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From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force, a galaxy of scientists of the highest ability. Striving to tease apart its secrets, these talented individuals have brought with them a broad range of skills from other disciplines while many of the problems they have encountered have proved to be soluble only by new inventions. Looking at their work, one is constantly made aware that scientists in this field appear to have enjoyed a greater sense of excitement in their work than is given to most. Why? For over 60 years, such men and women have been fascinated and stimulated by their awareness that the study of nucleic acids is central to the knowledge of life. Michael Blackburn et al., Nucleic Acids in Chemistry and Biology, RSC Publishing, 2006 Nukleinske kiseline

Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

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Page 1: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force, a galaxy of scientists of the highest ability. Striving to tease apart its secrets, these talented individuals have brought with them a broad range of skills from other disciplines while many of the problems theyhave encountered have proved to be soluble only by new inventions. Looking at their work, one is constantly made aware that scientists in this field appear to have enjoyed a greater sense of excitement in their work than is given to most. Why?

For over 60 years, such men and women have been fascinated and stimulated by their awareness that the study of nucleic acids iscentral to the knowledge of life.

Michael Blackburn et al., Nucleic Acids in Chemistry and Biology,RSC Publishing, 2006

Nukleinske kiseline

Page 2: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Sadržaj predavanja

Odnos proteina i nukleinskih kiselina– Otkriće DNK– Osnovna hemijska struktura DNK– Otkriće DNK kao nosioca genetske informacije

• Dimenzije DNK i organizacija u ćeliji• Kako izgleda (preparat) DNK?• Zašto su nukelinske baze izabrane za čuvanje

i prenos genetske informacije?

Page 3: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

DNK

iRNK

Transkripcija

Ćelija

“Centralna dogma molekularnebiologije”

Polipeptid(protein)

Translacija Ribozom

©1998 Timothy G. Standish

Page 4: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Biosintetički ciklus samoreprodukcije ćelije

Page 5: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Lekar, Friedrich Miescher (1869) izolovao supstancu (nukleoprotein) koju jenazvao nuclein (potiče iz jedra).

Čist preparat (bez proteina) izolovao Richard Altman 1889 i nazvao ganukleinska kiselina

Miescher

Laboratorija u Tibingenu u kojoj je Mischer izolovao nuclein

Zašto se time bavio?Očekivao je da će tu naći nešto interesantno!

Page 6: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

• Supstanca je bila toliko neobična da je Hoppe-Seyler (Miescherov profesor i “otac biohemije”) ponovio postupak izolovanjem DNK iz sperme lososa! pre nego što je dozvolio da se rad Miescher-a publikuje.

Page 7: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Određivanje hemijske strukture nukleinskih kiselina

• Istraživanja je započeo Levene (1909) određivanjem strukture nukleotida u:

- timusnoj NK (otporna na alkalnu hidrolizu): DNK

- i biljnoj NK (podložna alkalnoj hidrolizi): RNK

Phoebus Levene

Radio sa Albrecht Kosselomi Emil Fischerom, ekspertimaza biomakromolekules kraja 19/početka 20 veka

Page 8: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Dezoksiriboza

Riboza

1

233

4

5

1

4

2

3

5

Page 9: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Pirimidini

NH2

O

N

N NH

NH

Guanin

N

NH

Adenin

N

N

NH2

N O

NH2

NH

O

NH2

NCitozin

Purini

Uracil(RNK)CH3

N ONH

O

NH

N ONH

O

NH

Timin(DNK)

Page 10: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

OH

OCH2

Šećer

H

HH

NukleotidAdenozin monofosfat (AMP)

OH

NH2

N

N N

N

BazaP

O

OH

HO OFosfat

2’3’

4’

5’

1’Nukleotid

Nukleozid

H+

-

Page 11: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Šeć

er-fo

sfat

nakičm

a

NB: fosfodiestarska veza

Pi-5’-4’-3’-Pi-5’-4’-3’-Pi-5’-4’-3’-PiH

Page 12: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

RNK vs. DNK

Page 13: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Primenom metoda koje su bile na raspolaganju početkom 20. veka zaključeno je da se četiri komponente DNK nalaze u približno istom odnosu što je rezultovalo u hipotezi o TETRANUKLEOTIDNOJ strukturi DNK.....

Tetranukleotidna struktura DNK je bila u suprotnosti sa određivanjem molekulske mase DNK ~ 106 Da!!!!

Page 14: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Eksperimentalni dokazi da je DNK (a ne proteini!) nosilac genetske informacije:

- Otkriće “genetske transformacije” (Frederick Griffith, 19281928. g.). g.)

- DNK je “transformišući princip” (Oswald T. Avery iMaclyn McCarty,rane 1940.g.)

- Definitivan dokaz da je DNK nosilac genetske informacije (Alfred Hershey i Martha Chase, 1952. g)

Page 15: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

• Otkriće anilinskih boja izazvalo veliki interes kod biologa za bojenje ćelijskih struktura!!!!

• Walter Flemming otkrio (1870 g), na osnovu specifičnog bojenja,hromozome koji se mogu videti samo tokom deobe ćelije; povezao otkriće sa zakonima genetike (Mendel)!

Fleming je spekulisao da je hromozom = nucleinE.B. Wilson dokazao (1900 g.) hromatin = nuclein1920: Nukleinske kiseline su glavna komponenta hromozoma!!!!

Otkrića ispred svog vremena!!!

Page 16: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Otkriće “genetske transformacije” (Frederick Griffith, 19281928. g.). g.)

Pneumococcus

-virulentni S soj izaziva upalu pluća;-nevirulentni R soj ne izaziva upalu pluća

Page 17: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

“Transformišući princip” je DNK !!! (Oswald T. Avery i Maclyn McCarty,rane 1940.g.)

