the stipulated quota. On the other hand, in1965, 97.59 percent of the Non SC/STs were employed in Group A jobs. Theirrepresentation in Group A jobs declined to 97.01 percent in 1971, 93.42percent in 1981, 88.78 percent in 1990, and finally, to 85.55 percent in 2000.

Employment Change -1960-2003

The decadal employment change increased from 235.03 percent for the SCsand 284.62 percent for STs during 1960-1969 to 271.67 percent for the SCsand 335 percent for the STs during 1970-1979. However, the rate of changedecreased from 119.12 percent for the SCs and 171.34 percent for the STs in1980-1989 to 98.05 percent for the SCs and 99.12 percent for the STs during1990-1999 respectively. On the other hand, the decadal employment changefor the Non SC/STs decreased from 77.20 percent during 1971-1981 to 10.75percent in 1981-1989. Thereupon, it increased during 1990-1999, with therate of increase being 45.70 percent. During 2000-2003, both the SCs andthe Non SC/STs registered a negative growth of -0.02 and -9.86 percentagepoints correspondingly, while the STs registered a positive change of 10.52percent. At overall levels, during 2000-2003, the decadal employment changedeclined to –2, 342, and –7887 percentage points for the SCs, the STs, andthe Non SC/STs respectively.


The five years annual average numbers of the SC and the ST employees in1971-1975 were 975 and 165, which increased to 4112 and 153 during 1981-1989, and further to 6953 and 2086 during 1990-1989 respectively. The annualemployment growth rate, on the other hand, was only 12.74 percent for SCsand 16.56 percent for STs during 1971-1975, which declined to 7.92 percent


22

for the SCs and 11.52 percent for the STs in 1981-1989. It further declined to6.10 percent for the SCs and 6.70 percent for the STs in 1990s. The averageemployment for the Non SC/STs in Government services during 1971-1975was 30333, which increased to 51355 during 1981-1989 and further to 58749during the 1990s (See Table 1 H). The decadal annual growth rate of the NonSC/STs during 1971-1975 was 5.40 percent. It declined to 0.01 percent during1981-1989, but thereupon increased to 2.73 percent during 1990-1999 (SeeFigure 1 C).

Table 1 I, Government Employment of the SCs, the STs, and the NonSC/STs - Decadal Point to Point by Categories

Group A Group B Group C Group D (Excluding Sweepers)

As on Jan 1

SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1960 177 26 - 569 157 - 67205 8289 - 160546 29232 -

1965 318 52 18912 864 103 29567 96114 12390 970905 201073 38444 881330

1969 593 100 - 1513 156 - 139803 26811 - 218034 43246 -

1970 593 100 - 1513 187 - 139803 22608 - 218034 37430 -

1971 741 117 27821 1794 192 42218 136259 23732 1260631 221248 43916 939279

1979 2204 435 - 4150 579 - 215762 53460 - 245596 65975 -

1980 2375 506 - 5055 763 - 235555 55334 - 247607 68401 -

1981 2883 590 49300 5298 824 56833 243028 59228 1574528 238985 62672 933359

1989 5204 1373 54599 10021 1720 74277 330330 100425 1793457 223045 70583 799087

1990 5331 1593 54762 10497 2222 80249 336880 107103 1773251 237400 74327 793438

1999 10558 3172 79790 13306 3512 88145 378115 145482 1872829 189860 66487 693006

2000 10258 3251 79976 17332 4267 116615 376189 149950 1842333 178667 68449 780595

2003 10256 3593 72089 26040 7863 148002 345718 138685 1637294 158206 61204 660395

Source: Annual Report of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances andPensions, Government of India, New Delhi, 1985-1986, 1989-1990, and2004-2005.

2.4 Group B

Percentage Share of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/STs - Vertical andHorizontal, 1965-2000

In 1965, the representation of the SCs and the STs in Group B category jobswas a miniscule 2.82 and 0.34 percentage points. In 1971, however, therewas a marginal improvement in their representation with their percentageshare increasing to 4.06 percent for the SCs and 0.43 percent for the STs. In1981, the percentage share increased to 8.42 percent for SCs and 1.31 percentfor STs in 1981. In 1990, it further increased to 11.29 percent for the SCs

23


and 2.39 percent for the STs and to 12.54 percent for the SCs and 3.09percent for the STs in 2000. Though, the percentage share of the SCs andthe STs has been increasing over the decades, but the rate of increase wasmore or less marginal and much below the stipulated quotas of representation.On the other hand, the percentage share of the Non SC/STs in Group B jobswas as high as 96.56 percent in 1965. In 1971, their share declined to 95.51percent and further to 90.28, 86.32, and 84.37 percentage points in 1981,1990, and 2000 respectively.


Table 1 I delineates the decadal employment of the SCs, the STs, and the NonSC/STs in Group B category. The decadal employment change increased from944 (165.91 percent) and -1 (-0.64 percent) during the 1960s for the SCs andthe STs to 2637 (174.29 percent) and 392 (209.63 percent) for SCs and STsrespectively in the 1970s. The data for the Non SC/STs for these time periodswas not available. Further, in the 1980s, the numbers of people employedchanged at an increasing rate to 98.24 percent for the SCs and 125.43 percentfor the STs. However, in the 1990s, the numbers employed increased to 58.06percent for STs, but registered a decline of 26.76 percent for the SCs. On theother hand, the numbers of employed for the Non SC/STs increased from34.62 percent during 1971-1981 to 30.69 percent during 1981-1989. But in1990s, the numbers of employed declined by 9.84 percentage points for theNon SC/STs. During 2000-2003, the figures for employment change stood at50.24 percent for the SCs, 84.27 percent for the STs, and 26.92 percent forthe Non SC/STs in that order.


During 1971-1975, the average numbers of employed for the SCs and the STswere 2170 and 239 respectively. In 1981-1989, they increased to 7338 forthe SCs, but declined to 191 for the STs. However, in 1990-1999, they furtherincreased to 12988 for the SCs and 2907 for the STs. Conversely, the average5 years employment during 1971-1975 for the Non SC/STs stood at 46034; itfurther increased to 63703 during 1981-1989 and to 90475 during 1990-1999(See Table 1 H). During 2003, the average total employment stood at 22496for the SCs and 6450 for the STs, whereas, the figure for the Non SC/STsstood at 137382 respectively. The percentage change for the SCs and the STsin Group B categories between the periods 1960s-1970s and 1970s-1980swas more than 100 percent. But, during the period 1980s-1990s, the change


24

was 82.67 percent for the SCs and more than 100 percent for the STs. As faras the Non SC/STs were concerned; the absence of data prevented any similaranalysis from being undertaken. The decadal annual growth of employmentin Group B category during 1971-1975 was 11.35 percent for the SCs and13.98 percent for the STs, but it declined to 7.34 percent for the SCs and9.87 percent for the STs during 1981-1989. During 1990-1999, the decadalannual growth further declined to 3.16 percent for the SCs and 6.02 percentfor the STs. While for Non SC/STs, the annual growth rate declined from 5.47percent during 1971-1975 to 0.04 percent during 1981-1989 and increasedto 1.63 percent during 1990-1999. Moreover, during 2000-2003, the annualgrowth of employment stood at 6.29 percent for the SCs, 23.64 percent forthe STs, and 9 percent for the Non SC/STs respectively.

Figure 1C, Annual growth of Employment in Grade A

Figure 1D, Annual growth of Employment in Grade B

0

5

10

15

20

25

1971/75 1981/89 1990/99 2000/03*

Years

Gro

wth

Rate

SC ST Non-SC/ST

YearsYears-5

0

5

10

15

20

1971/75 1981/89 1990/99 2000/03*

SC ST Non-SC/ST

Gro

wth

rate

Years

25


Figure 1E, Annual growth of Employment in Grade C

Years

Figure 1F, Annual growth of Employment in Grade D

2.5 Group C

Percent Share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - Vertical andHorizontal, 1965-2000

In Group C and D categories of jobs, the stipulated quotas of reservationsfor the SCs and the STs are 16.69 and 7.55 percent respectively. In 1965,about 8.88 percent of the SC and 1.14 percent of the ST employees wereemployed in Group C jobs. In 1971, the percentage share increased to 9.59percent for the SCs and 1.67 percent for the STs. The figures for the percentageshare saw an increasing trend in 1981, 1990, and 2000. In 1981, thepercentage share of the SCs stood at 12.95 percent and 3.16 percent for theSTs; in 1991, the figures were 15.19 percent for the SCs and 4.83 percent forthe STs, while in 2000, they were 15.88 percent for the SCs and 6.33 percentfor the STs respectively. On the other hand, in 1965, the percentage share of


26

the Non SC/STs was 89.71 percent, which increased to 88.74 percent in 1971.Thereupon, the figures saw an decreasing trend from 83.90 percent in 1981to 79.98 percent in 1990 and further to 77.79 percent in 2000 (See Table 1F). It is thus, apparent that the percentage share of both, the SCs and theSTs in Group C category was much below the stipulated quotas for employmentunder reservations.


The figures for the decadal employment point to point for the SCs, the STs,

and the Non SC/STs are delineated in Table 1 I. The analysis indicates that

the decadal numbers of employment change during 1960-1969 increased from

72598 for the SCs (108.02 percent) and 18522 for STs (223.45 percent) to

75959 for the SCs (54.33 percent) and 30852 for the STs (136.46 percent).

During 1970-1979, the numbers for employment change stood at 94775 (40.23

percent) for the SCs and 45091 (81.49 percent) for the STs. However, during

1980-1989, they declined to 41235 (12.24 percent) for the SCs and 38379

(35.83 percent) for the STs. During 2000-2003, the employment change for

the SCs and the STs stood at -30471 (-8.1 percent) and -11265 (7.51 percent)

respectively. For the Non SC/STs, on the other hand, the numbers of

employment change stood at 99578 (5.62 percent) during 1990-1999 and

registered a negative growth of -205039 (-11.13 percent) during 2000-2003.


During 1971-1975, the average five years employment for the SCs and the

STs was 153441 and 29731. In 1981-1989, the figures increased to 289553

for the SCs and 11158 for the STs and further to 365482 for the SCs and

123240 for the STs during 1990-1999 (See Table 1 H). For the Non SC/STs,

the average numbers of employed during 1971-1975 were 1334803, which

increased to 1661702 during 1981-1989, and further to 1822808 during 1990-

1999. The decadal percentage change of the SCs during 1960s-1970s, 1970s-

1980s, and 1980s-1990s declined from 74.06, to 67.78, and further to 28.62

percentage points respectively. Similarly, the decadal change for the STs was

more than hundred percent in the above-mentioned periods, except during

1980s-1990s, wherein, the change recorded was 55.97 percent. The lack of

data again limits the analysis for Non SC/STs in Group C jobs.

27


In 1971-1975, the annual growth rate of employment in Group C was 6.27percent for the SCs and 12.30 percent for the STs. During 1981-1989, itdeclined to 3.58 percent for the SCs and 6.30 percent for the STs and furtherto 0.34 percent for the SCs and 4.16 percent for the STs during 1990-1999(See Figure 1 E). The annual growth rate for the Non SC/STs declined from2.86 percent in 1971-1975 to 0.02 percent in 1981-1989 and further to -0.44in the 1990s. During 2000-2003, the annual growth rate for the SCs, the STs,and the Non SC/Sts stood at -3.95, -4.51, and -4.76 percentage pointsrespectively. But in the overall period, i.e., 1988-2003, the growth rate forthe SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs stood at 0.61, 3.07, and -0.22percentage points in that order.

