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Qualitative Research: The Concept & Methodologies
Dr. Said AldhafriThe Research Council – Social Observatory
1
Scientific Reseach
Development
TRC was established in 2005 as a policy-making
body and funding agency to encourage the
promotion and application of research,
innovation and science.
The Research Council ( TRC )
Create an innovation
ecology that is
responsive to local
needs and
international trends,
fosters social harmony,
and leads to creativity
and excellence.
Regional hub of innovation –
leader in producing new ideas,
products and services
Significant research capacity
Research excellence in selectedareas
Receptive to local social and economic needs – with alacrity!
Infrastructure for evidence-basedpolicy decisions
Research Capacity
Research Excellence
Knowledge Transfer
EnablingEnvironment
Mission Vision Goals
The Research Council ( TRC )
In Line with the National Research Strategy (2008-2020), a Gradual
Approach Has Been Designed to Build on Existing Capabilities and
Generate Wealth
2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Develop strategic scenarios
Input from local and
international experts
Design overall
and sectorial
long-term strategies
Define mission
,visions
andgoals
Identify nationalpriorities
Assess currentcapacit
y
Design
mid-term plans
Identifygaps
Identify currentirritants
Define short-term
actions
Investment in next
generation research
Orientation of resources to priority areas
Expansion of current
research capacity
“Teach me how to fly”
“Put me on the right track”
“Get hurdles out of my way”
The Strategy Outlined a Number of Programs to be Implemented Covering the Full
Spectrum of the Research and Innovation Cycle
The Research Council ( TRC )
Research Sectors in TRC
Culture, Basic & Social Sciences (CBSS)
Education & Human
Resources (HER)
Information & Communications
Technologies (ICT)
Health and Social Services
(HSS)
Energy and industry (EI)
Environmental
& Biological Resources (EBR)
Research
Sectors
Programs &
Research
Open Research Grants (ORG)
Program
The Strategic Research Grant
Program
Research Chairs
Program
Research Centers Program
Research Programs in TRC
FURAPFaculty-Mentored
Undergraduates Research
Award Program
GRSPGraduate Research
Support Program
Open Research Grants Program (ORG)
Aims at enhancing research capacity in the Sultanate of Oman by
allocating unlimited funding for equipment, graduate students and
other operational expenses.
Approved Funds (OMR) Per Sector 2009 - 2016
ICT, 1,286,349.
00
CBSS, 1,888,087.
00
EI,
3,895,407.0
0
HSS,
4,770,763.00
EBR, …
HER, 1,755,885.
00
0
20
40
60
80
100
ICT CBSS E&I HSS EBR E&HR
47 50
74
86
6958
18 15
3441
30 28
received proposals Funded proposals
received and funded proposals (2009-2016)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ICT CBSS E&I HSS EBR E&HR
58
1411
24
1
18
9
2224
3028
phD Mcs
Students benefiting from Funded Proposal (2009-2016)
Open Research Grants Indicators
FURAP Award
1. FURAP projects are encouraged to compete for the program
Research Award. The awarding ceremony is usually held as part of
the Annual Research Forum (ARF). Each institution nominates the
best project in each of the six sectors to compete with other
institutions.
2. Evaluation Committees appointed by TRC will select the winning
project in each sector.
3. Winning projects must participate with poster/oral presentations at
the ARF.
GRSP- Indicators
Graduate Research Support Program (GRSP)
Organization No. of Proposals Total Budget (OMR)
OMSB 4 12,332
SQU 1 5,000
OMC 1 5,000
MoH 1 5,000
AOU 1 4,900
MC 1 3,200
Grand Total 9 35,432
Average 3937
Graduate Research Support Program
(GRSP), 2014
Annual Research Forum and National Research Award (NRA)
Encourage researchers to continue their activities and initiatives in
conducting high quality research.
Encourage the development of the research culture and enhance the
quality of the research output in the Sultanate of Oman.
Increase research output, that is relevant and important to the
Sultanate of Oman.
Increase the level of awareness about TRC and its various initiative and programs to support research
and innovation
Two Award Categories
PhD holders
Young Researchers
Award value 2000 OMR per category per sector
Objectives
Road Safety
Research Program
DubasResearch Program
Social Observatory
Research Program
Renewable Energy
Strategic Program
Omani Cultural Heritage Research Program
Red Alga Bloom
Strategic Research Program
Food Safety
Strategic Research Program
Non-communic
able diseases (NCD)
Strategic Research Program
The Strategic Research Grants Program
Aims at finding solutions for issues of national importance by calling for proposals locally and internationally.
