READING REPORT

APPLIED LINGUISTICS(Meeting 2-7)

By:

Yeasy Agustina SariNIM. 1304095

Lecturer: Prof. Dr. M. Zaim, M.Hum.

ENGLISH DEPARTMENTGRADUATE PROGRAM OF THE STATE

UNIVERSITY OF PADANG2013

2nd MEETING

APPLIED LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

By. Vivian Cook and Li Wei

Applied linguistic is an interantrans disciplinary approach. It identifies,

investigates, and offers solution to language-related to real life problems. In this article, the

author talks about how the importance of applied linguistics in learning the language. Applied

lingguistics can be said as the way for solving the language problrms today. In this topic, the

problem solving of applied linguistics included devising orthographies for languages that no

written from and inventing simplified languages for mariners.

For language teaching, linguistics and psychology have the important

relationships. Applied linguistics designed syllabuses and tests used around the world; some

haveventured into coursebook writing. The implementation of language teaching was universally

beneficial, here the applied linguistics hired gun was on the side of the goodies. Then this chapter

show the contribution that applied linguistics can make to language teaching. So. Applied

linguistics acan solve the problems of language teaching hopefully.

APPLIED LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE LEARNING/TECHING

Applied linguistics is close to the langauge learning and language teaching. In this

article, the writer said that there are three areas of common interest to both linguist and applied

linguist, attempted to distinguish the purposes and procedures of the two professions. The writer

discusses the field of language teaching and learning that dominant in applied linguistics. In this

chapter, the writer begins to presend the arguments for applied linguistics and against confining it

that will concern to second language teaching and learning.

Then, the writer explains the two examples problems in te field of language

teaching. They are, the optimum-age problem and proficiency test. This topic discuss these two

problems by distinguishing the problems from other views that involve some factors like: the

educational, the social, the psychological, the anthropological, the political, the religious, the

economic, the business, the planning and policy aspect, and the linguistics including the phonetic.

About the proficiency test, the writer explains that this test has been commissioned the first used

until the late 1970s, and the second operational in the early part of the 1980s, and for the next this

kind of text is called as ELTS Test- English Language Testing System.

After that, the writer investigates the problems of the methodologu od applied

linguistics. Here, the writer considered that the methodology used by the applied linguis in

working with a problem, and to that end the writer took as exples four areas of importance in

language teaching that connect with it is that is supposed to be beinglearned. They are; second

language acquisition research, language proficiency testing, teaching of LSP, and Curriculum

design. All of these four areas has particular relevance to language teaching and language

learning, the trust of applied linguistics activity is to extend the knowledge of what the learners

learn, that are; stages, markers, needs, or plans.

3rd Meeting

LEARNING STRATEGIES

This topic discuss about what are the learning strategies that should be givent to the

students. Firs of all, the writer give the expalanation about what is learning strategies. The writers

explain about the concept of strategy that is a somewhat fuzzy one. The writer also give the two

types of learning strategies that are; language learning strategies and skill learning strategies. In

this discussion, the writer conclude that they are some problems occure in learning strategies, the

first is learning strategies are to be perceived of as behavioural. Second, the problems concern the

precise nature of the behaviours that are to count as learning strategies. Third, wether learning

strategies are to be seen as conscious and intentional or as subconscious. Fourth, it concern

wether learning strategies are seen as having a direct or an indirect effect on interlanguage

development. And the last problem is, they are differences in opinions about what motivatesbthe

use of learning strategies.

Then, this chapeter also discuss about the methods that can be used to investigate the

learning strategies and also clasifying the learning strategies. The method that has been found to

be more successful involves the useof structured interview and quistionnaires that call for

retrospective accounts of the strategies learners employ. Next, there are some factors affecting

strategy choice. First, individual learner differences. Second, beliefs about language learning.

Third, learners factors. Foruth, the learner’s personal background. Fift, situational and social

factors. And the las factors is, the factors that is in the used of strategy.

DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE LEARNER STRATEGIES

This topic explain the observed that LLS ‘movement’ came about because the

focus of the research interest became the learner and bacause what learners do with their

linguistic knowledge is perhaps as important as that knowledge itself. This chapeter also explain

about how succesful and usucsessful learner have been conceptualized in the LLS literature and

the implications this has for the role that strategic behaviour plays in successful learning.

In the language learning strategies the learner should be considered as the raw

material of conscious cognitive processing and it should be considered in flexible combinations

or clusters. In this section, it defines language learner strategies from a psycholinguistic and

sociocultural perspective and examine strategy development in the light of strategy instruction

and strategic classrooms. Theese two factors as they are of particular relevance to the primary

classroom. This is not to say that other factors - some of which are identified in the following

section - do not also affect the development of LLS.

4th Meeting

LANGUAGE USER GROUPS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

This chapter discuss about the consequences of language user groups for future

directions of language teaching. As the users, they have to recognize the first language and the

second language than the monolingual. Language teaching is a teaching a local language to

people who want to take part in monolingual local language community, a central languagebto

people who want to take part in a multilingual community where the language is used, a

supercentral language to people who want to use it for specialist cross-national uses, and a

hypercentral language to people who want to use it for a range of purposese across the globe.

BILINGUAL AND MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION

This topic talk about the program of education in multiple language. Bilingual

means learning by using two languages. Bilingual education is teaching the material by using

two languages. Multilingual educational programs can provide the means to meet these

community and national aspirations. Based on linguistic and pedagogical principles, SIL works

with local and national educators to develop transition literacy materials. Transitional materials

begin with what a person has already learned through literacy in the mother tongue to gain

literacy in the national language. However, if the person has learned to read first in the national or

some other language, instructional materials can be designed to begin with that language to

transition back into the mother tongue. The person with multilingual literacy skills then has

access to print in "both worlds."

In this chapter, the writer discuss the bilingual and multilingual education in some

countries such as in Chinese Scools, South Africa. The writer also explain the purpose of

bilingual and multilingual education programs similarly, because some programmes aim to help

learners to develop knowledge about a particular cultural group. The writer also explains the

three of frames of particular schools and programmes that are language based frames, content

based frames, and context frame based.

5th Meeting

Intergrating Content-Based and Task-based Approaches for Teaching, Learning and

Research

This article is talk about the importanceof teaching trends in nowadays. The

teachhing is based on the content and task approches. This kind of teaching method purpose to

enggage the learner in their communicative, academic, and professional interest. This topic

describes the learning process in the form, feedback and production, and the suggest the need of

the task design.

The writer in this article also explain about the way to create and design the

language based task to have the meaningful communication to solve the problems. According to

the principle, most of classroom activity use the Jigsaw, Grammar Communication, and also Spot

the difference. But, by the time, this task based is quite difficult to perform, this is happen

because the task are not clear enough to deliver. The writer also said that tasks can integrate

many of the strategies that the teacher use to provide the learners with adjusted input, feedback,

negotiation, direct instruction, opportunities for modified production of output. These article can

be used during the lesson and debates. The last of of this aticle, the writer explain the task

implementation in two study. The first is done for American cultures course and the second is the

comparation of three types of tasks that is used in the content-based language course on

contemporary American culture. So, for the teachers, the content based and task based are very

useful strategies in teaching the language.

CLASSROOM INTERACTION AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

This topic describes about hhow does the interaction in classroom will be run

perfectly in the Second language learner. Here, the writer explains the classroom affords the L2

researcher for three different perspectives. First, comparative method studies. Second, involves

going inside the black box of the classroom itself. And the last, the perspectives involves

investigating the effects of formal instruction. The instruction is viewed as attempt to interveno

directly in the language learning process by teaching specific properties of the L2.

In this topic, the writer will consider some of the principal research methods that

have been used to investigate the role of classroom interaction in language learning. The writer

also wants to exmine the different aspects of classroom interaction, that are; teacher talk, error

treatment, teachers’ questions, learner participation, task based interaction, and small group work.

After that, the writer discuss about the aspects of classroom interaction. Where according to Gues

(1983a), classroom process research was based on three basic premises, arejection of the notion

that classrooms fiffer on a single variable such as method, an emphasis on decribing instructional

events as fully as possible as a way of generating hypothesies, and the priority of direct

observation.