2.6 Group D


In Group D category of jobs, the percentage share of the SCs was muchabove the stipulated quota of 16.6 percent. A similar inference, however,does not hold true for the STs, the percentage share of whom fell below thestipulated quota of 7.5 percent. In 1965, 17.75 percent of the SCs and 3.5percent of the ST employees were employed in Group D jobs. In 1971, thepercentage share of the SCs and the STs increased to 18.37 and 3.65percentage points respectively. The percentage share for the SCs and theSTs increased to 21.48 percent and 6.73 percent in 1990, but thereupon,decreased to 17.38 and 6.66 percentage points for the SCs and the STs in2000. The percentage share of the Non SC/STs stood at 78.82 percent in1965, which declined to 77.98 percent in 1971 and marginally to 77.79 percentin 1990. In 2000, the percentage share of the NON SC/STs was the lowest at75.95 percent (See Table 1 F).


In 1971-1975, the absolute decadal average numbers of employment for theSCs and the STs in Group D jobs were 225798 and 46910. During 1981-1989,they increased to 239290 for the SCs, but declined to 7843 for the STs. But,during the liberalization regime (1990-1999), the absolute decadal numbersdeclined for the SCs (217063) and conversely, increased for the STs (69409)(See Table 1 H). The percent change between average decades for the SCsdeclined from 13.9 percent during 1960s-1970s to 6.70 percent during 1970s-


28

1980s. But, during 1980s-1990s, the trend witnessed a negative growth of -9.6 percent. For the STs, the percent change between average decadesincreased from 33.30 percent during 1960s-1970s to 43.93 percent during1970s-1980s. It too registered a negative growth of -3.35 during 1980s-1990s.

However, during 1971-1975, the decadal annual growth (See Figure 1 F) forthe SCs and STs was 1.13 and 2.79 percentage points respectively. However,thereupon it declined to -4.46 percent for the SCs and -1.16 percent for theSTs in 1981-1989 and further to -2.73 percent for the SCsand -2.10 percent for the STs during the 1990s. In 2000-2003, too, it registereda negative growth of -2.24 percent for the SCs and -0.85 percent for the STs.The Non SC/STs too, registered a declining trend in the decadal annual growthfrom 0.73 during 1971-1975 to -0.01 during 1981-1989. During the 1990-1999, the growth rate for the Non SC/STs stood at -2.07 and became -5.65during 2000-2003. During the overall period of analysis, i.e., 1988-2003, thegrowth rate of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs stood at -2.24, -0.85,and -1.21 percentage points respectively.

Thus, it is implicit from the data that from the 1960s to the 1980s only 50among 100 SC employees were concentrated in Group D jobs and the otherfifty percent in Group C jobs. The share of the SCs in Group B and Group Acategories was negligible. However, starting from the 1980s, therepresentation of the SCs in Group C jobs has shown a remarkableimprovement with their share in 2003 being 64 percent to the total SCs.During the 1990s and 2003, the representation of the SCs in Group C jobshas steadily increased, but concomitantly, their share in Group D jobs hasindicated a decline from 1981 (48.8 percent) to 2003 (29.3 percent). Theshare of the SCs in Group A jobs was more or less constant during the 1960s.It increased slightly in the 1970s, the 1980s and in fact, increased by 1percentage points in 1992 and 1.9 percentage points in 2003. Interestingly,the maximum concentration of the SCs employees was in the Group D categoryof jobs, but in this category too, their representation declined drasticallyfrom 38.6 percent in 1992 to 29.9 percent in 2003.

Simply put, employment under reservations has been most potent in GroupD jobs followed by Group C jobs. The ill effects of ineffective implementationof the reservation policy in the public sector are the most visible in Group Aand Group B jobs – employment under both these categories was still below

29


the stipulated quota. The 2003 data clearly accentuates the percentage shareof the SCs and the STs in public sector employment in all categories of jobs.Accordingly, the percentage share can be ranked in an ascending order GroupC, Group D, Group B, and Group A respectively.

3. Representation in Public Sector Enterprises- 1971-2004


Percentage Share of the SCs, the STs and the Non SC/STs - 1971-2004

For the purposes of planning and national accounting, the public sector inIndia is inclusive of all activities funded out of the Government’s budget. Inthis sense, the size of the public sector is indeed, large. It includes not only,the Government departments, but also, Government companies whether inthe Central or the state sector; irrigation and power projects; railways; postsand telegraphs; ordinance factories; and other departmental undertakings.In the ensuing section, an attempt has been made to delineate the employmentpatterns of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs in the PSUs.

In the PSUs, the applicable quotas of reservation stand at 15 percent for theSCs and 7.5 percent for the STs respectively. Unlike the Group A and Group Bservices of the Central Government, the quotas of reservation, in fact, crossedthe stipulated limits and registered a percentage share of 16.03 percent forthe SCs in 2004. In 1971, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs to thetotal persons employed in the PSUs was 7.42 and 2.5 percentage points. Thepercentage share of the Non SC/STs, on the other hand was a whopping90.33 percent. In 1980, the percentage share of both, the SCs and the STshad increased to 17.44 and 7.6 percentage points. Conversely, the percentageshare of the Non SC/STs had decreased to 74.96 percent. In 1990, thepercentage share of the SCs and the STs had further increased to 19.58 and9.88 percentage points, the share of the Non SC/STs, on the other hand, haddeclined to 70.54 percent. In 2000, the share of the Non SC/STs increasedmarginally to 73.91 percent, while that of the SCs and the STs declined to 18and 8.09 percentage points respectively (See Table 1 J). Thus, the annualgrowth rate of the SCs and the STs in the PSUs during the period 1971-2004stood at 7 percent for the SCs, 8.6 percent for the STs, and 3.6 percent forthe Non SC/STs respectively.


30

Table 1 J, Numbers and Percentages of Employees in the Public SectorEnterprises -Decadal Point to Point

SC ST Non SC/ST As on Jan 1 Numbers Percentage Numbers Percentage Numbers Percentage

1971 40640 7.42 12309 2.25 494680 90.33

1979 300405 16.90 136061 7.66 1340900 75.44

1980 317401 17.44 138364 7.60 1364537 74.96

1989 423879 19.51 212460 9.78 1536538 70.71

1990 428491 19.58 216355 9.88 1543989 70.54

1999 336140 17.45 152286 7.91 1437977 74.65

2000 324140 18.00 145581 8.09 1330907 73.91

2004 236618 16.03 114481 7.76 1124990 76.21

Source: Public Enterprises Survey, Annual Report, Volume 1, Ministry of HeavyIndustries and Public Enterprises, 1978-1979, 1988-1989, 1989-1990, 1990-1991, and 1991-1993 to 2004-2005, New Delhi.


Table 1 J shows the absolute point-to-point numbers of the SCs, the STs, andthe Non SC/STs employed in the PSUs. In 1971, 40640 SC, 12309 ST, and494680 Non SC/ST persons were employed in the PSUs. In 1990, the absolutenumbers of the SC and ST persons increased to 428491 and 216355, butsubsequently, in 2000, decreased to 324140 and 145581 respectively.Thereupon too, in 2004, the absolute numbers of the SC and ST personswitnessed a declining trend with their numbers being further reduced to236618 (SCs) and 114481 (STs). Similarly, the absolute numbers of the NonSC/ST persons stood at 1543989 in 1990, 1330907 in 2000, and 1124990 in2004.

According to the data, the change of employment during 1971-1979 was259765 (639 percent) for the SCs, 123752 (1005 percent) for the STs, and846220 (171 percent) for the Non SC/STs. In the 1980s, the change ofemployment recorded a decline from 106478 (33.6 percent) for the SCs,74096 (53.6 percent) for the STs, and 172001(12.6 percent) for the Non SC/STs to -92351 (-21.6 percent) for the SCs, -64069 (-26.6 percent) for theSTs, and -106012 (-6.9 percent) for the Non SC/STs. The numbers of employedduring 2000-2004 also declined with the figures for change in employmentbeing -87522 (-27 percent) for the SCs, -31100 (-21.4 percent) for the STs,and -205917 (-15.5 percent) for the Non SC/STs in that order.

31


During the overall period, i.e., 1971-2004, the employment change for theSCs and the STs stood at 195978 (482.2 percent) and 10172 (830 percent),while that for the Non SC/STs stood at 630310 (127.4 percent). Thus, theincrease in the numbers of employed during 1971-2004 was 195978 (482.2percent) for the SCs, 102172 (830 percent) for the STs, and 630310 (127.4percent) for the Non SC/STs respectively.

Decadal Employment - 1971-2004

Table 1 K delineates the decadal average employment for the SCs, the STs,and the Non SC/STs. As is evident from the data, the decadal average forthe SCs and the STs increased during the time periods 1971-1979 and 1980-1989, but decreased for the time periods, 1990-1999 and 2000-2004respectively. The decadal average for the Non SC/STs, on the other hand,increased for the time periods 1971-1979, 1980-1989, and 1990-1999, butdecreased in 2000-2004.

Table 1 K, Employees in Public Sector Enterprises - Decadal Average

Years SC ST Non SC/ST All

1971-1979 191489 85398 935595 1212482

1980-1989 368148 178571 1472136 2018855

1990-1999 373773 171940 1511613 2057327

2000-2004* 292232 134787 1227408 1654427

* Based on 5 years

Source: Computed from the Table 1 J, Public Enterprises Survey, Annual Report,Volume 1, Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, 1978-1979, 1988-1989, 1989-1990, 1990-1991, and 1991- 1993 to 2004-2005, NewDelhi.

Figure 1 G demonstrates the trend of employment growth under reservations.From 1971-1979 to 2000-2004, the decadal annual growth of the SCs and theSTs reduced drastically due to the shrinkage of the public sector under theaegis of the NEP. In 1971-1979, the growth rate of the SCs and the STs was28.05 and 35.5 percentage points respectively, which declined to 3.59 and4.8 percentage points during 1980-1999 and became negative at -2.3 percentand -3.4 percent in 1990-1999. It further declined to -6.56 and -6.56 percentagepoints respectively during 2000-2004. In 1971-1979, in the case of the NonSC/STs, the rate of change was 13.7 percent, which declined in the ensuingdecades by 1.2 (1980-1989), 0.54 (1990-1999), and -7.2 (2000-2004)percentage points in that order.


32

Figure 1 G, Annual Employment Growth of the Social Groups in PublicSector Undertakings, 1971-1004

-10.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

1971-79 1980s 1990s 2000-04

Years

Mag

nitu

de

ofE

mpl

oym

ent

SC

ST

Non-SC/ST

The overall annual growth rate stood at 7 percent during 1971-2004. Although,after the inception of the NEP (1992-1999), the employment growth ratedeclined drastically for both, the SCs and the STs, the magnitude ofemployment growth for the SCs and the STs was negative (-2.3 and -3.4percentage points). On the contrary, the Non SC/Ts during the same periodof time indicated positive growth at 3.6 percentage points. The trend ofemployment under reservations in the PSUs has been shown in Figure 1 H.