Ekstrakti S bakterija ubijenih toplotom sadržavali su proteine, RNK i DNK.

Koja od ovih supstanci izaziva transformaciju?

Odlučili su da primene proces eliminacije:...

Page 18: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

• Odstranjivanje proteina i lipida (ekstrakcijom) ne utiče na aktivnost;

• U ekstrakt su dodali:– Proteazu (da se razore proteini)– RNAzu (da se razori RNK)– DNAzu (da se razori DNK)

• Elementarni sastav prečišćenog “transformišućeg principa” odgovara DNK;

• “Transformišući princip” po osobinama (spektri, ultracentrifuga, viskoznost, elektroforeza) odgovara DNK.

• Za transformaciju je isključivo odgovorna DNK!!!.....

• ....otkriće prošlo nezapaženo!!!!!

Page 19: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Amerikanci, Alfred Hershey i Martha Chase (1952)su definitivno dokazali da je DNK nosilac genetske

informacije

Page 20: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Oni su koristili bakteriofag (virus koji napada bakterije)

Virusi su organizovane asocijacije makromolekula:nukleinske kiseline se nalaze unutar protektivne proteinske ljuske.

Page 21: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,
Page 22: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

• Kako izgleda 3-D struktura molekula DNK?

– rendgenska strukturna analiza!!!

• Kako molekul DNK čuva i prenosi genetsku informaciju????

Page 23: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

1952-2002

Jim Watson & Francis Crick

Page 24: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Dužina molekula DNK po ćeliji

Page 25: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Rel

ativ

neve

ličin

ebi

omol

ekul

a

E. coli ≈ 2000 nm = 2 μm = 0.002 mm

Page 26: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Dimenzije DNK: relativne dužine

• Dužina (m)

• Ukupna DNK u humanim ćelijama 1m• DNK u humanom hromozomu 10-2 m• Prečnik lopte humane DNK 10-8 m• Prečnik molekula DNK 10-9 (1 nm)• Prečnik atoma 10 -10 (1 Å)

• Dužina x 106

• 1000 km • 10 km• 1 cm• 1 mm

Page 27: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Organizacija DNK u ćeliji

Page 28: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Izolovanje DNK

• Kako se izoluje DNK iz biološkogmaterijala?

• Sličnosti i razlike u odnosu na izolovanjeproteina!

• Osnovni problem:– veličina molekula DNK: ako se pažljivo radi

dobijaju se fragmenti molekulske mase 107 D

Page 29: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Kako izgleda preparat DNK: efekat jonske sile

Page 30: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Zašto su baze izabrane za čuvanje i prenos genetske informacije?

• Tautomerija baza

• Horizontalne i vertikalne interakcije među bazama:

– Vodonične veze u nepolarnoj sredini/rastvaraču: komplementarnost/prepoznavanje baza

– Slepljivanje (“stacking”) baza(uključuje i hidrofobni efekat) u vodi: stabilnost

Page 31: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,
Page 32: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Keto – enolna izomerija (tautomerija)

Page 33: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Keto enolna ravnoteža i polarnost rastvarača

Page 34: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Vodonično vezivanje među bazama

Page 35: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Tautomernestrukture bazai vodonično vezivanje

Page 36: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Retki imino tautomer

N N

NH2

O

HN

N N

N

NH

C

(1 na 108 - 1 na 1010 parova baza)

Spontane mutacije zbog prisustva male količine tautomernih oblika baza

N

N

NN

H2N

NH

N

O

O

AT

H3C

Normalno sparivanje baza Pogrešno sparivanje

Amino

A

Page 37: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Vodonično vezivanje među bazama

• Horizontalne interakcije među bazamau nepolarnim rastvaračima– prepoznavanje baza– tipovi vodoničnog vezivanja među

bazama

Page 38: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Konstante vezivanja baza u nepolarnomrastvaraču

Page 39: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

NO

H

NO

N

NH C

itozin

H

O

NN

N

N

N

H

H

Guanin -+

+

+

-

-

W-C sparivanje baza:guanin i citozin

Page 40: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

CH 3N

ON

ONH+

- TiminN

NN

N

HN H

-

+Adenin

W-C sparivanje baza:adenin i timin

Page 41: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Primeri vodoničnog vezivanja međubazama

Page 42: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Slepljivanje (”stacking”) baza

• Vertikalne interakcije među bazama uvodi

• Dokazi za “stacking” interakcije• Termodinamika

Page 43: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Interakcije baza u vodi: “slepljivanje” “stacking” baza

Page 44: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Dokazi za “stacking” baza u vodenomrastvoru

Smanjenjeosmotskogpritiskanije zbogvodoničnogvezivanja!

Zašto?

Page 45: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

UV spektri baza

Da li bi se na osnovu UV spektaramoglo videti slepljivanje baza?

Page 46: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Termodinamički parametri za slepljivanjebaza

Zaključak:

Page 47: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

“Slepljivanje” baza u kristalnom stanju

Baze sukristalisaneiz vode!

Šta vidimo sa ovih slika?

Page 48: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

A B

Objašnjenje “stacking” interakcija među bazama (Chris Hunter):

A: hidrofobni efekat;

B: baze na donjoj i gornjoj površini imaju (mali) višak negativnog naelektrisanja;

C: parcijalne šarže na bazama.

C

Page 49: Proteini…..kraj Nukleinske kiseline…..pocetakvniketic/pnk/13_nukkis.pdf · From the beginning, the study of nucleic acids has drawn together, as though by a powerful unseen force,

Energija (ΔG) “stacking” interakcija

Šta zaključujemona osnovu podatakaiz tabele?