6th Meeting

WE DO NEED METHODS

In this chapter, Michael Swan, try to explain about the method that can be used in

language teaching. The attention has been diverted from the linguistic ‘centre’ by the increasing

interest of applied linguistic researchers in matters which are pheriperal or ancillary to teaching

language itself, and by post method views which tend to discourage concern with questions of

methodology.

Then the writer also scetch out about the method, Methods, and Postmethod. For

these three kinds of methods, the writer explain that the mother tongue must never be used in

foreign language; learning can only be effective if it involves genuine communication;

comprehensive input provides all that it neessary for effecive acquisit. In the condition of

postmetods, methods fail to address the broarder contexts of language teaching. Sometimes we

have ignored several other factors that govern classroom processes and practices and practices,

the factors are; teacher cognition, learner perception, societal needs, cultural contexts, political

exigencies, economic imperatives ( Kumaravadivelu, 2006:165). Kumaravadivelu (2006:201)

also list the macrostrategies which characterize postmethod language teaching, and from which

teachers can generate the situation that specific to the language teaching techniques: 1) maximize

learning opportunities; 2)Facilitate negitiated interaction; 3) Minimize perceptual mismatches; 4)

Activate intuitive heuristics; 5) Foster language awareness; 6) Contextualize linguistic input; 7)

Integrate language skills; 8) Promote learner autonomy; 9) Ensure soocial relevance; and 10)

Raise cultural consciousness.

Michael Swann also suspect that the postmethod account of language teaching

history, whereby monolithic approaches have generally and comprehensively dictated the shape

of courses, material, and teaching techniques, may be somewhat over simplified. So the

important things are the syllabus, the materials, and test design. Then, on the centrifugal muddle,

doing things is easies, and more fun, than teaching things. It is caused by the activities thet there

be an identifiable linguistic payoff for the time and energy invested.

In the communicative bias, the products are getting extract meaning from text and

training the students become better at preceiving and decodung the phonetic features. Then, the

writer also discuss about the language teaching and the need for methods, that tell the problem

with the large-scale language teaching approaches. Next, there are four problems that the course

of isntruction must privide the learner with an appropriate knowledge and skill based. They are;

Selection and presentation, establishment of a knowledge base, development of recall and

deployment, and course architecture. Finally, the writer tell about the fiture about the language

teaching methodologi. How it can be expected to develop this method in the future? Michael

Swan, answer this question by two things; first, the language teaching method will make the

progress, and the second, the progress, though real, will never be spectacular.

FORMAL INSTRUCTION AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

As we know that the formal instruction is the education a student receives in a

classroom setting from a pre designed syllabus. It is a standard in most culture that children go to

school to receive a formal education. However, there is a large portion of the population that is

begining to accept the notion that formal education in the classroom teaching is teaching the

second language learer and theoretical, that is the instruction will be successfully, and lingustic

environment and internal processing mechanisms.

Formal instruction here, discuss about the cognitive and metacognitive goals. In

this chapeter, the author explains about the different betrween the two types of goals, that Ellis

( 1994 ) stated. Then, in language centred instruction, here the learners were able to develop a

native-like competence as a result of communicating in second language ( L2 ).

Then in this chapter, the writer also explains about the effects of formal instruction

on second language learning, and also on general language proficiency. There are eleven studies

here, they are; first, six studies that lent to support to formal instruction; Second, three studies

that indicated that instruction did not help; Third, a study that exposure without formal instruction

was beneficial; and Fourth, two studies that ambiguos cases.

7th Meeting

INTERLANGUAGE AND THE ‘NATURAL’ ROUTE OF DEVELOPMENT

This chapter will explore the case for a mentalist interpretaticor of SLA. In oder to

do so, it will consider mentalist accounts of L1 acquisition, the interlanguage construct in SLA,

the empirical evidence for natural developmental route and the extent to which this route is the

same in L1 acquisition and SLA. The goal of this chapter is to examine the claims that the second

language (L2) learners acquire knowledge of a L2 in a fixed order. This emphasized the

importance of environmental factors and first language (L1) interference.