Figure 1 H, Trends of Employment under Reservations for the SocialGroups in Public Sector Undertakings, 1971-2004

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1400000

1600000

1800000

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

Years

Num

bers

ofEm

ploy

men

t

SC

STNon-SC/ST

3.2 Composition of Employment by Categories of Jobs


In 2004, the percentage of employment for the SCs and the STs in Group Ajobs in the PSUs stood at 11.48 and 3.46 percentage points respectively.Similarly, 11.72 percent of the SCs and 5.31 percent of the STs were employedin Group B jobs. Herein too, it is more than apparent that the representationof both the SCs and the STs was much below the stipulated quotas fixed forthem. In the case of Group C jobs, however, the percentage share of the SCsand the STs stood at 17.07 and 8.14 percentage points, while for and GroupD jobs the share of the SCs and the STs was 18.20 and 10.53 percentage

33


points respectively, which incidentally, was well above the stipulated quotasof reservation (See Table 1 L).

Table 1 L, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the TotalEmployees in Public Sector Undertakings by Categories (Excluding

Sweepers)

Group A Group B Group C Group D As on Jan 1

SC ST Non

SC/ST Total SC ST Non



SC/ST Total

1971 0.52 0.17 99.31 100 1.54 0.16 98.30 100 5.49 1.29 93.22 100 15.96 5.94 78.09 100

1972 0.68 0.15 99.17 100 1.84 0.19 97.97 100 8.11 2.20 89.69 100 17.63 7.39 74.98 100

1973 0.95 0.24 98.82 100 2.53 0.28 97.19 100 9.01 2.84 88.15 100 24.50 8.26 67.24 100

1974 1.19 0.26 98.55 100 2.96 0.41 96.63 100 13.18 6.30 80.52 100 26.70 11.69 61.61 100

1975 1.44 0.30 98.26 100 3.02 0.42 96.56 100 13.73 5.97 80.29 100 26.29 11.93 61.78 100

1976 1.68 0.36 97.96 100 3.19 0.54 96.27 100 16.37 8.22 75.41 100 24.14 13.67 62.18 100

1977 1.81 0.43 97.76 100 3.09 0.55 96.36 100 16.76 7.68 75.56 100 22.53 10.32 67.15 100

1978 2.03 0.47 97.51 100 3.68 0.91 95.41 100 16.30 7.41 76.29 100 22.85 10.51 66.64 100

1979 2.29 0.53 97.19 100 4.15 0.96 94.89 100 16.98 7.87 75.15 100 22.44 9.93 67.63 100

1980 2.90 0.66 96.44 100 5.12 1.36 93.52 100 18.08 7.71 74.20 100 22.36 10.76 66.88 100

1981 3.18 0.69 96.13 100 6.12 1.52 92.36 100 18.15 7.92 73.94 100 20.89 11.29 67.82 100

1982 3.58 0.88 95.54 100 6.58 1.87 91.54 100 17.80 8.47 73.72 100 22.28 12.40 65.32 100

1983 3.69 0.87 95.44 100 6.58 1.93 91.49 100 17.83 8.57 73.60 100 22.34 12.47 65.18 100

1984 3.93 0.89 95.18 100 5.38 1.60 93.02 100 18.23 8.65 73.13 100 27.37 15.13 57.50 100

1985 4.12 0.89 94.98 100 5.51 1.57 92.92 100 18.34 8.62 73.04 100 27.21 15.13 57.66 100

1986 4.58 1.00 94.42 100 6.09 1.59 92.32 100 18.50 8.76 72.73 100 30.75 17.00 52.24 100

1987 4.86 1.18 93.97 100 6.17 1.55 92.28 100 18.54 8.82 72.63 100 30.83 17.07 52.10 100

1988 5.32 1.17 93.50 100 7.00 2.09 90.91 100 19.04 8.90 72.06 100 31.13 19.48 49.39 100

1989 5.76 1.29 92.95 100 8.41 2.31 89.28 100 19.19 8.88 71.93 100 31.36 19.73 48.90 100

1990 5.95 1.43 92.61 100 8.73 2.51 88.76 100 19.20 8.95 71.85 100 31.39 19.82 48.79 100

1991 6.41 1.55 92.05 100 9.05 2.53 88.42 100 19.20 9.02 71.78 100 30.79 19.73 49.48 100

1992 6.69 1.66 91.65 100 9.22 2.95 87.83 100 16.82 8.13 75.05 100 23.25 9.71 67.05 100

1993 7.37 1.88 90.75 100 9.12 3.37 87.51 100 18.71 8.42 72.87 100 21.90 9.76 68.34 100

1994 7.80 1.88 90.32 100 9.54 3.30 87.15 100 17.97 8.95 73.08 100 23.84 9.85 66.32 100

1995 8.19 2.17 89.64 100 9.50 3.30 87.20 100 18.95 8.72 72.32 100 22.58 9.85 67.57 100

1996 8.41 2.27 89.32 100 9.68 3.52 86.80 100 19.14 8.72 72.14 100 22.41 10.68 66.92 100

1997 9.20 2.50 88.31 100 10.40 3.70 85.90 100 18.98 8.62 72.40 100 22.61 10.82 66.57 100

1998 9.56 2.62 87.82 100 10.53 3.88 85.58 100 18.97 8.47 72.55 100 22.57 10.86 66.57 100

1999 10.13 2.81 87.06 100 10.63 4.10 85.27 100 17.89 8.12 73.99 100 22.62 11.37 66.00 100

2000 10.35 2.97 86.68 100 11.05 4.18 84.77 100 18.93 8.46 72.61 100 22.51 11.40 66.08 100

2001 10.76 3.03 86.20 100 11.52 4.61 83.87 100 18.94 8.81 72.25 100 22.89 11.28 65.83 100

2002 11.20 3.36 85.44 100 12.01 4.91 83.09 100 19.05 8.80 72.15 100 21.67 10.86 67.47 100

2003 11.75 3.48 84.76 100 12.44 5.15 82.41 100 19.38 9.24 71.39 100 21.47 11.03 67.50 100

2004 11.48 3.46 85.06 100 11.72 5.31 82.97 100 17.07 8.14 74.79 100 18.20 10.53 71.27 100



34

In 1971, the total numbers of the SCs and the STs employed in Group A andGroup B jobs was negligible at 1.75 and 0.89 percentage points respectively.Similarly, the representation of the SCs and the STs in Group C and Group Djobs was as high as 98.25 and 99.10 percentage points. In 1990, thepercentage share of the SC and the ST employees in Group A and Group Bjobs was 6.10 and 3.23 percentage points. However, in 2004, therepresentation of the SCs and the STs in Group A and Group B jobs increasedto 16.8 and 13.11 percentage points respectively. On the other hand, 83.18and 86.89 percent of the SCs and the STs were employed in Group C andGroup D jobs. It therefore, seems that from 1971-2004, the reservationpolicy has been most effectual for Group C and Group D jobs. Therepresentation of the SCs and the STs in Group A and Group B remains shortof the stipulated quota under reservations in the PSUs See Table 1 M.

Table 1 M, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and theNon SC/ST Employees in Public Sector Undertakings by

Categories of Jobs, 1971-2004

As onJan 1 Group A Group B Group C Group D

(Excluding Sweepers)


SC/ST SC ST NonSC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1971 0.40 0.43 6.29 1.35 0.46 7.10 47.50 36.71 66.21 50.75 62.39 20.40

1979 0.64 0.32 6.07 1.20 0.61 6.15 67.90 69.51 67.35 30.26 29.55 20.43

1980 0.86 0.45 6.64 1.58 0.96 6.70 72.62 71.07 69.31 24.94 27.52 17.35

1989 2.55 1.14 11.36 3.29 1.80 9.64 63.74 58.88 65.92 30.41 38.17 13.08

1990 2.62 1.25 11.30 3.49 1.98 9.84 63.15 58.31 65.60 30.75 38.46 13.26

1999 6.25 3.83 12.56 5.55 4.71 10.40 59.38 59.46 57.38 28.83 31.99 19.66

2000 6.52 4.16 13.30 5.97 5.03 11.16 59.21 58.90 55.32 28.30 31.92 20.23

2004 8.45 5.27 14.76 8.37 7.84 13.57 59.74 58.87 53.54 23.44 28.02 18.13



In 2004, the total numbers of the SC and the ST employees in the PSUs inGroup A jobs were 20006 and 6032. Similarly, 19802 SCs and 8980 STs wereemployed in Group B jobs. In Group C, 141357 SCs and 67396 STs were

35


employed and in Group D, 55453 SCs and 32073 STs were employedrespectively. On the other hand, in 2004, the absolute numbers of the NonSC/ST employees in Group A, Group B, Group C, and Group D jobs were148260, 140206, 619364, and 217160 (See Table 1 N).

Table 1 N, Numbers of Employed SC, ST, and Non SC/ST in thePublic Sector Undertakings - Decadal Point to Point

Group A Group B Group C Group D

(Excluding Sweepers) As on Jan 1

SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1971 163 53 31095 549 57 35145 19302 4519 327526 20626 7680 100914

1979 1917 440 81375 3605 833 82487 203974 94582 903058 90909 40206 273980

1980 2726 623 90635 5003 1329 91424 230505 98329 945747 79167 38083 236731

1989 10825 2423 174576 13957 3830 148081 270197 125101 1012877 128900 81106 201004

1990 11215 2702 174451 14938 4289 151896 270594 126158 1012843 131744 83206 204799

1999 21005 5838 180581 18644 7180 149502 199585 90551 825176 96906 48717 282718

2000 21125 6057 176945 19355 7317 148487 191931 85744 736242 91729 46463 269233

2004 20006 6032 148260 19802 8980 140206 141357 67396 619364 55453 32073 217160


In 2004, the changes in employment in the various categories of jobs, bothin terms of numbers and percentages stood at -1119 (-5.3 percent) for theSCs and -25 (-0.41 percent) for the STs in Group A jobs; 447 (2.31 percent)for the SCs and 1663 (22.73 percent) for the STs in Group B jobs; -50574 (-26.35 percent) for the SCs and -18348 (-21.4 percent) for the STs in Group Cjobs; and -36276 (-39.55 percent) for the SCs and -14390 (-30.97 percent)for the STs in Group D jobs respectively. The changes in employment for theNon SC/STs stood at 117165 (-16.21 percent) in Group A jobs; 105061 (-5.58percent) in Group B jobs; 291838 (-15.87 percent) in Group C jobs; and116246 (-19.34 percent) in Group D jobs in that order.


During 2000-2004, the average numbers of the SCs and the STs employed inGroup A jobs stood at 21413 for the SCs and 6276 for the STs. In Group B,21296 SCs and 8748 STs were employed. Also, the numbers of SC and STemployees in Group C jobs were 172369 and 80113 respectively. In Group Djobs, however, 77154 SCs and 39650 STs were employed (See Table 1 O).

In 2000-2004, the annual growth rate of the SCs was negative for threecategories of jobs except in Group B jobs; the growth rate for which recorded


36

a marginal increase at 0.65 percent. The annual growth rates for the STswere a mix bag with positive growth for Group A (0.56 percent) and Group B(4.76 percent) jobs and negative growth for Group C (-4.36 percent) andGroup D (-8.82) jobs respectively.

Table 1 O, Decadal Average of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/STEmployment in the Public Sector Undertakings by Categories

Group A Group B Group C Group D

(Excluding Sweepers) As on Jan 1

SC ST Non SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1971-1979 892 204 56010 1775 324 55491 107716 48163 597002 81105 36706 227091

1980-1989 6041 1370 130674 8608 2380 124313 249726 116076 992848 103774 58745 224301

1990-1999 15655 4089 175675 16101 5531 145375 226308 104998 885812 115710 57322 304751

2000-2004 21413 6276 165437 21296 8748 151164 172369 80113 668751 77154 39650 242055

Source: Public Enterprises Survey, Annual Report, Volume 1, Ministry of Heavy

Industries and Public Enterprises, 1978-1979, 1988-1989, 1989-1990, 1990-1991, and 1991-1993 to 2004-2005, New Delhi.