Water Research Strategic Program
Themes of the Strategic Program
Crash analysis
Legal and Compliance
Issues
Behavior and Social Issues
Trauma Care Services
Road Safety Research Program
Road Traffic Accidents are a growing critical issue in and
need of sustainable solutions
Steering Committee
Royal Oman Police
The Research Council
Sultan Qaboos University
MOT
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
Petroleum Development Oman
Ministry of Manpower
Muscat Municipalities
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Social Development
Steering Committee
Ministry of Agriculture and FisheriesThe Research Council Ministry of Environment and Climate AffairsSultan Qaboos UniversityRoyal Court AffairsMinistry of Health
Dubas is the most destructive sucking pestattacking date palms in Oman, as well as inother countries around the world.
Recorded in Oman since 1962.
Themes of the Strategic Program
Ecology and Biology of Dubas and its Natural
Enemies.
Insecticides Screening and Resistance Management.
Improve the monitoring and evaluation of
infestation.
Socio-economics and cultural practices.
Developing Integrated Management for Dubas Bug in the Sultanate of Oman
Social Observatory Research Program (SORP)
20
The Social Observatory Research Program (SORP) aimsto contribute to social well-being through monitoringsocial trends and phenomena and responding withresearch-based solutions.
Work & Standard of
Living
Youth Values
Family Cohesion
Themes of the Strategic Program
Steering Committee
Ministry of Social Development
The Research Council
Ministry of Health
National Centre for Statistics and Information
National Centre for Statistics and Information
Sultan Qaboos University
Ministry of Finance
Organizing 11 workshops related to social research and data collection
Preparing a national study in youth values and finishing data collection of more than 10000
participants across the country
Achievements
Social Observatory Research Program (SORP)
Renewable Energy Strategic research program
Mission:
To conduct high quality scientific, experimental research to seek and propose
real solutions for national challenges of renewable energy and energy
efficiency. The outcomes will enhance the capacity building, knowledge
transfer and will contribute to achieve the national vision to contribute by 10%
in the energy generation by 2030.Steering Committee
The Research Council
Public Authority for Electricity and Water
Sultan Qaboos University
Authority for Electricity Regulation
Ministry of Finance
Public Establishment for Industrial Estates
Special Economic Zone Authority –Duqm
Ministry of Defiance
Research
themes
Omani Cultural Heritage Research Program
In collaboration with Public Authority of Radio and Television, The
Research Council has initiated a strategic research program in Omani
Cultural Heritage.
Program objectives
1. Promoting cultural heritage research in Oman
2. Strengthening the role of cultural heritage in
sustainable development in Oman
3. Carrying on scientific research in material
and non-material Omani cultural heritage
Steering Committee
Public Authority for Radio and Television
The Research Council
Ministry of Culture and Heritage
National Museum
Sultan Qaboos Higher Center for culture and science
Oman National Commission for Education, Culture and science
Public Authority for craft industries
Ministry of Tourism
2 Experts
Food Safety and Quality Strategic Research Program
Steering Committee
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water ResourcesThe Research CouncilSultan Qaboos UniversityGeneral Authority for Consumer ProtectionMinistry of Commerce and IndustryMinistry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs Ministry of Agriculture and FisheriesMinistry of HealthMuscat MunicipalityDhofar Municipality
Themes of the Strategic Program
Food Safety Risks and Mitigation
The halal food requirements
Food regulatory framework
The Dietary Patterns and Food Databanks
Food safety for public consumption is an
increasingly important issue and the number of
recorded deaths annually associated with food
and water up to (2.000.000) deaths
Source: World Health Organization
Red Alga Bloom Research Program
Steering Committee
Ministry of Agriculture and FisheriesThe Research Council Ministry of Environment and Climate AffairSultan Qaboos UniversityPublic Authority for Electricity and WaterMinistry of HealthMinistry of Foreign Affairs
Themes of the Strategic Program
Investigating the Environmental Conditions triggering HAB’s
Investigating the environmental, economic and health impacts caused by HAB’s
Taxonomical work to be familiar with existing species and their environment
Assessing methodology and facilities used to mitigate HAB’s.
In sultanate , it has been recorded the
deaths of about 200 tons of fish between
the months of October 2008 and March
2009 because of harmful alga blooms
Water Research Strategic Program
Main Theme of symposium“Managing Water Resources for Sustainable Development”
University of Tokyo (2-3 October 2014)
TRC board approved a proposal to establish the
program in 2016 as part of the recommendations
of the third symposium for Sultan Qaboos
Scientific Chairs which was organized by Sultan
Qaboos Higher Centre for Culture and Sciences.
Recommendations of Symposium
Support of Water Research
Allocation of awards in water sciences
Smart City Strategic Program
The Chair of Nanotechnology for Water Desalination
Research Chair of Material Sciences
Aims at establishing centers of research excellence in focused areas of national priority.