The writer also begins with her consider in; 1) Te background theory and research

in L1 acquisition; 2) The notion of interlanguage, a discussion of the L2=L1 hyphotheses; 3) The

cavoats regarding the centrality of learner. According to the mentalist theory, L1 acquisition was

the product of an Acquistion Device (AD) by which means the child relkated a set of Universal

Grammatical Rules to the surface structure of the language he was learning. There are fifth

mentalist View of L1 acquistion. They are; 1) Language is a human-specific faculty; 2) language

Exist as independent faculty; 3) The primary determinant of L1 Acquisition is the child’s AD,

which genetically endowed and provides the child with a set of principles about grammar; 4) The

AD atrophies with age; 5) The process of acquisition consist of hyphotheses testing, by which

means the grammar of the learner’s mother tongue is related to the principles of Universal

Grammar (UG).

Then the writer also discuss about the term interlanguage that is used for the first

time by Slinker ( 1972). He said that, interlanguage refer to the structure system which the learner

at any given stage in his development and it also refer to the series of interlocking systems which

form what Corder (1967) called the learner’s built-in syllabus. Selinker raised the three principles

features of the interlanguage focused, they are; language-learner language is permeable,

language-learner language is dynamic, and language-learner language is systematic.

After that, the writer explain about the error analysis and also the procedure that

are used for error analysis. They are, 1) a corpus of language is selected, 2) error in the corpus are

identified, 3) the errord are classified; 4) the errors are explained; 5) the errors are evaluated. The

last of this chapter, the writer add about the cross-section research, that the study of morpheme

quere carried out to investigate the order acquisition of a range of grammatical functions in the

speech of L2 learners. Also about morphemes that have examined the acquisition of grammatical

morphemes that have foccused on the other aspects of development.

INTERLANGUAGE AND FOSSILIZATION; TOWARDS AN ANALYTIC MODEL

The article discuss about the process of learning a second language (L2) is

characteristically non-linear and fragmentary, marked by a mixed landscape of rapid progression

in certain areas but slow movement, in cubation or even permanent stagnation in others. Such a

process results in a linguistic system known as interlanguage ( Selinker, 1972 ). Fossilization, or

the cessation of learning is recognized as a widespread phenomenon in second language

acquisition. The researchers Agnello, 1977; Bean,1990; Bruzzese, 1977; Sotillo, 1987) have not

identified the linguistic behavioor of those whose second language acquistion has cased. This

study seeks to identify some characteristics of linguistic behavior that distinguishes fossilized

nonnative speakers from those who are still learning. There is a theory ^ Vygotskian ( suggests

that differences might be found between these two groups in performance on tasks which

challenge the linguistic abilities of the speakers. Four hypotheses, concerning (1) the use of

imitation, (2) the ability to learn short-term, (3) the use of object- and other-regulation, and (4)

the use of private speech were tested with two groups of English as a second language speakers,

one fossilized and one non fossilized.

Selinker (1972) define the fossilixation is the concept of the first language that is

purportedly the source language that provides the initial building materials to be gradually

blended with materials tkaen from the target language, resulting in new forms that are neither in

the L1, nor in the Target Language, though lacking in sophistication in the view of many

contemporary L2 researchers. Then, the writer also explain the definitions of fossilization for

more clearly. According to Plan (1977), Fossilization is for L2 children, Besser (2002), for

adolescent, and adult learners ( Lardiere, 2007). Selinker (1972) also suggest that phenomenon of

fossilization is the most important distinguishing the factor that rekated to L1 acquisition.

The theoretical perspective on interlanguage have multiplied since the early days

of SLA research. The field has made major advances, both units own, through accumulation of

empirical findings, and through increasingly interfacing with other diciplines, notably, theretical

linguistics and cognitive psychology. This chapter also explain the draws of primarily on the

Universal Grammar ( UG ) for L2 that perspective to elucidate the issue of selective fossilization.

The writer also discuss about the concept of fossilization in SLA research that related to

interlanguage that will be the phenomenon for all SLA.