On the Other hand, the numbers of Non SC/ST employees in Group A, GroupB, Group C, and Group D categories of jobs were 148260, 140206, 619364,and 217160 respectively (See Table 1 N). In 2000-2004, the net decadal changesrecorded negative growth for all categories. The percentage change for theNon SC/STs in Group A jobs was -16.21 percent. Also, the percentage changein Group B, Group C, and Group D jobs stood at -5.58, -15.87, and -19.34percentage points respectively. The decadal average employment for theNon SC/STs during 2000-2004 was 165437 (Group A), 151164 (Group B),668751 (Group C), and 242055 (Group D) respectively (See Table 1 O). Further,the decadal annual growth for the Non SC/STs recorded a negative growthfor all the categories of jobs at -4.3 percent for Group A, -1.9 percent forGroup B, -3.6 percent for Group C, and -5.5 percent for Group D jobs. Theoverall growth rate for the Non SC/STs during 1971-2004 stood at 4.7 percentfor Group A, 4.0 percent for Group B, 1.0 percent for Group C, and 1.3percent for Group D jobs.

3.3 Group A


In 1971, the share of employment for the SCs and the STs in Group A jobswas 0.52 and 0.17 percentage points respectively. In 1980, it increased to2.90 and 0.66 percentage points and further to 5.95 and 1.43 percentage

37


points in 1990 and finally to 10.35 and 2.97 percentage points in 2000. But,the share of the Non SC/STs declined from 99.31 percent in 1971 to 96.44percent in 1980. It further decreased to 92.61 percent in 1990 and finally to86.68 percent in 2000 (See Table 1 L).

The data for the percentage share of the SCs and STs for the time period1971-2004 indicates that though the share of both the social groups hasincreased over the time period under consideration, but it was still belowthe stipulated quotas fixed by the Government. In 1971, the percentageshare of the SCs and the STs stood at 0.40 and 0.43 percentage points. In1980, it increased from 0.86 and 0.45 percentage points to 2.62 and 1.25percentage points in 1990, In 2000, the percentage share for the SCs andthe STs stood at 6.52 and 4.16 percentage points, which increased to 8.45and 5.27 percentage points in 2004 respectively (See Table 1 M).

Change of Employment - 1971-2004

In 1971, only 163 SCs and 53 STs were employed in Group A jobs in the PSUs.In 1980, their numbers had increased from 2726 (SCs) and 623 (STs) to 11215(SCs) and 2702 (STs) in 1990. In 2000, the numbers stood at 21125 for theSCs and 6057 for the STs respectively (See Table 1 N). On the contrary, in1971, 31095 Non SC/STs were employed in the PSUs in Group A jobs. Theirrepresentation tends to have increased over the years. In 1980, 90635 NonSC/STs were employed in Group A jobs, which increased to 174451 in 1990and finally to 176945 in 2000. In the case of decadal change, the total numbersof employees in Group A jobs in the PSUs in 1971-1979 was only 1754 for theSCs and 387 for the STs. Their representation subsequently increased to8099 (SCs) and 1800 (STs) in the 1980s and further to 9790 (SCs) and 3136(STs) in the 1990s. The decadal percentage change stood at 297.1 (SCs) and288.9 percentage points (STs) in 1980s, and 87.29 (SCs) and 116 percentagepoints (STs) in the 1990s.


In 1971-1979, the decadal average of employment in Group A jobs in thePSUs was 892 for the SCs and 204 for the STs. In 1980, it increased to 6041(SCs) and 1370 (STs) and further to 15655 (SCs) and 4089 (STs) in 1990s (SeeTable 1 O). However, in 1971-1979, the annual growth rate of employment inGroup A jobs in the PSUs was 34.77 percent for the SCs and 31.5 for percent


38

for the STs, which declined to 15.77 percent for the SCs and 15.4 percent forthe STs in the 1980s. In the 1990s the growth rates of the SCs and the STswere the lowest at 7.15 and 9.06 percentage points respectively. However,the overall growth rate for the period 2000-2004 stood at 11 percent for theSCs and 15.18 percent for the STs.

In 1971-179, the decadal change for the Non SC/STs, on the other hand,stood at 50280, which subsequently declined to 83941 in the 1980s and furtherto 6130 in the 1990s (See Table 1 O). It implies that the decadal percentagechange stood at 92.61 in the 1980s and only 3.51 percent in the 1990s. In1971-1979, the average decadal employment stood at 56010, which increasedto 130674 in the 1990s and further to 175675 in the 1990s (See Table 1 O).The annual decadal growth rate in 1971-1979 stood at 12.2 percent. It declinedto 7.2 percent in the 1980s and was a marginal 0.4 percent in the 1990s.During the period 1971-2004, the overall growth rate, however, stood at 4.7percent.

3.4 Group B


In 1971, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group B jobs in thePSUs stood at 1.54 and 0.16 percentage points respectively. Thereupon, thepercentage share of both the social groups saw a steady increase. In the1980s, the share of the SCs was 5.12 percent, while that of the STs was 1.36percent. It further increased to 8.73 percent (SCs) and 2.51 percent (STs) inthe 1990s and finally to 11.05 percent (SCs) and 4.18 percent (STs) in 2000.Conversely, the percentage share of the Non SC/STs declined in the periodsunder consideration. The percentage share of the Non SC/STs in Group Bjobs stood at 98.30 percent in 1971, 93.52 percent in 1980, 88.76 percent in1990, and 84.77 percent in 2000 (See Table 1 L).

In 1971, the percentage distribution of the SC and ST employees in Group Bstood at 1.35 and 0.46 percentage points respectively. In 1980, the percentagedistribution was 1.58 percent (SCs) and 0.96 percent (STs), which increasedto 3.49 (SCs) and 1.98 percentage points (STs) in 1990. In 2000, the figuresstood at 5.97 percent for the SCs and 5.03 percent for the STs, and finally, in2004, they stood at 8.37 percent (SCs) and 7.84 percent (STs) respectively

39


(See Table 1 M). The data brings to the fore that the percentage distributionof the SCs and the STs (except for the time period 2000-2004 in the case ofthe STs) clearly establishes that the stipulated norms of employment underreservations have not been adhered to. So in Group B jobs the reservationquotas have not been fulfilled for SCs and STs from 1971 to 2004, exceptfrom 2000to 2004 for STs.


In 1971, the decadal point to point numbers of the SC and the ST employeesin Group B jobs 549 and 57 respectively. They increased from 5003 (SCs) and1329 (STs) in 1980 to 14938 (SCs) and 4289 (STs) in 1990 and finally to 19355(SCs) and 7317 (STs) in 2000 (See Table 1 N). In 1971-1979, employmentchange, both in terms of the numbers and in percentages decreased from3056 (556.6 percent) for the SCs and 776 (1361.4 percent) for the STs to8954 (178 percent) for the SCs and 2501 (188 percent) for the STs in 1980-1989. In the 1990s, it further declined to 3706 (24.81 percent) for the SCsand 2891 (67.4 percent) for the STs. On the other hand, in 1971, the decadalpoint to point numbers of employed Non SC/STs was 35145. The numbersincreased from 91424 in 1980 to 151896 in 1990 and further to 148487 in2000. The employment change for the Non SC/STs stood at 47342 (134.7percent) during 1971-1979, 56657 (61.97 percent) during the 1980s, and -2394 (-1.6 percent) during the 1990s in that order.


In 1971-1979, the decadal average numbers of the SC and the ST employees

in Group B jobs were 1775 and 324 respectively. In terms of the decadal

average numbers the figures for both, the SCs and the STs thereupon saw an

increasing trend. In 1980-1989, the figures increased from 8608 (SCs) and

2380 (STs) to 16101 (SCs) and 5531 (STs) in 1990-1999. In the case of theNon SC/STs, the decadal average numbers increased from 55491 in 1971-

1979 to 124313 in 1980-1989, and further to 145375 in 1990-1999 (See Table

1 O).

In 1971-1979, the annual growth rate for the SCs and the STs stood at 23.03

and 38.14 percentage points. It then declined from 9.18 (SCs) and 9.57 percent

(STs) during 1980-1989 to 2.08 percent (SCs) and 5.27 percent (STs) in the1990s. However, the annual growth rate for the Non SC/STs was 9.9 percent


40

during 1971-1979, which declined to 5.7 percent in the 1980s and to -0.6

percent in the 1990s.

3.5 Group C

Percentage of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - Vertical andHorizontal, 1971-2000

In 1971, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group C jobs in thePSUs was 5.49 and 1.29 percentage points respectively. It increased to 18.08(SCs) and 7.71 (STs) percentage points 1980 and further to 19.20 percent(SCs) and 8.95 percent (STs) in 1990. In 2000, however, the percentage shareof the SCs and the STs declined to 18.93 and 8.46 percentage pointsrespectively (See Table 1 L). Presently, the representation of the SCs and theSTs exceeds the stipulated quotas of employment under reservations in GroupC jobs in the PSUs.


In 1971, the decadal point to point numbers of the SCs and the STs in GroupC jobs were 19302 and 4519 respectively. In 1980, they increased from 230505(SCs) and 98329 (STs) to 270594 (SCs) and 126158 (STs) in 1990. In 2000,the decadal numbers declined to 191931 for the SCs and 85744 for the STs(See Table 1 N). The employment change during 1971-1979 stood at 184672for the SCs and 90063 for the STs. In the 1980s, it declined to 39692 for theSCs and 26772 for the STs and became negative at -71009 for the SCs and -3560 for the STs in 1990s. In 1971-1979, the figures for percentage changestood at 956.75 percent (SCs) and 1992.99 percent (STs) in 1971-79. In the1980s, the figures for the SCs and the STs stood at 17.22 and 27.23 percentagepoints and were negative at -26.24 percent (SCs) and -28.22 percent (STs) inthe 1990s. In the case of the Non SC/STs, the decadal point to point numbersin Group C jobs increased from 327526 in 1971 to 945747 in 1980. In 1990,the numbers stood at 1012843, but declined to 736242 in 2000 (See Table 1N). The net decadal employment change during 1971-1979 was 575532. Itthen declined to 67130 in the 1980s and became negative (-187667) in the1990s. In 1971-1979, the employment change stood at 175 percent, whichdecreased to 7.10 percent in 1980-1989 and became negative during 1990-1999 (-18.53 percent). In 1971, the percentage share of the Non SC/STsstood at 93.22 percent. It then declined in the ensuing time periods to 74.20percent in 1980, 71.85 percent in 1990, and 72.61 percent in 2000 respectively.

41



In 1971-1979, the decadal average of the SCs and the STs employed in Group

C jobs was 107716 (SCs) and 48163 (STs). It then increased to 249726 (SCs)

and 116076 (STs) in 1980-1989, but declined to 226308 (SCs) and 104998

(STs) in 1990-1999 respectively. Correspondingly, in 1971-1979, the figures

for the decadal average of the Non SC/STs stood at 597002, which increased

to 992848 in 1980-1989. The figures then decreased to 885812 in 1990-1999

and further to 668751 in 2000-2004 (See Table 1 O). In 1971-1979, the decadal

annual growth rate for the SCs and STs stood at 33.59 and 45.39 percentage

points. It then, declined drastically to 1.81 percent (SCs) and 2.53 percent

(STs) in 1980s, and became negative at -2.61 percent (SCs) and -3.17 percent

(STs) in the 1990s. In 1971-1979, the decadal annual growth rate of the Non

SC/STs was 13.5 percent, which declined to 0.7 percent in the 1980s, and

became negative (-2.5 percent) in the 1990s. During the period 1971-2000,

the annual growth rate for the SCs and the STs was 7.71 and 4.03 percentage

points, whereas, similar figures for the Non SC/STs indicated a growth rate

of 1.0 percent.