1
2
Research Chair of Biodiversity Conservation (focusing on Frankincense & Medicinal plants)
3
Research Chair Program
Oman Center for Animal & Plant Genetic Resources
Institute of Advance Technology Integration
Aims at establishing platforms for applied research and development in market-‐oriented
technologies and to provide a training environment for postgraduate students.
1
2
30
Research Centers Program
Research Culture
How to Develop Research
Universities Role
Daily Practices of Research
How to Develop Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
Before discussing the differences between qualitative and quantitative methodologies
one must understand the foundational similarities.
=?
Foundational Similarities
All qualitative data can be measured and coded using quantitative methods.
Quantitative research can be generated from qualitative inquiries.
Example: One can code an open-ended interview with numbers that refer to data specific references, or such references could become the origin of a randomized experiment.
Foundational Differences
The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research stems from the researcher’s underlying strategies.
Quantitative research is viewed as confirmatory and deductive in nature.
Qualitative research is considered to be exploratory and inductive.
The distinction between qualitative
and quantitative research is not
precise. Most qualitative work has
some form of quantitative analysis
involved, and visa-versa.
Problem Method Data CollectionSupport or Reject
Hypotheses
Process: How Quantitative
Research Really Works…
Process in Qualitative Research
An Iterative
Approach
(Inductive
Analysis)
1) research
topic/questions
2) sampling, site
selection
3) data gathering
4) analysis
5) write-up
4) more analysis
Field work
Goals of Qualitative Social Research
Giving voice
Interpreting cultural and historical phenomena Due to the fact that there are often many aspects
involved in historical research, and because many of thematerials are not specifically quantitative in nature
Advancing new theories “Inductive logic”; it goes from a specific case to a general
case
qualitative cases are often more in-depth, and give afuller picture of phenomena than quantitative cases
Qualitative Field Research
Produces observations not easily reduced tonumbers
Includes a range of data collection methodsincluding field notes, one-to-one and focusgroup interviews, as well as some forms ofcontent analysis and historical analysis
Good for studying social process; How doesthis come about?
Qualitative Research Stereotypes
is not generalizable
The sample is too small to say anything / is not a random sample / not representative
Very interesting, but can you show me some data that supports your claims?
the researcher’s presence in the setting biases the results
lacks rigor, procedure is unsystematic
Qualitative Research – Distinctive Points of Emphasis, Priorities
Naturalistic Observation – how things unfold
out in the real world (uncontrived)
Interested in Subjective Meanings (of
Research Subjects) – ascertaining and
analyzing the actor’s point of view (opinion,
attitude, belief, value)
Inductive Analysis – on the side of theory
discovery rather than theory testing
Qualitative Research
Terminology
Methods
Strengths and weaknesses
Terminology
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Field research
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory refers to an inductive process of generating theory from data.
This is considered ground-up or bottom-up processing.
Grounded theorists argue that theory generated from observations of the empirical world may be more valid and useful than theories generated from deductive inquiries.
Grounded Theory (con’t)
Grounded theorists criticize deductive reasoning since it relies upon a priori assumptions about the world.
However, grounded theory incorporates deductive reasoning when using constant comparisons.
In doing this, researchers detect patterns in their observations and then create working hypotheses that directs the progression of the inquiry.
Ethnography
Ethnography emphasizes the observation of details of everyday life as they naturally unfold in the real world. This is sometimes called naturalistic research.
Ethnography is a method of describing a culture or society. This is primarily used in anthropological research.
Field Research
Field research is a general term that refers to a group of methodologies used by researchers in making qualitative inquiries.
The field researcher goes directly to the social phenomenon under study and observes it as completely as possible.
Field Research (con’t)
The natural environment is the priority of the field researcher. There are no implemented controls or experimental conditions to speak of.
Such methodologies are especially useful in observing social phenomena over time.
Methods
Participant observation
Direct observation
Unstructured or intensive interviewing
Case studies
Participant Observation
The researcher literally becomes part of the observation.
Example: One studying the homeless may decide to walk the streets of a given area in an attempt to gain perspective and possibly subjects for future study.
Direct Observation
Direct observation is where the researcher observes the actual behaviors of the subjects, instead of relying on what the subjects say about themselves or others say about them.
Example: The observation booth at a college may be used for direct observation of behavior where survey or other empirical methodologies
may seem inappropriate.
Unstructured or IntensiveInterviewing
This method allows the researcher to ask open-ended questions during an interview.
Details are more important here than a specific interview procedure.
Here lies the inductive framework through which theory can be generated.
Case Studies A particular case study may be the focus of any
of the previously mentioned field strategies.
The case study is important in qualitative research, especially in areas where exceptionsare being studied.