3.6 Group D


In 1971, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group D jobs was

15.96 and 5.94 percentage points. In 1980, it increased from 22.36 percent

(SCs) and 10.76 percent (STs) to 31.39 (SCs) and 19.82 (STs) in 1990. It then

declined to 22.51 percent (SCs) and 11.40 percent (STs) in 2000 and further

to 18.20 percent (SCs) and 10.53 percent (STs) in 2004. The percentage

share of the Non SC/STs, on the other hand, declined from 78.09 percent in

1971 to 66.88 percent in 1980. It then further saw a leeward trend from

48.79 percent in 1990 to 66.08 percent in 2000 and to 71.27 percent in 2004

(See Table 1 L).

The elucidates that, though, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs

declined in Group D jobs, the stipulated quota of reservation has been fulfilled

for employment under reservations.


42


The cross-sectional analysis of all categories of jobs in the PSUs brings tothe fore that the maximum concentration of the SCs and the STs was inGroup D jobs. In 1971, the decadal numbers of the SCs and the STs employedin Group D jobs stood at 20626 and 7680 respectively. In 1980, the numbersincreased from 79167 (SCs) and 38083 (STs) to 131744 (SCs) and 83206(STs) in 1990. In 2000, however, the decadal numbers of the SCs and the STsdeclined to 91729 and 46463 respectively (See Table 1 N). In 1971-1979, theemployment change for the SCs and the STs stood at 70283 (340.75 percent)for the SCs and 32526 (423.52 percent) for the STs. However, employmentchange during 1980-1989 declined to 49733 (62.82 percent) for the SCs and43023 (112.97 percent) for the STs. Further, in 1990-1999, employment changebecame negative at -34838 (-26.44 percent) for the SCs and -34489 (-41.45percent) for the STs. The decadal average of the Non SC/STs increased from100914 in 1971 to 236731 in 1980. It though declined to 204799 in 1990, butthen again increased to 269233 in 2000. However, the employment changefor the Non SC/STs during 1971-199 stood at 173066 (171.50 percent). Itbecame negative during 1980-1989 (-15.09 percent), but then increased to77919 (38.05 percent) in the 1990s.


In 1971-1979, the decadal average numbers of the SCs and the STs employedin Group D jobs stood at 81105 and 36706 respectively. In 1980-1989, theyincreased to 103774 for the SCs and 58745 for the STs. In 1990-1999, thenumbers for the SCs increased to 115710 for the SCs, but simultaneously,declined for the STs (57322). The time period 2000-2004 also saw decliningtrends with the numbers for the SCs and the STs being 77154 and 39650respectively (See Table 1 O). In 1971-1979, the annual growth rates for theSCs and the STs stood at 21.22 and 24.99 percentage points, which declinedto 6.98 percent for the SCs and 9.2 percent for the STs in 1980s and becamenegative at -3.45 percent for the SCs and –5.26 percent for the STs in 1990s.In 1971-1979, the decadal average of employment for the Non SC/STs was227091. It saw an increasing trend in the 1980s and the 1990s with thenumbers for the decadal average being 22430 and 304751 respectively. In1971-1979, the percentage change stood at 15.7 percent. It then drasticallydeclined -2.5 percent in the 1980s, but then again increased to 2.6 percentin the 1990s.

43


4. Reservations in Public Sector Banks - 1978-2004

4.1 Composition of Total Employment in Public Sector Banks

Employment for the marginalized social groups in public sector banks wasalso brought under the ambit of the reservation policy in India. The AnnualReport of Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 2004-2005, delineatesthat reservation in public sector banks is applicable to 19 nationalised banksand was initiated in 1969 (the year of the nationalization of various banks inIndia). For the purposes of conceptual clarity, the public sector banks inIndia include the State Bank of India (SBI) and its associate banks, ReserveBank of India (RBI), Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), IndustrialInvestment Bank of India for Agriculture and Rural Development, Export ImportBank of India, and National Housing Bank and Small Industries DevelopmentBank of India.

Percentage Share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - 1978-2004

In 1978, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in public sector banksstood at 10.19 and 1.56 percentage points, which increased to 14.39 percent(SCs) and 4.23 percent (STs) in 1990. In 2000, the percentages for the SCsand the STs were 16.12 percent and 4.91 percent respectively. They finallyincreased to 17.61 percent for the SCs and 5.72 percent for the STs in 2004.The percentage share for the Non SC/STs saw a steady decline over theyears under consideration. In 1978, the percentage share for the Non SC/STsstood at 88.25 percent. In 1990, their share declined from 81.37 percent to78.97 percent in 1990 and finally to 76.66 percent in 2004 (See Table 1 P).


In 1978, the absolute numbers of the public sector bank employees stood at549331. They increased from 585923 in 1980 to 882257 in 1990 and finally to889922 in 2000. In 2004, however, the absolute numbers of the employeddeclined to 759049. In 1978, the absolute numbers of the SCs and the STs inpublic sectors banks stood at 55976 and 8571 respectively. In 1980, theyincreased from 68042 (SCs) and 11992 (STs) to 126974 (SCs) and 37362(STs) in 1990. The numbers further increased from 143499 (SCs) and 43658(STs) in 2000, but declined to 133685 (SCs) and 43454 (STs) in 2004 (SeeTable 1 P).


44

During 1978-1980, absolute employment for the SCs and the STs increasedby 12066 and 3421 respectively. In 1980-1988, absolute employment for theSCs and STs stood at 49373 and 18823, but declined to 8623 for the SCs and6509 for the STs during 1990-99. In 2004, the growth became negative forthe SCs and the STs at -9814 and -204 in that order. The percentage changeduring 1978-1980 stood at 21.56 percent for the SCs and 39.91 percent forthe STs, which increased 72.56 (SCs) and 156.9 percentage points (STs) in1980-1988, and then sharply declined to 6.79 (SCs) and 17.42 percentagepoints (STs) during the reform decade. It became negative in 2000-2004 at -6.84 percent for the SCs and -0.47 percent for the STs.

Table1 P, Employment in Public Sector Banks, Decadal Point to Point

SC ST Non SC/ST Years

Numbers Percent Numbers Percent Numbers Percentage

1978 55976 10.19 8571 1.56 484784 88.25

1980 68042 11.61 11992 2.05 505889 86.34

1988 117415 13.80 30815 3.62 702738 82.58

1990 126974 14.39 37362 4.23 717921 81.37

1999 135597 15.15 43871 4.90 715556 79.95

2000 143499 16.12 43658 4.91 702765 78.97

2004 133685 17.61 43454 5.72 581910 76.66

Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 1978 and 2004-2005.

In 1978, the absolute numbers for the Non SC/STs stood at 484784, whichincreased to 505889 in 1980. In 1990, the absolute numbers for the Non SC/STs further increased from 717921 to 702765 in 2000. Their absolute numbers,however, declined to 581910 in 2004. The analysis for the absoluteemployment change delineated an increasing trend during 1978-1980 to 1980-1988 with the numbers for said periods being 21105 and 196849 respectively.On the contrary, the periods 1990-1999 and 2000-2004 saw a decreasingtrend with the numbers being –2365 and -120855 respectively. In terms ofthe decadal percentage change too, similar trends were visible for all thetime periods under consideration. The time periods, 1978-1980 and 1980-1988 saw an increasing trend from 4.35 to 38.91 percentage pointsrespectively. Correspondingly, the decadal percentage change declined by -0.33 during 1990-1999 and -17.2 percentage points during 2000-2004.However, at an overall level during 1978-2004, the percentage change ofemployment stood at 138.83 percent for the SCs, 406.99 percent for theSTs, and 20.03 percent for the Non SC/STs respectively.

45



During 1980-1988, the decadal average of the SCs and Sts in public sectorbanks was 99345 and 22086. It increased to 135111 (SCs) and 40932 (STs) in1990-1999 and further to 137205 (SCs) and 42514 (STs) in 2000-2004. Incase of the Non SC/STs, the decadal average of employment during 1980-1988 was 619628, which increased to 720430 during the 1990s, but declinedto 633807 in 2000-2004 (See Table 1 Q). However, the annual employmentgrowth rate during 1980-1988 for the SCs and the STs stood at 9.46 and15.04 percentage points for STs, but it declined to 1.05 percent during the1990s.

Table 1 Q, Decadal Average of the SCs, the STs, and theNon SC/STs in the Public Sector Employment

Years SC ST Non SC/ST

1980-1988 99345 22086 619628

1990-1999 135111 40932 720430

2000-2004 137205 42514 633807

Source: Computed from the Table 1 P, Annual Report, Ministry of Finance,Government of India, 1978 to 2004-2005.

Figure 1 I, Annual Growth of Employment inPublic Sector Banks, 1980-2004

-10.00

-5.00

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

1980-88 1990-99 2000-2004

Years

Mag

nitu

des

of

Em

plo

yment

SCSTNon- SC/ST

During 2000-2004 the employment growth was negative at -2.20 percent forthe SCs and -0.13 percent for the SCs. On the other hand, in 1980-1988, thegrowth rate stood at 5.06 percent for the Non SC/STs, but declined to -0.04percent in the 1990s and further to -6.41 percent during 2000-2004.

The growth rate for the SCs and the STs during the overall period, i.e., 1978-2004 stood at 4.67 and 7.91 percentage points, where as, similar figures forthe Non SC/STs stood at 2.48 percentage points. The trends of employmentin public sector banks under reservations are presented in Figure 1 J.


46

Figure 1 J, Trends of Employment under Reservations in PublicSector Banks for All Social Groups, 1978-2004

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

800000

1978

1981

1983

1985

1988

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2004

Years

Nu

mb

ero

fE

mp

loym

ents

SCSTNon- SC/ST

4.2 Employment Composition of Public Sector Banks by Categories - 1978-2004


The employees in the public sector banks are categorized into three Groups,i.e., Officers, Clerks and Sub-staffs. In terms of percentage therepresentation of SCs has improved over the years in all the categories ofjobs. In 2004, 14.98 and 5.88 percent of the SCs and the STs were employedas officers; 16.16 and 5.08 percent as clerks; and 25.38 and 7.02 percent assub-staffs. As is evident from the data, the representation of the SCs wasthe highest in sub-staffs, followed by clerks and officers. As far as the STsare concerned, there representation in public sector banks was below thestipulated quotas fixed by the Government in all the three categories.

In 2004, 79.14 percent of the Non SC/STs were employed as officers; 78.76percent as clerks; and 67.60 percent as sub-staffs. The representation ofthe Non SC/STs was found to have declined over the years under considerationpossible due to diversification to private jobs (See Table 1 R).

In 2004, the percentage distribution of the SCs and the STs in the categoryof officers stood at 27.61 and 33.34 percentage points respectively. Similarly,the percentage distribution for clerks stood at 43.70 percent (SCs) and 42.25percent (STs), while that for the sub-staffs stood at 28.69 percent (SCs) and24.41 percent (STs). The percentage distribution for the Non SC/STs was33.52 percent for the officers; 48.92 percent for the clerks; and 17.55 percentfor the sub-staffs (See Table 1 R).