Example: A patient may have a rare form of cancer that has a set of symptoms and potential treatments that have never before been researched.
Focus Groups Establishing the Group
Small group
Coordination Issues
Paying your subjects
Finding a place
Need at least two research team members;facilitation and note-taking
Purpose: RICH DATA not generalizability
Focus Groups
Advantages
Real-life data in a social setting
Flexibility
Speedy results
Low in cost
Group Format generates discussion
Focus Group Disadvantages
Groupthink
Less control than one-to-one interview
Data more difficult to analyze
Moderators need to be skilled
Differences between groups can be troublesome
Difficult to coordinate
Reliability issues
Recording process
Probing and Follow-Up Questions
INTERVIEWER TRAINING IS CRITICAL
Participation Action Research (PAR) Explicitly and implicitly, PAR has a goal of meeting
community needs and/or giving back to the communities ofresearch
With PAR, the communities of research are included as“experts” in deciding the focal point of research (problemconceptualization); and investigation strategy (researchdesign) to help the community.
Research is conceived as a tool of communityempowerment.
You as researcher are guide.
This is a substantial departure from traditional models whereresearch expert objectifies subjects of research, extracts data,and leaves without further contact.
Qualitative Interviewing
Good technique for researchers lessinterested in “variables” and moreinterested in how individualssubjectively see the world and makesense of their lives
Who are you going to talk to?
Theoretical Sampling
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss; 1967;The Discovery of Grounded Theory
The data collection, coding and analysisprocesses occur ongoing providing usdirection for who needs to be talked to next…and perhaps new types of questions thatneed to be asked
When do you quit interviewing? Theoretical Saturation
You quit interviewing when you have reached “theoreticalsaturation”
exhausted the variation in data patterns emerging; no newthemes are being offered by added interviews
Example: Midwifery Research; Rationale for choosinghomebirth
Natural life event, Control and Empowerment, Safety, Careavailability, Quality of Care
You are presenting the set of of ideas, patterns, practiceswhich were communicated in interviews (# that talkedabout each does not matter). However, if only 1 person outof 30 mentions something, it would not e included in the setof “themes” in the analysis.
Introduction and Building Rapport explain purpose again
verbal confidentiality assurance (and go over form)
no right or wrong answers…
o.k. to ask questions and clarify
ask permission to record
Your Questions If flexible format… list of things to be sure to talk about
To get rich data: PROBE AND FOLLOW
You and the Interview: attending, listening,thinking, taking notes, taping note taking – clarify something; to keep you focused
silence and patience – balanced with keeping the interview going
redirect long-winded tangents back to your line of focus
After the Interview: Writing up the Interview and…
Summary and notes of main points
Verbatim transcripts (don’t let them pile up)
Ideas – tentative pieces of analysis
Methodological difficulties
Personal emotional experience
Responding to interviewee requests; emotionalissues?
Ethical Issues
Participants are not given the right to consent
Some of the archival records contain sensitive data
Researchers need to show the necessity for good measuresto protect the rights of the participants
Must have IRB approval
Evaluating the Data The data from low-constraint research is a rich set of
information
Data usually needs to be coded to providesimplification and organization
The analyses will depend on the questions and thelevel of data produced after coding
Must be cautious in interpreting data from low-constraint research
Strengths and Weaknesses
Objectivity
Reliability
Validity
Generalizability
Limitations
Poor representativeness
Poor replicability
Limitations of the observer
Going Beyond the Data
Objectivity
It is given that objectivity is impossible in qualitative inquiry. Instead the researcher locates his/herself in the research.
Objectivity is replaced by subjective interpretation and mass detail for later analysis.
Reliability
Since procedure is de-emphasized in qualitative research, replication and other tests of reliability become more difficult.
However, measures may be taken to make research more reliable within the particular study (such as observer training, or more objective checklists, and so on).
Validity
Qualitative researchers use greater detail to argue for the presence of construct validity.
Weak on external validity.
Content validity can be retained if the researcher implements some sort of criterion settings.
Generalizability
Results for the most part, do not extend much further than the original subject pool.
Sampling methods determine the extent of the study’s generalizability.
Purposive sampling strategies are used to broaden the generalizability.
BIG DATA
Summing Up Remember that there are always trade-offs
in research.
Are you willing to trade detail for generalizability?
Will exploratory research enable you to generate new theories?
Can you ask such sensitive questions on a questionnaire?
Summing Up (con’t)
Will the results add any evidence toward any pre-existing theory or hypothesis?
Is FUNDING available for this research?
Do you really need to see numbers to support your theories or hypotheses?
Are there any ethical problems that could be minimized by choosing a particular strategy?
Thank you very much