In 1978, the percentage of the SCs employed as officers stood at 4 percent.It then saw an increasing trend from 1980 to 2004. The percentage increasefor the respective years stood at 6.38 percent in 1980, 17.13 percent in1990, 22.21 percent in 2000 and 27.61 percent in 2004.

47


Similarly, in 1978, the percentage of the SCs employed as clerks stood at54.98 percent, which increased to 55.39 percent in 1980. Thereupon, thepercentage of the SCs employed as clerks decreased to 52.44 percent in1990 to 47.37 percent in 2000 and further to 43.70 percent in 2004.

Correspondingly, in 1978, the percentage of the SCs employed as sub-staffsstood at 41.02 percent, which decreased to 38.23 percent in 1980. Thereupon,the percentage of the SCs employed as clerks decreased to 30.43 percent in1990 to 30.42 percent in 2000 and further to 28.69 percent in 2004.

Table 1 R, Percentage Share of the Social Groups to the TotalEmployees in Public Sector Banks by Categories

Officers Clerks Sub-Staffs Years

SC ST Non



SC/ST Total 1978 2.04 0.17 97.79 100 10.32 1.82 87.86 100 16.25 2.09 81.67 100 1979 3.03 0.59 96.38 100 12.13 1.98 85.89 100 21.14 2.95 75.91 100 1980 3.09 0.65 96.26 100 11.93 2.24 85.82 100 20.06 3.09 76.85 100 1981 3.87 0.88 95.25 100 12.57 2.38 85.05 100 17.57 3.55 78.89 100 1982 4.64 1.07 94.30 100 12.96 2.75 84.29 100 22.42 4.33 73.25 100 1983 4.87 1.28 93.85 100 13.48 2.95 83.57 100 23.15 3.97 72.88 100 1984 5.72 1.48 92.80 100 13.83 3.41 82.76 100 23.79 4.32 71.89 100 1985 6.90 1.76 91.34 100 14.04 3.75 82.20 100 24.77 4.43 70.79 100 1986 7.30 1.85 90.86 100 13.78 3.78 82.44 100 24.88 4.50 70.62 100 1988 8.32 2.20 89.48 100 13.87 3.92 82.21 100 21.01 4.74 74.25 100 1989 8.82 2.47 88.71 100 14.03 4.27 81.70 100 21.41 5.61 72.99 100 1990 9.18 2.71 88.11 100 14.22 4.46 81.32 100 21.84 5.68 72.48 100 1991 9.56 3.00 87.45 100 14.19 4.50 81.31 100 21.83 5.74 72.43 100 1992 11.13 3.12 85.75 100 14.32 4.56 81.12 100 21.98 5.80 72.22 100 1993 9.87 3.12 87.01 100 14.37 4.55 81.08 100 22.96 5.87 71.17 100 1994 10.25 3.35 86.41 100 14.45 4.57 80.98 100 23.30 5.84 70.86 100 1995 10.71 3.52 85.77 100 14.53 4.64 80.83 100 22.37 5.84 71.79 100 1996 11.11 3.65 85.24 100 14.69 4.71 80.61 100 23.01 5.96 71.03 100 1997 11.47 3.85 84.67 100 14.83 4.71 80.46 100 23.46 6.17 70.37 100 1998 11.88 4.01 84.11 100 15.01 4.81 80.18 100 23.25 6.16 70.59 100 1999 10.55 4.09 85.36 100 14.92 4.84 80.23 100 22.24 6.20 71.56 100 2000 12.51 4.22 83.27 100 14.88 4.76 80.36 100 24.47 6.25 69.28 100 2001 13.04 4.31 82.65 100 15.17 4.81 80.02 100 24.80 6.43 68.77 100 2002 14.41 5.10 80.49 100 15.90 5.10 79.00 100 25.72 6.43 67.85 100

2004 14.98 5.88 79.14 100 16.16 5.08 78.76 100 25.38 7.02 67.60 100

Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 1978 to 2004-2005.

In 1978, the percentage of the STs employed as officers stood at 2.12 percent.It then saw an increasing trend from 1980 to 2004. The percentage increasefor the respective years stood at 7.60 percent in 1980, 17.22 percent in1990, 24.62 percent in 2000 and 33.34 percent in 2004.


48

Similarly, in 1978, the percentage of the STs employed as clerks stood at63.45 percent, which decreased to 59.02 percent in 1980. Thereupon, thepercentage of the STs employed as clerks decreased to 55.90 percent in 1990to 49.83 percent in 2000 and further to 42.25 percent in 2004.

Correspondingly, in 1978, the percentage of the STs employed as sub-staffsstood at 34.43 percent, which decreased to 33.38 percent in 1980. Thereupon,the percentage of the STs employed as clerks decreased to 26.88 percent in1990 to 25.55 percent in 2000 and further to 24.41 percent in 2004.

In 1978, the percentage of the Non SC/STs employed as officers stood at22.12 percent. It then saw an increasing trend from 1980 to 2004. Thepercentage increase for the respective years stood at 26.72 percent in 1980,29.09 percent in 1990, 30.18 percent in 2000 and 33.52 percent in 2004.

Similarly, in 1978, the percentage of the Non SC/STs employed as clerks stoodat 54.07 percent, which decreased to 53.58 percent in 1980. Thereupon, thepercentage of the Non SC/STs employed as clerks decreased to 53.05 percentin 1990 to 52.23 percent in 2000 and further to 48.92 percent in 2004.

Correspondingly, in 1978, the percentage of the Non SC/STs employed assub-staffs stood at 23.81 percent, which decreased to 19.70 percent in 1980.Thereupon, the percentage of the Non SC/STs employed as clerks decreasedto 17.86 percent in 1990 to 17.59 percent in 2000 and further to 17.55 percentin 2004 (See Table 1 S).

Table 1 S, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/STEmployees in Public Sector Banks by Categories, Vertical

Years Officers Clerks Sub-Staffs


SC/ST SC ST NonSC/ST

1978 4.00 2.12 22.12 54.98 63.45 54.07 41.02 34.43 23.81

1980 6.38 7.60 26.72 55.39 59.02 53.58 38.23 33.38 19.70

1988 16.07 16.19 28.88 53.95 58.02 53.41 29.98 25.79 17.71

1990 17.13 17.22 29.09 52.44 55.90 53.05 30.43 26.88 17.86

1999 19.81 23.73 30.36 50.73 50.88 51.68 29.46 25.39 17.96

2000 22.21 24.62 30.18 47.37 49.83 52.23 30.42 25.55 17.59

2004 27.61 33.34 33.52 43.70 42.25 48.92 28.69 24.41 17.55


49


4.3 Officers


In 1978, the absolute numbers of officers in different nationalized banksstood at 109652 respectively. The social composition of the officers was2238 from the SC, 182 from the ST, and 107232 from the Non SC/ST categoriesin that order. In 2004, the absolute numbers of officers increased to 246471.Out of the total employment in 2004, the percentage employment stood at14.98 percent for the SCs, 5.88 percent for the STs, and 79.14 percent forthe Non SC/STs (See Table 1 R). In 1980, the absolute numbers of the SC andthe ST officers stood at 4339 and 911, which increased to 21756 and 6432for the SCs and the STs in 1990. The absolute numbers for the SCs furtherincreased to 31871 in 2000 and to 36914 in 2004, while the correspondingincrease for the STs stood at 10749 in 2000 and 14489 in 2004(See Table 1 T).

Table 1 T, The Composition of the SC, the ST and the Non SC/STBank Employees, Decadal Point to Point by Categories

Years Officers Clerks Sub-Staffs

SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1978 2238 182 107232 30775 5438 262112 22963 2951 115440

1980 4339 911 135188 37690 7078 271033 26013 4003 99668

1988 18864 4990 202971 63348 17879 375338 35203 7946 124429

1990 21756 6432 208869 66584 20886 380851 38634 10044 128201

1999 26861 10412 217238 68787 22321 369801 39949 11138 128517

2000 31871 10749 212072 67975 21755 367072 43653 11154 123621

2004 36914 14489 195068 58421 18358 284697 38350 10607 102145


During 1978-1980, the change in percentage stood at 93.88 and 400.6percentage points for the SCs and the STs respectively. During the 1990s,the figures for change in percentage declined to 334.75 and 447.75 percentagepoints for the SCs and the STs and finally stood at 15.82 and 34.79 percentagepoints for the SCs and the STs during 2000-2004.

Conversely, in 1980, 135188 Non SC/STs were employed as officers. Thereabsolute numbers increased to 208869 in 1990, 212072 in 2000, but declinedto 195068 in 2004 (See Table 1 T). The numbers for net decadal employment


50

change for the Non SC/STs stood at 27956 during 1978-1980. It then increasedto 67783 during 1980-1988, but then declined to 8369 during the 1990s. Thepercentage change for the Non SC/STs, therefore, stood at 26.07 percent in1978-1980, 50.14 percent in 1980-1988, 4.01 percent in 1990-1999, and -8.02 percent in 2000-2004.


The average decadal employment of the SC and the ST officers during 2000and 2004 stood at 32943 for the SCs and 11698 for the STs. Similar figuresfor the Non SC/STs stood at 195651 respectively (See Table 1 U).

Table 1 U, Decadal Average of the Public Sector BankEmployees by Categories

Officers Clerks Sub-Staffs Years

SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1980-1988 10959 2755 173728 53109 12781 330734 35277 6550 115167

1990-1999 26232 8553 213059 68293 21750 379237 40587 10630 128134

2000-2004 32943 11698 195651 63685 20267 327437 40577 10550 110720


Within 2000-2004, the annual growth rate of employment stood at 4.59 percent

for the SCs, 10.19 percent for the STs, and 2.17 percent for the Non SC/STs

in that order. In 1980-1988, the decadal average number of employees stood

at 10959, 2755, and 173728 for the SCs, the STs and the Non SC/STs

respectively. Similarly, the decadal average number of employees in 1990-

1999 stood at 26232, 8553, and 213059 for the SCs, the STs and the Non SC/

STs respectively. The decadal annual growth rate of employment for the SC

and the ST officers declined sharply from 22.83 percent for the SCs and

26.49 percent for STs during 1980-1988 to 2.83 percent for the SCs and 5.33

percent for the STs in 1990-1999. On the other hand, the decline for the Non

SC/STs was gradual and stood at 6.09 percent in 1980-1988 and 0.35 percent

in 1990-1999. The overall growth rate within the time period 1978-2004 was

11.67 percent for the SCs, 14.33 percent for the STs, and 3.52 percent for

the Non SC/STs respectively.

51


4.4 Clerks


In 2004, the percentage share of the clerks to the total employees in publicbanks stood at 16.16 percent for the SCs, 5.08 percent for the STs and 78.76percent for the Non SC/STs (See Table 1 R). Apparently, in 2004, the bulk ofthe SC and the ST workforce in public sector banks were concentrated inclerical jobs.

In 2004, the percentage distribution of the SCs and the STs in clerical jobsstood at 43.70 and 42.25 percentage points. It is of consequence to notethat in 2004, the percentage distribution of the SCs and the STs in officercategory stood at 27.61 and 33.34 percentage points, while that for sub-staffs stood at 28.69 and 24.41 percentage points for the SCs and the STsrespectively.

In 1978, the percentage distribution of the SCs in clerical public sector jobsstood at 54.98 percent, which increased to 55.39 percent in 1980. Thereupon,the percentage distribution of the SCs in clerical jobs declined to 52.44 percentin 1990, 47.37 percent in 2000, and finally to 43.70 percent in 2004.

In 1978, the percentage distribution of the STs in clerical public sector jobsstood at 63.45 percent, which decreased to 59.02 percent in 1980. Thereupon,the percentage distribution of the STs in clerical jobs declined to 55.90 percentin 1990, 49.83 percent in 2000, and finally to 42.25 percent in 2004.

In 1978, the percentage distribution of the Non SC/STs in clerical publicsector jobs stood at 54.07 percent, which decreased to 53.58 percent in1980. Thereupon, the percentage distribution of the Non SC/STs in clericaljobs declined to 53.05 percent in 1990, 52.23 percent in 2000, and finally to48.92 percent in 2004 (See Table 1 S).

The significant difference among the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs wasthat though the numbers of officers was found to be increasing for all thethree social groups under consideration, but the rate of increase was higherfor the Non SC/STs as compared to both, the SCs and the STs.

In 1978, the absolute numbers of the SC clerical staff stood at 30775.Thereupon, the numbers increased to 37690 in 1980 and to 66584 in 1990. In


52

2000, the absolute numbers of SC clerks were 67975, which decreased to58421 in 2004.

In 1978, the absolute numbers of the ST clerical staff stood at 5438.Thereupon, the numbers increased to 7078 in 1980 and to 20886 in 1990. In2000, the absolute numbers of ST clerks were 21755, which decreased to18358 in 2004.

In 1978, the absolute numbers of the Non SC/ST clerical staff stood at 262112.Thereupon, the numbers increased to 271033 in 1980 and to 380851 in 1990.In 2000, the absolute numbers of Non SC/ST clerks decreased to 367072 andfurther to 284697 in 2004 (See Table 1 T).


The changes in the decadal numbers of clerical jobs for the time periods1978-1980 stood at 6915 for the SCs, 1640 for the STs, and 8921 for the NonSC/STs. During 1980-1988, employment for all the three social groupsincreased (25658 for the SCs, 10801 for the STs and 104305 for the Non SC/STs), but subsequently, declined during 1990-1999. The rate of decline waspositive for the SCs (2203) and the STs (1435), but negative for the Non SC/STs (-11050). During 2000-2004, the numbers of employed form all the threesocial groups became negative and stood at -9554 for the SCs, -3397 for theSTs, and -82375 for the Non SC/STs. Besides, the percentage change during1978-1988 was 22.47 percent for the SCs, 30.16 percent for the STs, and3.40 percent for the Non SC/STs. The figures for percentage change in 1980-1988 were 68.08 percent for the SCs, 152.60 percent for the STs, and 38.48percent for the Non SC/STs. Similar figures for the period during 1990-1999were 3.31 percent for the SCs, 6.87 percent for the STs, and -2.90 percentfor the Non SC/STs. In 2000-2004, the figures for the SCs stood at -14.06percent, while those for the STs and the Non SC/STs stood at -15.61 and -22.44 percentage points for the Non SC/STs. It was sufficiently evident fromthe data that though the numbers of the Non SC/STs in clerical jobs wasdeclining at an increasing rate, but simultaneously, their numbers in theofficer category were increasing at a higher rate.

The decadal average numbers of the employed from all the three social groupsrecorded an increasing trend during the time periods 1980-1988 and 1990-1999, but saw a declining trend during 2000-2004. In the 1980s, the annualgrowth rate for the SCs and the STs was 7.79 and 15.1 percentage points

53


respectively, which declined to 0.57 percent for the SCs and 0.82 percent forthe STs during the 1990s. It further declined to -5 percent for the SCs and5.4 percent for the STs during 2000-2004. Correspondingly, the annual growthrate of the Non SC/STs stood at 4.85 percent in 1980-1988. It then declinedto -0.26 percent in the 1990s and further to -8.42 percent in 2000-2004. Butover the entire period under consideration, i.e., 1978-2004, the growth ratefor the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs stood at 4.17, 5.69, and 2.30percentage points in that order.

4.5 Sub-Staffs

Percentage of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs - Vertical andHorizontal, 1978-2004

In 2004, the percentage share of the SCs, the STs, and the Non SC/STs insub-staff employment stood at 25.38, 7.02, and 67.60 percentage pointsrespectively. In this category of jobs, the percentage share of SC employmentin 2004 was the highest (about 25 percent) among all the three social groupsunder consideration. Comparatively in 2004, the share of the SCs and theSTs in the category of officers was 14.98 and 5.88 percentage points for STs,while in the category of clerks, the percentage share of the SCs and the STsstood at 16.16 and 5.08 percentage points. Also in 2004, among the Non SC/STs, their percentage share in sub-staff category of jobs was found to be thelowest at 67.60 percent in comparison to the officer (79.14 percent) andclerk (78.76 percent) categories of jobs (See Table 1 R).

In 1978, in the sub-staff category of jobs, the percentage distribution of theSCs and the STs stood at 41.02 and 34.43 percentage points respectively. Itthen saw a declining trend and stood at 38.23 percent for the SCs and 33.38percent for the STs in 1980, and finally stood at 28.69 percent for the SCsand 24.41 percent for the STs in 2004 (See Table 1 S).

The figures for absolute employment among the sub-staffs were 141354 in1978, 129648 in 1980, 176879 in 1990, 178428 in 2000, and 151102 in 2004.In 1978, the absolute numbers of the SCs and the STs in sub-staff categorywere 22963 and 2951 respectively. They then saw an increasing trend andstood at 26013 (SCs) and 4003 (STs) in 1980, 38634 (SCs) and 10044 (STs) in1990, 43653 (SCs) and 11154 (STs) in 2000. In 2004, however, the figuresdecreased both for the SCs and the STs and stood at 38350 and 10607respectively.


54

In 1978, the figures for absolute employment among the Non SC/STs stoodat 115440. In 1980, the figures declined to 99668, but increased to 128201in 1990. The figures for absolute employment in 2000 were 123621, whereby,they again declined to 102145 in 2004 (See Table 1 T).

During the period 1978-1980, the changes in the absolute numbers ofemployees for the SCs and the STs stood at 3050 and 1052, which increasedto 9190 for the SCs and 3943 for the STs during 1980-1988. But during the1990s, the numbers of employed decreased by 1315 for the SCs and 1094 forthe STs. Finally, in 2000-2004, the numbers further reduced to -5303 for theSCs and -547 for the STs. That implies that the change in employmentpercentage was 13.28 percent for the SCs and 35.65 percent for the STsduring 1978-1980, 35.33 percent for the SCs and 98.5 percent for the STs in1980-1988, 3.40 percent for the SCs and 10.89 percent for the STs in 1990s,and -12.15 percent for the SCs and -4.9 percent for the STs during 2000-2004. On the other hand, similar figures for the Non SC/STs became negativeduring 1978-1980, but, increased to 24761 during 1980-1988. However, duringthe period 2000-2004, employment change became negative (-21476) forthe Non SC/STs. In terms of change in percentage, Non SC/ST employmentstood at -13.66 percent during 1978-1980. It then increased during 1980-1988 to 24.84 percent. During the 1990s, the percentage increase was 0.25percent, which finally declined to -17.37 percent during 2000-2004.


In 1980-1988, the growth rate per annum was 8.33 percent for the SCs and10.88 percent for the STs. In 1990-1999, the figures for the growth ratestood at 0.76 percent for the SCs and 1.21 percent for the STs. In 2000-2004, however, the figures for the growth rates for the SCs and the STsbecame negative and stood at -3.29 and -1.32 percentage points respectively.

Correspondingly, the average decadal numbers of the Non SC/STs were 115167during 1980- 1988. They increased to 128134 in the 1990s, but declined to110720 during 2000-2004. The annual growth rate for the Non SC/STs was4.15 percent during 1980-1988, -0.04 percent during 1990-1999, and -5.52percent during 2000-2004. The overall growth rate during the period 1978-2004 stood at 3.58 percent for the SCs, 5.24 percent for the STs, and 1.65percent for the Non SC/STs in that order.

55


5. Employment in Insurance Companies - 1993-2000


The public sector insurance companies in India include Life InsuranceCorporation of India (LIC), GIC Reinsurance Company, National InsuranceCompany, Oriental Insurance Company, New India Assurance Company, andUnited India Insurance Company. These are Government owned financialinstitutions and are subject to the provisions of the Insurance Act (1938),the Life Insurance Corporation Act (1956), the General Insurance BusinessNationalized Act (1972) and Insurance Regulatory and Development AuthorityAct, (1999).

In consonance with the National Policy on the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs;LIC, GIC, and General Insurance Public Sector Association (GIPSA) companieshave rules, which allow for concessions and relaxations in recruitment andpromotion of the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs wherever applicable.

Percentage Share of the SC, the STs and the Non SC/STs - 2003

In 2000, the percentage share of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/STemployment in the public sector insurance companies stood at 16.59, 6.59,and 76.83 percentage points. The absolute numbers of employees in 2000were 122294 of which, the SCs were 20283, the STs 8058, and the Non SC/STs 93953 respectively. The increase in absolute numbers of employees duringthe period 1993-2000 was 5418 for the SCs, 2635 for the STs, and 7476 forthe Non SC/STs. In terms of percentage change, the figures stood at 36.45percent for the SCs, 48.59 percent for the STs, and 8.65 percent for the NonSC/STs (See Table 1 V).

Table 1 V, Total Numbers of Employment in InsuranceCompanies - Point to Point

AS on31/03

SC ST Non SC/ST

Numbers Percent Numbers Percent Numbers Percent

1993 14865 13.92 5423 5.08 86477 81.00

2000 20283 16.59 8058 6.59 93953 76.83Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 1992 to 2004-

2005.

The decadal average numbers of employment during 1993-2000 was 17259for the SCs, 6668 for the STs, and 92281 for the Non SC/STs. The overall


56

growth rate, however, stood at 5.38 percent for the SCs, 7.67 percent forthe STs, and 1.42 percent for the Non SC/STs. The trends of employmentunder reservations in the public sector insurance companies have been shownin Figure 1 K.

Figure 1 K, Trends of Employment under Reservations in the PublicSector Insurance Companies by Social Groups, 1993-2000

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000

Years

Num

ber

of

Em

plo

ym

ent

SCSTNon-SC/ST

Employment by Categories

In 2000, the percentage share of the SC and the ST employees in publicsector insurance companies in Group A jobs stood at 14.63 and 4.56percentage points; in Group B jobs, the figures were 13.97 and 4.40percentage points; in Group C jobs, the figures stood at 16.46 and 7.3340percentage points; and in Group D jobs, the figures stood at 25.96 and 8.47percentage points respectively (See Table 1 W).

Table 1 W, Percentage Share of Social Groups to Total Employees inPublic Sector Insurance Companies by Categories


SC ST Non




SC/ST Total

1993 8.59 1.99 89.42 100 11.61 3.45 84.94 100 13.24 5.64 81.12 100 27.09 7.35 65.56 100

1994 9.69 2.48 87.83 100 12.24 3.43 84.32 100 13.84 5.45 80.71 100 56.69 3.33 39.98 100

1995 11.24 2.86 85.89 100 12.74 3.64 83.61 100 14.68 5.87 79.45 100 59.61 4.44 35.95 100

1996 12.82 3.39 83.80 100 12.75 3.69 83.56 100 14.50 6.23 79.26 100 73.35 4.57 22.08 100

1997 14.03 4.00 81.97 100 1.36 4.15 94.50 100 15.24 6.63 78.13 100 28.38 7.76 63.86 100

1999 14.65 4.50 80.84 100 13.57 4.17 82.25 100 15.87 7.63 76.50 100 27.27 7.99 64.74 100

2000 14.63 4.56 80.80 100 13.97 4.40 81.63 100 16.46 7.33 76.20 100 25.96 8.47 65.56 100


The above table sufficiently elucidates the fact that the percentage share ofthe SCs and the STs to the total employment in Group A, Group B, and Group

57


C jobs falls short of the stipulated quotas of reservation. On the contrary,the two marginalized social groups sem to be adequately represented in GroupD jobs.

5.2 Group A

In 1993, the representation of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/ST employeesin Group A jobs stood at 1023, 237, and 10646 respectively. However, by2000, the representation for all the three social groups in Group A jobs hadincreased to 2374 (SCs), 740 (STs), and 13108 (Non SC/STs) in that order(See Table 1 X).

The increase was 1351 or 132.06 percent for the SCs, 5.3 or 212.2 percentfor the STs, and 2462 or 23.13 percent for the Non SC/STs. The annualcompound growth of employees in Group A jobs stood at 15 percent for theSCs, 20.9 percent for the STs, and 2.8 percent for the Non SC/STs. In 2000,about 25.12 percent of the SCs and about 19.80 percent of the STs were

Table 1 X, Employment by Social Groups the Public Sector InsuranceCompanies – Decadal Point to Point, 1993-2000


SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1993 1023 237 10646 1898 565 13891 8910 3798 54598 3034 823 7342

2000 2374 740 13108 2721 856 15897 12645 5632 58527 2543 830 6421

Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 1992 to 2004-

2005.

employed in Group A and Group B jobs. Interestingly, 74.88 percent of theSCs and 80.20 percent of the STs were concentrated in Group C and Group Djobs. Correspondingly, about 30.87 percent of the Non SC/STs were employedin Group A and Group B category of jobs, while the rest 69.13 percent wereconcentrated in Group C and Group D category of jobs (See Table 1 Y).

Table 1 Y, Percentage Distribution of the SC, the ST, and the Non SC/STEmployees in the Public Sector Insurance Companies by Categories


SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST SC ST Non

SC/ST

1993 6.88 4.37 12.31 12.77 10.42 16.06 59.94 70.04 63.14 20.41 15.18 8.49

2000 11.70 9.18 13.95 13.42 10.62 16.92 62.34 69.89 62.29 12.54 10.30 6.83



58

5.3 Group B

In 2000, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group B jobs stoodat 13.97 and 4.40 percentage points respectively. Correspondingly, the shareof the Non SC/STs in Group B jobs stood at 81.63 percent (See Table 1 W).The absolute numbers of the SCs in Group B jobs increased from 1898 in1993 to 2721 in 2000, while those of the STs increased from 565 in 1993 to856 in 2000. Similarly, the absolute numbers of the Non SC/STs increasedfrom 13891 in 1993 to 15897 in 2000 (See Table 1 X).

However, the growth rate during the period 1993-2000 stood at 2.8 percentfor the SCs, 7.1 percent for the STs, and 2.3 percent for the Non SC/STs.

5.4 Group C

In 2000, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group C jobs stoodat 16.46 and 7.33 percentage points respectively. Correspondingly, the shareof the Non SC/STs in Group C jobs stood at 76.20 percent (See Table 1 W).The absolute numbers of the SCs in Group C jobs increased from 8910 in1993 to 12645 in 2000, while those of the STs increased from 3798 in 1993 to5632 in 2000. Similarly, the absolute numbers of the Non SC/STs increasedfrom 54598 in 1993 to 58527 in 2000 (See Table 1 X).

The average number of employees during 1993-2000 stood at 11495 for theSCs, 4959 for the STs, and 60876 for the Non SC/STs.

However, the growth rate during the period 1993-2000 stood at 5.2 percentfor the SCs, 7.56 percent for the STs, and 0.5 percent for the Non SC/STs.

5.5 Group D

In 2000, the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group D jobs stoodat 25.96 and 8.47 percentage points respectively. Correspondingly, the shareof the Non SC/STs in Group D jobs stood at 65.56 percent (See Table 1 W).The absolute numbers of the SCs in Group D jobs increased from 3034 in1993 to 2543 in 2000, while those of the STs increased marginally from 823in 1993 to 830 in 2000. Conversely, the absolute numbers of the Non SC/STsdecreased from 7342 in 1993 to 6421 in 2000 (See Table 1 X).

The average number of employees during 1993-2000 stood at 2010 for theSCs, 525 for the STs, and 4334 for the Non SC/STs.

59


However, the growth rate during the period 1993-2000 stood at –92.9 percentfor the SCs, 41.29 percent for the STs, and 35.4 percent for the Non SC/STs.

6. Concluding Observations

6.1 Employment in Central Government Jobs

The analysis brought to the fore that the decline in Central Government jobsfor the SCs and the STs was at a rate higher than that for the Non SC/STs.Though a direct linkage between the NEP and the reduction in CentralGovernment jobs cannot be established at this stage of analysis, butsimultaneously, the adverse and oblique impacts of the NEP on the relativeshrinkage of the public sector under employment cannot be wished away.However, the analysis did establish that the percentage share of the SCs fellmuch short of the stipulated quotas fixed by the Government10. The analysisalso highlighted that the representation of the SCs was higher in Group Djobs.

Even the STs seem to be underrepresented in Group A and Group B categoriesof jobs. In 2003, the representation of the STs was a marginal 6.7 percent inGroup A jobs and 5.42 percent in Group B jobs 9which obviously, falls underthe stipulated quota of reservation for the STs at 7.5 percent). However, in2003, the bulk of the STs were concentrated Group C (93.3 percent) andGroup D (94.58 percent) jobs.

The analysis also accentuated that during the 1960s to the 1980s; more thanhalf of the SC employees were concentrated in Group D category of jobs,while about 40 percent were concentrated in Group C jobs respectively. Theoverall period under analysis (1960-2003) also suggests that while the absolutenumbers, as well as the percentage share of the SCs and the STs in Group Djobs has decreased, it is nevertheless, followed by an increase in theirrepresentation in Group C jobs.

6.2 Employment in Public Sector Undertakings

The positive impacts of the reservation policy were visible in the analysis ofthe PSUs. The representation of the SCs and the STs was found to haveimproved both in terms of absolute numbers and percentage share. However,the majority of the SCs and the STs in PSUs were concentrated in Group Dfollowed by Group C categories of jobs. In Group A and Group B categories of


60

jobs, the representation of the SCs and the STs was found to be unsatisfactoryand at levels below the stipulated quotas (except for the STs in Group Bcategory in 2004, whereby, their representation stood at 7.84 percent).Further, the adverse impacts of the NEP were also visible in the PSUemployment as the absolute numbers and the percentage share of the SCand the ST employees declined after its inception.

6.3 Employment in Public Sector Banks

The inception of the NEP also had impacts on employment in public sectorbanks. Though, employment declined for all social groups after the NEP wasintroduced, the impacts were more pronounced for the SCs and the STs thanthat for the Non SC/STs. The Annual Report of the Ministry of Finance, 1990specifically addressed the issue of low representation of all classes in publicsector banks and spoke about the need to launch a special drive to clear thebacklog in employment.

6.4 Employment in Public Sector Insurance Companies

The analysis of employment in public sector insurance companies was limitedby the non-availability of data before 1993 and after 2000. However, it didestablish that employment for the SCs and the STs fell below the stipulatedquota under reservations in Group A, Group B, and Group C categories ofjobs. In terms of total employment, about 75 percent were concentrated inGroup C jobs, while about 80 percent were concentrated in Group D jobs.

6.5 Emerging Issues

Despite the rhetoric on empowerment of the SCs and the STs and the existenceof extensive laws and provisions, not much has been achieved in actualterms. What has been the impact of reservation policies? While a few continueto question the need for reservations, it should be understood (as issufficiently established by the analysis) that the policy has never been fullyimplemented from the time of its conception. The central question is notwhether reservations should continue or not, but whether reservations alonewill contribute to the empowerment of SCs/STs? There is no doubt that thereservation policy has contributed immensely towards the representation ofthe marginalized social groups in public sector employment. Concomitantly,much needs to be done to fairly represent the marginalized social communities– their representation especially in the higher echelons of jobs seems to be

61


lower. Although, at overall levels, there has been an improvement in therepresentation of the SCs and the STs in the public sector, there was still agap of more than 3 percent gap in Group A jobs and of 3.18 percent in GroupB jobs in 2003. Therefore, the representation of the marginalized socialcommunities as stipulated by the Government should be realized.

Also, the high representation of the SCs and the STs in Group C and especiallyin Group D category of jobs suggests that notions of untouchability seem topervade even the spheres of Government employment. It has been welldocumented that certain menial professions like sweeping and scavengingare traditionally not taken up by the Non SC/STs due to the notion of thembeing polluted and unclean. This seems to be evidently so in the lower rungsof Government employment.

Also, the representation of the SCs and the STs remains at levels much belowthose for the Non SC/STs in all categories of jobs and for all sectors underthe Government. Therefore, it is desirable that the reservation policy inpublic sector jobs be implemented in its entirety so as to realise the socialjustice and egalitarian aims of the Government.


62

End Notes

1. Primary Census Abstract, Office of the Registrar General, New Delhi,India, 2001.

2. Vertical implies the share of a respective social group among the categoryof jobs, i.e., Group A, Group B, Group C, and Group D. For instance, thepercentage of a respective social group in Group A, Group B, Group C,and Group D equals to 100. Similarly, horizontal distribution implies thepercentage share of a respective social group among different socialgroups. For instance, the percentage share of the SCs, the STs, and theNon SC/STs equals 100.

3. Rao, Shiva B., (eds.), The Framing of India’s Constitution, Volume IV,1968, p. 45.

4. Louis, Prakash, Affirmative Action in Private Sector, Economic andPolitical Weekly, August 14, 2004, p. 3691.

5. The genesis of the reservation policy in Government jobs can be tracedto 1931 in the Poona Pact. However, reservation with specific quotas inGovernment services was promulgated in 1943 through a Governmentorder, which was later formalized in 1947 under the provision ofIndependent India’s Constitution (See Galanter: 1991, p. 86).

6. See different Annual Reports of the National Commission for the ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes, Government of India.

7. The provisions in the Anti-Untouchability Act, 1955, renamed as theProtection of the Civil Rights Act and its amendments in 1978 makes it anoffence to discriminate on the grounds of untouchability with regardsto employment in jobs. Sadly, neither the public at large are aware ofits provisions, nor has the Act been used in the public domain.

8. Thorat, Sukhadeo, 2004, and Thorat, Sukhadeo et al, 2005.

9. Annual Report, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions,Government of India, New Delhi, 2002-2003, Chapter 5, Paragraph 5.2.

10. Fifteen percent reservation is applicable for the SCs in Group A andGroup B jobs and 16.6 percent reservation is applicable in Group Cand Group D jobs.

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Reservation Policy in Indiadalitstudies.org.in/download/wp/0602.pdf · 2014. 8. 19. · Reservation Policy in India - Dimensions and Issues Sukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati