Principles-and-Strategies-of-Teaching-Lecture MPAS.pdf

8/10/2019 Principles-and-Strategies-of-Teaching-Lecture MPAS.pdf

1/200

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1

PREPARED BY MPAS

1

Chapter I

COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Introduction

What are the components of effective teaching? Before one can really answer this, it is

important that the term teaching be defined. Many authors view teaching as organized,

purposeful, and deliberate efforts designed to bring about certain specifically desirable ends in anindividual. Garcia quotes Ronald Hyman (1970) and states that a teacher must know what

teaching is because his concept of teaching guides his behavior and his own interpretation of

teaching becomes essential to his performance as a teacher. It serves as his guide as well asdirection in every classroom work he conducts for his students.

According to Navarro, et al., teaching is an activity that, is not really new to the education

students as they have been exposed to it since they first enrolled in Grade I. Teaching and

learning are two aspects of the process called Education. Learning is the expected end ofteaching in a school setting. Hence, teaching has always been directed at learning.

Aquino (1974:27) identified six important elements or factors of the teaching-learningprocess: teacher; learner; classroom; curriculum; materials of instruction; and administration.

A. The Teacher

"Teachers, like leaves, everywhere abound

Effective teachers, like fruits, are rarely found."

An effective teacher is one who has honed his skills in the art of teaching. Hedemonstrates proficiency in the use of language, adopts varied teaching strategies, recognizeschange, applies innovations, revises techniques for optimum results, and allows himself to be

guided by acknowledged principles and theories in education.

More than knowledge and skills, an effective teacher is compassionate andunderstanding. He gives allowance for personal limitations. He looks at every learner as a unique

individual with peculiar needs and interests.

Above all, an effective teacher is one who allows himself to grow professionally. His

efficient performance is always a result of his educational preparation including attendance at

seminars and workshops.

Under the close supervision of an effective teacher, the individual gradually, slowly, and

cumulatively learns things appropriate to his age and grade level.

To become an effective teacher is the aspiration of every mentor whether new or has been

in it for years.


2/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

2

What then constitutes an effective teacher? A great, deal has been said of teaching as one

of the important professions from the standpoint of human welfare. It is also one of the most

technical, difficult, and challenging professions. A teacher can be effective if he has mastery ofthe subject matter, in which case, he must be an authority on the subject he is teaching.

A teacher can only speak with authority on anything about which he has acquired familiarity.

Personal Qualities of an Effective Teacher

These personal characteristics are related to the five aspects of personality: intellectual;social; physical; emotional; and moral. Among those rated highly are the following:

1. Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice;2. Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control;

3. Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience;

4. Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty;

5. Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness;

6. Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness;7. Fairness, impartiality, tolerance; and

8. Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm.

Mehl, et aI., pointed out that in analyzing teacher personality, it is necessary to consider

the total impact of the total pattern of these qualities upon the pupil. The individual qualities

which make for excellence are not identical in all effective teachers. It would be useless toattempt to fit all teachers into a common mold. The individuality and uniqueness of teacher

personality is a priceless ingredient of a teaching staff.

Teachers are the most important part of the learner's educational environment. Without

them, the other elements of the educational environment would be ineffective, for they guide,direct, and stimulate youth in their goal-seeking (Bent, et al., 1970, as cited by Aquino, 1988:5).

From day to day, the teacher plays many roles in the classt06In. These roles include the

following:

1. Manager. As manager, the teacher is responsible for the effective management of her

class from the start to the finish. The teacher carries throughout the day systematic

activities to develop the pupils' cognitive, psychomotor, and effective aspects of theteaching-learning process. The pupils' eagerness and interest, therefore, to participate in

all the learning activities prepared and conducted by the teachers in the classroom is a

manifestation of an orderly classroom management by the teacher-manager.

2. Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts as counselor to the pupils

especially when the pupils are beset by problems. In general, teachers comfort and makethe pupils feel they have a ready shoulder to cry on. As counselor, the teacher religiously

keeps tab of all the activities of the children under his care, carefully noting important

information regarding the children's moods, health, and progress in their studies that will

help him assess the over-all performance of the learners.


3/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

3

3. Motivator. Encouraging and motivating pupils to study well and behave properly in and

outside the classroom is an enormous task. Despite the constraints, however, the teachershould use effective ways to awaken the drives and motives of children as he knows fully

well the role played by motivation in the learning of the pupils. Motivation sets the mood

for learning. It enlivens the interest of the learners and gets them more involved in theclass activities. A dynamic teacher is always good at motivating learners to listen,

participate, and eventually get the message.

4. Leader. A leader directs, coaches, supports, and delegates depending on the needs of the

situation. A leader is always looked upon as somebody dependable and responsible. A

teacher always assumes the position of a leader and he has to be credible in this regard.He should, therefore, manifest the highest leadership potentials demanded of his role as

teacher and leader. The teacher should set the example to emphasize his role of being a

leader. He should also be aware that to be a good leader, he must first be a good follower.

5. Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as model to his pupils. Pupils idolizeteachers; they believe the things the teacher says, especially if the teacher is kind,

approachable, and sympathetic to their needs. As a model, the teacher must look his bestall the time, master his lessons, show his interest in the children's welfare, show goodbehavior, and inculcate good work and attitudes, especially during trying moments inside

the classroom; be fair in dealing with pupils; and exhibit good judgment when the

situation calls for it.

6. Public Relations Specialist. The credibility of the school is attributed most of the time to

the ways the teachers deal with people outside the school, like the schools' benefactors,parents of the pupils, church leaders, government employees, and others. The teacher, in

his role as a public relations specialist, will be able to solicit important donations in cashor in kind for the development of both the school and the pupils. More than this, theteacher who has good public relations will always make a name for his school.

7. Parent-surrogate. In the school, the teachers are the parents of the pupils/students.

Parents have a feeling of security knowing that their children are in good hands. Added totheir main function of developing the pupils intellectually, teachers are also expected to

train the pupils socially and emotionally and to look after their physical and mental well-

being. In school, teachers take over the role of the parents, attending to the needs of thepupils and offering them the comforts away from home. In the process, he guarantees that

the individual rights of the pupils to education and safety are respected.

8. Facilitator. The teacher is the facilitator of learning. The pupils must be given the chance

to discuss things under the close supervision and monitoring of the teacher. As a

facilitator, the teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as the focus of discussion andactivities. The teacher oversees the activities inside the classroom. He allows pupils to

discuss spontaneously with only his very minimal affirmation and confirmation. In the

event, however, that some clarifications are needed, he can clarify vague points and

correct wrong notions of the pupils.


4/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

4

9. Instructor. The main function of the teacher is instruction. All the other roles

aforementioned are corollary to teaching. To effectively carry out this aspect of teaching,the pre-service education of teachers must be more than adequate to prepare them for a

job involving varied responsibilities.

B. The Learner

The learner is the subject of the schooling process. Without him, the educational systemwill not exist. The learner is a person who is receiving instruction or lessons from a particular

teacher. There are two classifications of the learners, namely: pupil and student. The term pupil

is applied to a child in the elementary level and the term studentis applied to one attending aneducational institution above the elementary level.

To make teaching effective and learning productive, the teacher must know the nature of

the child to be motivated, directed, guided, and evaluated.

To understand the child, the teacher must know:

a) the child as a biological organism with needs, abilities, and goals;b) the social and psychological environment; and

c) the cultural forces of which he is a part.

The learners differ from one another physically, intellectually, socially, and emotionally.

Every learner is a unique personality, separate and distinct from the rest. It is from this premise

that the teacher defines his role in the classroom to ensure the educational growth anddevelopment of the learner. He, therefore, takes into account the learner's varied interests,

intellectual preparedness, emotional stability, and task readiness along with his levels of aptitudeand degree of maturity.

C. The Classroom

The classroom is a place where formal learning occurs. This could be a standard

classroom with a standard measurement or an outdoor space where both the teacher and the

pupils/students are interacting. The important thing is that, it is a place that can offer awholesome venue for learning activities which can be realized only in an atmosphere conducive

to both teaching and learning process.

A good classroom is conducive to the teaching-learning process because:

a) its activities are well-organized;b) there is mutual sharing of responsibility in establishing and maintaining a state of

order and democratic living; and

c) pleasant and hygienic conditions prevail.


5/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

5

According to Aquino, a good classroom has a stimulating climate - one that results not

only from desirable physical surroundings and healthful conditions but also from social

relationship and emotional attitudes.

Classroom Environment Encompasses Four Factors

1. Physical Environment. This includes the location, size, shape, construction of the room

itself; the furniture in the room; instructional supplies or resources for learning;

provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating; acoustics of the room; provisions forsanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness.

2. Intellectual Climate. This refers to patterns of behavior, the interaction pattern, qualitiesof interaction, and attributes that help the learners think clearly, critically, and creatively.

The general atmosphere should be characterized by intellectual activities and pursuits for

excellence.

The teacher should understand that problem-solving develops through several stages,which include: recognizing the problem; collecting all the facts that bear on the problem;

and forming tentative solutions and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether theywork.

In other words, the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the

learners are free to work out under guidance the solutions to their own problems and thus,grow in the ability to be intelligent, self-directing citizens.

3. Social Climate. There are three types of social climate existing in the classroom:

a) autocratic;b) laissez-faire; andc) democratic.

In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs all the

activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. There is very littlecommunication between teacher and pupils, hence, the learners find little opportunity in this type

of climate for initiative, participation in group planning, or self-evaluation.

In the laissez-faire climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition

of his own achievement, and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others.

In this climate, the human relationships are in terms of coactions rather than interaction, there islittle emphasis in group living.

In the democratic climate, the goals are established by group participation and plans aremade on the basis of cooperative group planning. There is, therefore, a great deal of cooperative

teamwork resulting from a wide circle of communication. The role of the teacher in this kind of

climate is neither that of dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a mature person


6/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

6

responsible for guiding the performance of the children as they work out goals, plan activities,

and evaluate achievements.

Leadership, likewise, is not regarded as the exclusive privilege of a few gifted learners. It

is a shared role where every individual can contribute to the work of the group as a whole. In this

kind of setting, participation affords the long-run potential for the realization of the best learningperformance in terms of visible output.

4. Emotional Climate. This pertains to the emotional adjustment and mental health of thechildren.

To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must see that the personalityneeds of the learner are met in the classroom.

The learner needs to feel secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make

decisions and become increasingly self-directing. It is only the effective teacher who can provide

these opportunities.

D. The Curriculum

The term comes from the Latin root currere which means "to run." In educational usage,

the "course of the race," became "course of study."

The academic curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school.

The extra curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsoredby a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs.

The hidden curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g. learning how tocope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers)

that are a natural by-product of school life (Aquino, 1988:48).

According to Hessong and Weeks, the hidden curriculum is the informal part of thecurriculum that you know is there, but is difficult to see and study. Ballantine (1983) described

the hidden curriculum as the part of the curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations,

and routines, to which the school must adapt.

Guthrie and Reed (1991) have this to say about the hidden curriculum:

The formal content of courses may not constitute the only knowledge conveyed by

schools. Some social scientists contend that the overall school environment presents a powerful

instructional message, a message which may not always be consistent with learning outcomesintended by district policy or the content conveyed by instructors in their classes. For example, it

is alleged that a rigidly hierarchical school climate, where students are permitted little discretion

and are seldom encouraged to make decisions, eviscerates formal course content extolling the

virtues of democracy. Similarly, students observing what may be unfair segregation of their


7/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

7

peers into ability tracks may be "learning more," acquiring a cynicism regarding equal

opportunity and social mobility than from the abstract academic ideals they are being taught in

history and civic courses.

In its broad sense, curriculum is the sum total of all learning content, learning

experiences, and resources that are properly selected, organized, and implemented by the schoolin pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development.

Curriculum, therefore, can be viewed as having two mutually inclusive components,namely:

a) the blueprint or master plan of selected and organized learning content which can bereferred to as "curriculum" per se; and

b) the actual implementation of this plan through contrived experiences in the classroom

which is called instruction (Palma, 1992:78).

E. Materials of Instruction

Materials of instruction refer to the various resources available to the teachers andlearners which help facilitate instruction and learning. These materials represent elements found

in the environment and which are meant to help students understand and explain reality.

If the school has an Instructional Learning Center, the teacher should pay a visit to the

center to find out what materials he can use for his course.

The effective use also of non-book materials in the teaching-learning process will capture

the students' interest and develop good attitude towards the topic being discussed.

The non-book materials refer to the other members of the instructional media family that

should be a part of the library collections but somehow are housed in another place called the

Instructional Learning Center. Examples of non-book materials are audio-visual materials, audio-

visual aids, instructional aids, educational media, etc.

The types of audio-visual aids commonly used include the following:

1. Two-dimensional Materials. Any visual appearing to have height and width.

a) Flat picture. They are sometimes referred to as a universal language because anybodycan read pictures, although people have different ability in reading pictures.

Pictures must have emphasis on key idea, must be suitable to the needs of the students,must provide correct and accurate impression or information as to size, color, or

movement of unfamiliar objects.


8/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

8

b) Graphics. Webster defines it as the art or science of drawing, especially mechanical

drawing. It includes a variety of visual forms, such as: graphs; diagrams; charts; posters;

cartoons; comics; and maps and globes. These materials are very valuable for instructionbecause of their capacity to attract attention and to convey certain types of information in

condensed, summarized form.

2. Three-dimensional Materials. Visual materials appearing to have depth or thickness in

addition to height and width. Examples of these are the following:

a) Model. It is a representation of a real thing that is infinitely large, like the earth, or a

thing that is small, like an atom. A model, therefore, reduces or enlarges objects to

sizes we can observe. It provides the interior view of objects like a model of thehuman heart.

b) Realia. It is an inclusive term that covers the tangible or visible things which serve

the purpose of teaching. It is classified into objects, specimens, relics, replicas, and

exhibits.

c) Mock-up. It is a full-size dummy or structural model designed to be worked withdirectly by the learner for analysis or training.

d) Diorama. It is a three-dimensional material scene in depth using a group of modeled

objects and figures in a natural setting.

e) Puppets. Small, usually jointed figures in the forms of human beings, animals, etc.

moved with the hands or by strings, wires, or rods, usually in a puppet show.Puppetry can present ideas with extreme simplicity, without elaborate scenery or

costume, yet they are effective. Puppets are classified into: shadow puppet; simplerod puppet; hand puppet; finger puppet; and marionettes or string puppets.

3. Audio-recording Materials. These auditory materials are used to provide learning

experiences of a specific type - experiences of pure listening.

a) Recordings - This registers sound or visual images in some permanent form as on a

phonograph disc, magnetic tape, etc. for reproduction on a playback device.

b) Radio - This is an audio device used by teachers in social studies, music, science, etc.

The radio is an effective audio-device inasmuch as it can be used anywhere with or

without electricity.

4. Projected Materials. They are materials which use a machine for throwing images on

the screen as from a transparent slide or motion picture film. The term includes allinstructional materials which are enlarged on a viewing screen.

a) Still projection. Slides, transparencies, filmstrips, overhead projection, opaque projection,

microfilm, microfiche, microprojection.


9/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

9

b) Motion pictures. Motion picture is an edited version of reality. This editing, which may

involve manipulation of time, space, objects that can heighten reality by eliminatingdistractions and by pointing up relationships that might well be overlooked. Motion

picture can bring the distant past and the present into the classroom.

c) Educational television. TV can provide enrichment and meaning, teach skills, perform

drills, encourage research work and other projects, and stimulate students to new insights,

perceptions, and discoveries.

F. Administration

Administration is defined as the organization, direction, coordination, and control of

human and material resources to achieve desired ends. According to Moehlman, administration

is exercised in a series of closely related and complementary specializations or activities. He

calls this phase of administration the executive activity which he defines as all the acts or

processes required to make policies and procedures effective.The principal function of administration is to provide optimum educational opportunities

for all children in school. Among these are the school plant, equipment and supplies, finance,curriculum, faculty, and other support personnel. The administration, therefore, is a meanstoward the achievement of instructional objectives.

What are the functions of school administration? According to Aquino (1974), onecommonly accepted view is that school administration has the following functions:

a) Seeing that all school money is economically expanded and accounted for;b) Preparing the school budget;

c) Selecting and purchasing school sites;d) Planning, erecting, and equipping the school buildings;e) Operating the school plant and keeping it in an excellent state of repair;

a) D Selecting, training, and supervising teachers;

f) Providing supplies;

g) Providing textbooks;h) Assisting in curriculum construction;

i) Organizing an instructional program;

j) Keeping the public informed of the aims, accomplishments, and needs of the schools;and

k) Keeping school records and accounts.


10/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

10

Chapter II

VARIOUS CONCEPTS OF TEACHING

TEACHING CONCEPTS

A. Teaching Is a Complex Human Activity

It is so because teaching involves a wide range of human interactions, organizationalarrangements, and material resources that converge on the teaching-learning process.

Varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in this definition by Garcia (1989:15-16):

1. Human Interactions. Teaching is considered a system of actions varied in form and

content but directed toward learning. It is in the performance of these actions and in the

interactions of the teacher with his students that learning takes place.

These actions and interactions are personal but they are also logical in that theyhave a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter, where in the world teachingtakes place, it does so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of a

teaching-learning situation.

The logical operations involve three variables such as:

a) the teacher's behavior (IV);b) the learner's behavior (DV); and

c) various postulated entities such as memories, beliefs, needs, interferences, which areintervening variables.

The independent variables in the teacher's behavior consist of linguistic behavior,

expressive behavior, and performatory behavior.

Linguistic behavior - otherwise known as verbal communication whereby teachers

verbalize their thoughts through language that is characterized by spontaneity, precision, and

naturalness.

Expressive behavior- patterns of communication achieved through changes in the tone of

voice, facial expressions, and kinesis - motions of the hands, arms, eyes, head, or otherparts of the body. Expressive behavior is intended to emphasize ideas to inject humor, to

indicate seriousness, irritation as well as approval and disapproval.

Performatory behaviorincludes all physical activities such as:

a) writing on the blackboard;

b) operating projectors and record players;


11/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

11

c) manipulating models; and

d) using laboratory equipment, tools, machines, computers, and other instructional

materials.

2. Organizational Arrangements. Teaching is an activity with four phases:

a) curriculum planning phase;

b) an instructing phase;

c) a measuring phase; ande) an evaluating phase.

Such phases are spelled out more specifically, respectively, as:

a) Helping to formulate the goals of education, selecting content and stating objectives;

b) Creating intentions regarding instructional strategies and tactics, interacting and

acting on situational feedback about instruction;

c) Selecting or creating measurement devices: measuring, learning, organizing, andanalyzing measurement data; and

d) Evaluating the appropriateness of objectives of instruction and the validity andreliability o the devices used to measure learning (John Hough, 1970).

3. Material Resources. The process of teaching includes:

a) the selection and development of instructional units;

b) planning individual lessons;

c) organizing material for instructional purposes;d) designing the methods to be used;

e) classroom management;f) evaluation of pupils' achievements; andg) reporting of pupils' grades (B.J. Chandler and Daniel Powell, 1970).

B. Teaching Is Both a Science and an Art

Teaching involves imparting a body of systematized knowledge. It affords the

development of a level of consciousness of everything about the world and the totality of facts

about life. But more than the knowledge about realities, teaching also taps the performance skillsof the learners to make them physically, intellectually, and socially equipped despite varied

interventions.

More than a science, teaching is also an art. It must provide avenues for achieving

pleasure and delight in learning. Every learning experience, therefore, must find its way to the

learners' heart. Anything that is satisfying is readily appreciated because it meets the needs andinterests of the individual learners. As an art, teaching is a continuous process responding to the

demands of the time and the changes in the learners' perspective. It is never static, it adheres to

novelty.


12/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

12

Garcia (1989) quoted Eisher (1983) when he pointed out a couple of distinguishing marks

between these two facets of teaching.

Science Art

1. Teaching as a science is primarilydirected to inform the head.

Therefore, teaching as a scienceemphasizes the cognitive and psychomotor

aspects of learning or simply the subject matter

that must be put across into the learners' level

of awareness as well as the skillfulperformance that they should be able to

develop in and by themselves.

The knowledge and skill they will acquire areindispensable to their everyday living

especially in decision-making and in solvingcrucial problems.

1. Teaching as an art is more suited tosatisfy the soul.

Therefore, teaching as an artpresupposes the need for the learner to

appreciate and improve on whatever

knowledge he has gained and skills he has

acquired. Hence, this facet tends to give morecredence to the affective aspects of learning.

Which of the two is more important? Both are equally important as far as the total

personality development of the learner is concerned. It follows then that the learner must knowsomething before he can appreciate it. He can never appreciate something that he does not know

of or something that does not exist in him. Something is derived from something, nothing can be

taken from nothing.

2. The second difference presents a more in-depth perspective.

Teaching as a science views the teacher

as an academician as well as a craftsman.

As an academician, he is pictured to be

disciplined, organized, systematic in his

teaching. As such he is expected to:

a) have a mastery of the subject matter;

and

b) organize it well in a form that is

comprehensible to his learners.

As a craftsman, he has a repertoire of

teaching methods and is quite skillful in their

use.

Teaching as an art goes beyond the

prescribed level of instruction. This facet views

the teacher as an innovator, one who is willingto modify and to create new forms of teaching.

The teachers' artistry comes in when

they consider the varying mixture of theseyoung people and through processes that are

basically intuitive build up meaningful

programs of study for them. These teachersbelieve teaching requires an ability to see

through and respond to individual differences'

among the learners.


13/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

13

Teaching as a science regards teaching

as mechanical and routinized in order to make

it more systematic and more efficient.

Teaching as a science calls for skillful

teaching.

Teaching as a science aims at optimumefficiency devoid of creating something new.

Teaching as an art looks at teaching as

a dynamic and imaginative process.

Teaching as an art makes teaching more

relevant and' responsive to the learner's needs,interests, and abilities.

Teaching as an art is destined to come out withsomething novel or innovative.

C. Teaching as a System

According to Navarro, et al. (1988), teaching as a system requires an understanding of the

role of the more mature, experienced members of society in stimulating, directing, managing,

and guiding the immature and inexperienced members in their adjustments to life.

With the young and immature students as inputs into the system, the processing takes

place in the school setting with the teacher playing a major role in instructing the inexperienced

so that they can develop into upright and useful members of society and well-adjusted citizenswith wholesome personalities imbued with:

a) love of country;b) duties of citizenship;

c) moral character;

d) personal discipline; and e) scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency.

A schematic presentation of this concept is shown in Figure 1 on the next page.

D. Teaching Is One of the Most Exalted Forms of Social Service

Gregorio (1976) states that the classroom is a society made up of teachers and learners

working together for the purpose of human growth and betterment. The opportunities of theteachers and the learners for good or evil are boundless. For this reason, society has insisted that

teachers should be known for their high character, honesty, integrity, and skill.

Teaching is guided by the spirit of service. Service may be defined as the performance of

a task for the benefit of others given voluntarily, by request, or by fulfilling a social need.People look at it as the beginning and end of the teaching profession.

It is the beginning because service is the guiding, stabilizing, and directing factor of the

teaching profession. Service can build the organization or destroy it. Service can give life, honor,

and beauty or it can bring disappointments and dishonor to each member in the profession.Teaching in a democracy is rich in opportunities for service.


14/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

14

It is an end because service is the ultimate goal of the teaching profession. The success of

any professional organization in a civilized world is measured not by the size of the members of

the profession, but by the services they have rendered in the community and to the nation.


15/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

15


16/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

16

The true measure of service is not what the teaching organization has planned but what

the members have done to improve the living conditions in the community and to save humanity.

E. Teaching Is the Responsibility of the Teacher While Learning Is the Responsibility of

the Learner

Teaching is always a two-way track. The stimulus is teaching and the response is

learning. It involves a process intended to bring about a desired result.


17/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

17

According to Palma (1992), learning involves a process and brings about an outcome.

Figure 2 illustrates in simplified form the process and product of learning as gleaned from thepsychology of learning.

All learning begins with things around us. They may be objects, persons, or phenomenathat we "experience" or that we become aware of through any of our five senses.

The S- R bond as explained in behavioristic psychology holds that every stimulus elicitsan automatic response. Such behavior is not only true of human beings where the animalistic

nature is concerned but animals as well, as they operate on the instinctive or sensitive level.

However, such reaction may not always be true in situations where human beings behave on ahigher or rational-moral level.

According to humanistic psychology, learning on the human level becomes a more

intricate process, primarily because it takes a different, more circuitous route that involves the

mind, the intellect, and the will.

The conscious mind receives the stimulus and passes it on to the subconscious until aconnection is established between the stimulus and the previous learning and experiences.

In the process, the intellect analyzes, discerns the new experience, and attaches a new

meaning until the will accepts it as part of a new experience. The individual then makes aconscious attempt to respond to it.

he conscious, willful repetition of the response will then result in a modified behaviorthat may be expressed in the form of a new knowledge gained, a new skill acquired, or a new

attitude or value imbibed.

The new behavior is characterized as permanent or lasting, purposeful or willful, and

progressive. Such changes in the behavioral pattern will contribute to the total transformation of

the individual which is the outcome of learning and the byproduct of education.

It is to be noted that the learning process is a joint endeavor between the teacher who

provides the adult help and supervision and the learner who recognizes his personal

responsibility to make the most of the learning situations.

Figure 3 presents the intervention points in relation to the learning process. There are five

such intervention or helping points in the continuum: A, B, C, D, and E. These points encompassthe key elements or the so-called 8 Ms of teaching.

The 8 Ms of Teaching (as conceptualized by Palma (1992))

1. Milieu. The Learning Environment. Milieu is the physical environment, the place of

work, the classroom, the laboratory, workshop, or even the school campus where learning

activities can be done. Learning starts from reacting to stimuli in the environment, for


18/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

18

that matter the environment assumes an important role in the teaching and learning

process.


19/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

19


20/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

20

2. Matter. Matter refers to the content. It embraces everything there is that has to be

covered and, therefore, learned. A basic tenet in organizing matter is mastery of the

subject matter. The role of the teacher is to see to it that the subject matter is not onlycovered but mastered as well. It is mastery that will add to the pupil's level of proficiency

and understanding of the content. A little of every lesson works to the disadvantage of the

learners.

3. Method. They are the purposeful, planned activities and tasks that are undertaken by the

teacher and the students in the classroom to bring about the intended instructionalobjective.

An effective teacher employs a variety of teaching strategies that will set the moodfor classroom work-activities. The teacher must not limit his strategies to chalktalk or

lectures. He should devise a way where students can engage in wholesome activities that

will not only arouse their interests but tap whatever potentials they have. When activities

are varied, pupils/students are challenged, participation is encouraged, and thinking is

enhanced.

4. Materials. Materials are the resources, both human or physical object, made available foruse by the teachers and learners. These materials serve as stimuli in the teaching-learningsituation.

These materials are meant for the learners to understand the world they live in and,therefore, the basic realities each learner has to contend himself with.

Figure 4 shows several ways of portraying reality. One closest to reality, the direct,purposeful experience where the learner makes use of practically all the five senses in

establishing contact with true-to-life objects, artifacts, views, sounds, etc. This issometimes referred to as experiential learning where learners acquire knowledge aboutparticular situations, events, through experiences. An educational field trip provides a

type of learning obtained from real-life situations.

Figure 4: Ways of Portraying Reality

Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System

Another way of showing reality is through a reproduction, where one creates a vivid-

like impression of the real thing. However, such approach makes use of one or both of


21/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

21

two senses, seeing and hearing. Included in this classification are the so-called audio-

visual materials used by teachers such as films and video cassette tapes.

Still another way of portraying reality is through a representation of reality. While it

may not be too successful in re-creating the original, it is the idea conveyed that will help

understand that of reality which is under study. This approach is limited to only onesense, the sense of sight. Examples of representation are materials such as illustrations,

dioramas, mock-ups, puppets and moppets, maps and globes, and graphs.

Considered as the least effective of all the ways of portraying reality is the abstraction

of reality. This is done through lecture or teacher talk. Abstract explanations do not at all

contribute to the learner's ability to concretize.There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses. Learning, therefore, is

better achieved by allowing learners to touch, taste, hear, smell, and see objects being

studied.

5. Media. It is the system of communication in the teaching-learning process aimed atpromoting common understanding in instruction and setting and maintaining a healthy

climate in the classroom conducive to learning.

Since oral communication is inevitable and necessary in teaching, the teacher should

keep certain helpful tips in mind. First, he should make an effort to use language

efficiently and effectively. He is supposed to serve as a model of a good language user,regardless of the language used. Every lesson in any subject becomes a lesson in

communication. This is particularly true of pupils who are highly impressionable and that

they learn much through plain imitation.

Second, the teacher should keep in mind the principle of parsimony in the use oflanguage. He should strive to keep his communication clear, concise, and comprehensibleat all times. Language should, therefore, be simple and familiar to the learners.

6. Motivation. Motivation is a cardinal principle in learning. A learner will learn only those

things he wants to learn. If a student is not interested in what he is learning, he willsimply "go through the motions," or worse, he will not engage himself in the learning act

at all. The teacher should, therefore, usher in every lesson or unit with some form of

motivation. A good teacher is a good motivator. He starts every lesson about somethingthat will call the attention and will evoke the interest of the listeners. Effective teachers

are good at motivating learners because they know how to hold captive the learner's

attention. When a learner feels disinterested in the lesson, there is no chance at all forlearning to take place.

Motivation is always associated with the learner's understanding of a value in thelearning act based on a "felt need" (present gratification) or a "reward" as the case may

be. In other words, every learning situation must be a gratifying experience to the learner.


22/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

22

7. Mastery: The Be-all and End-all of Learning. Mastery means habitual or automatic

change in behavior brought about by the learners having internalized what they have

acquired through repetition and application.

Mastery denotes ability to put to constant use what' has been fixed in the mind and to

apply such in future situations and where need arises.

Mastery is the last stage in the learning circle illustrated in Figure 5. The circle of

learning is a graphic presentation of the four stages involved in the acquisition ofknowledge which starts with the state of unconscious incompetence till the stage of

unconscious competence or mastery.

Stages in the Circle of Learning

Stage 1: Stage of Unconscious Incompetence. The state of not desiring to know because he does

not know what is there to know (blissful ignorance).

Stage 2: Stage of Conscious Incompetence. A situation referred to as the "teachable moment"

when, by accident the learner realizes there is a need to know about things around him.He consciously develops a desire to know the need to develop personal interests. Henow has a "motive" for and consequently an "interest" in learning (motivation).

Stage 3: Stage of Conscious Competence. The learner is helped by a teacher who starts coachingafter telling him what to know. He is, therefore, guided into gathering information, aided

and corrected when need be, and made to engage in constant independent applications

over a period of time. This stage includes content, coaching, guided practice, feedback,and application.

Figure 5: The Circle of Learning

Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System


23/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

23

Stage 4: Stage of Unconscious Competence. The point where a learner achieves a degree of

competence in a particular area, exhibiting skills honed through constant practice. The

learner, therefore, becomes knowledgeable because he has acquired mastery of thesubject matter: conscious effort.

8. Measurement: Getting Evidence of Learning. It is the final measure of how much a learnerhas acquired and mastered as revealed by an instrument "test" in the form of a "test score."

The score has to be referenced to the stated criterion or norm so a judgment can berendered as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the performance. Measurement then is but

one aspect of a process called evaluation.

Benjamin Bloom defines evaluation as "the systematic collection of evidence to

determine whether in fact certain changes are taking place in the learner as well as to determine

the amount or degree of change in the individual students."

Two aspects of evaluation can be gleaned from this definition.The first, which is quantitative: the gathering of data on student learning in terms of

scores in a test.

The second, qualitative: the judgment as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the

learning level based on present standards.

The first is referred to as measurement, the second, valuation. Thus, the term evaluation consists

of a measurement aspect and a valuation aspect (Palma, 1992:114).

F. Teaching Is Providing the Teachers with Opportunities to Make Desirable Changes in

the Thinking, Attitudes, and Behavior of their Pupils

In a child's development, three important factors should be given utmost consideration,

namely:

a) objectives;b) learning activities; and

c) evaluation.

The interrelationships between these three factors show that the focus of the teacher's

effort is the child. The child is the core of the teaching-learning process that is aimed at the

development of a mature individual.

To guide the development and learning systematically and effectively, schools are

established and maintained by society. The school has an instructional program thataccomplishes these objectives and evaluation determines if these objectives are being attained

and if the learning activities (or learning experiences) contribute toward the attainment of such

objectives (Aquino, et al. 1988:18).


24/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

24

Figure 6: Interrelationships among Objectives, Learning Activities, and Evaluation

1. Objectives. Educational objectives, specific or otherwise, serve a valuable function in theeducational process. Effective instruction occurs when learners are provided with

instructional experiences that are designed to help them achieve goals stated in instructionalobjectives. They require specification of student learning in terms of observable andmeasurable behavior.

Statement of educational objectives in behavioral terms facilitates the evaluation ofeducational programs and improves the validity of the measures and scales used in the evaluation

process.

Basic Concepts in Writing Educational Objectives

Instructional objectives should contain the following five elements:

a) Who is to perform the desired behavior (e.g. the pupil, the student, or the learner).

b) The actual behavior to be employed in demonstrating mastery of the objective (e.g. to

write, to identify, or to distinguish).c) The result (i.e., the product or performance) of the behavior which will be evaluated

to determine whether the objective is mastered (e.g. an essay or a speech).

d) The relevant conditions under which the behavior is to be performed (e.g. in a one-hour quiz or at the end of a forty-minute period).

e) The standard that will be used to evaluate the success of the product or performance

(e.g. 90 percent correct or eight out often correct) (Lardizabal, et at., 1991:42-43).

2. Learning Activities. These refer to certain activities that the learner undergoes in reaction to

the environment with which he has an opportunity to interact. An experience is personal tothe learner and what he gets out of it depends a lot on his total personal life space.


25/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

25

Since learning results directly from personal experiences, its selection becomes a vital

concern in the classroom. The central problem of schooling, then, is that of determining the

kinds of experiences likely to produce the given objectives.

The main concern of the teacher is how to set up situations and conditions in the

classroom which will stimulate the students to pursue the objectives laid out before them(Palma, 1992:77-78).

The teacher should provide students the opportunities to engage in a variety ofexperiences to increase the depth of meaning of important concepts. Likewise, the teacher

should be able to devise many activities which will give students concrete experiences

instead of verbal abstractions. Learning activity to be effective must be properly distributed.

The following are some suggestions for making material meaningful by gearing it to the

learner's experiences:

a) evaluate the learner's experience;b) provide variety of experiences;

c) use pictorial illustrations, objects or models, or examples frequently; andd) create situations for applications of concepts or skills learned (Gregorio, 1976:167-

168).

3. Evaluation. Evaluation validates the objectives and points out the affectivity andpropriety of the learning experiences.

Therefore, evaluation cannot be taken apart from teaching. It is not to be considered even as amere adjunct of instruction. It is de facto an integral part, that is, part and parcel of the teaching-

learning process.

A teacher who teaches without testing for results is in much the same situation as a

person who prepares a meal and serves it without benefit of tasting it beforehand. A popular

saying goes, "the test of the pudding is in the eating." By the same token, the proof of

learning is seen in the testing. (Palma, 1992:113-114).


26/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

26

Chapter III

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

A. Principles Defined

The term principle has been adopted from the Latin word princeps which means thebeginning or the end of all things. The early Greeks used the term principles not only to express

the origin of things but als1> to express their fundamental laws and to bring out the ultimate

objectives.

Principles are used in many different senses. According to Webster, a principle is a

comprehensible law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which others are founded.

In the language of Hopkins, a principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that

it will reach the port designated by the philosophy of education; it is a compass by which the

path of education is directed.

Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive.

They are the fundamentals through which we proceed from one situation to another.

Principles are important for the governing of actions and the operation of techniques in

any field of education. True principles explain educational processes. They show how things are

done and how educational results are achieved.

For the individual, a principle, when understood and accepted, serves in important ways

to guide his reflective thinking and his choice of activities or actions.

In the field of education, an accepted principle becomes part of one's philosophy whichserves to determine and evaluate his educational aims, activities, practices, and outcomes.

B. How Principles of Teaching Are Derived

Sound principles of teaching are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectivelymeasured results which are common to a series of similar experiences, as such, they must be

carefully distinguished from the assumptions of so-called arm-chair philosophy which are made

up largely of purely theoretical principles not based on experience, reality, investigation, orexperimentation.

It can be said that principles of teaching are derived:

a) through the pooling of the opinions of experts;

b) through comparative studies of the teaching performance of capable and incapableteachers;

c) through experimental studies of teaching and learning in the classroom;

d) from the results of experiments which are the universal methods of deducing

principles; and


27/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

27

e) from critically analyzed experience or from systematic investigations.

C. Function and Scope of Principles

When general principles are used to stimulate, direct, guide, and evaluate the conduct of

life, they are translated into means and measures of actions. Only actions can change things inthe direction of unity and stability.

Organized principles of teaching should serve at least two general purposes:

a) Principles should serve as the bases of intelligent and profitable practice. The nature of

principles is constant and universal but their application varies from one generation toanother or from one situation to another within the same generation, owing to changing

conditions.

b) Principles should serve not only to stimulate, direct, and guide, but also to interpret

school practices. Principles depend upon how well they are founded upon scientificexperimentation, expert opinion, or classroom experience. The function of teaching is to

provide the stimuli so that the best learning may take place.

Principles of teaching are guides so that teachers may better adopt their instruction to the

learner's individual capabilities. They are not rigid, unequivocal laws that apply in all teaching-

learning situations. As such, teaching must always be considered as a complex process that maybe better understood by making a broad and discerning application of its various principles.

D. Types of Teaching Principles

1. Starting Principles. These involve the nature of the learner and his psychologi.cal andphysiological endowments which make education possible.

The hereditary endowments are the preliminary concern in all educational endeavor.

It is, therefore, the function of education to make the best use of these hereditary

tendencies to meet human needs, growth, and development.

The primary concern of the teacher is not the subject, but the learner, not knowledge

of specialty, but knowledge oft he laws and principles of human growth anddevelopment, which, like all other natural processes, involve laws and principles.

2. Guiding Principles. These refer to the procedure, methods of instruction, oragglomerations of techniques by which the learner and the teacher may work together

towards the accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education.

3. Ending Principles. These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes,

purposes, or results of the whole educational scheme to which teaching and learning are

directed.


28/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

28

These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible principles

or guidance by those who seek to educate effectively.

General educational aims may be either philosophical or psychological. Philosophical

aims are based on folkways and mores or ideals of the Filipino people. They are

otherwise known as the ultimate aims of education outlined in our Constitution.

Psychological aims refer to the growth and development of the learner in terms of

knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities or integrated personality. They may be expressedin behavioral terms. In other words, psychological aims refer to subject matter aims. They

are also known as the immediate aims of education.

E. General statements Concerning Principles

Principles as used in teaching have broad meanings and extensions: The term principles

refer to:

general laws; doctrines;

rules of actions;

fundamental truths;

general statements;

educational concepts;

accepted tenets; and

the conditions that affect the teaching-learning process.

The meaning of the term principles varies considerably in teaching as well as in learning.

a) Principles are considered sound when they are formulated from carefully observed factsor objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences.

b) Principles are also considered valid when they are the results of scientific

experimentations, expert opinions, and classroom observations and experiences.

c) Principles, when understood and accepted, serve in important ways to guide theindividual's reflective thinking and his choice of activities.

Principles are the bases in stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging the learnersin their learning and the teachers in their teaching. They are used as guides to educational

procedure. They are the guides in making teaching and learning activities effective andproductive.

d) Principles and techniques do not work effectively by themselves. There is constant

interplay which gradually improves the selection and functioning of both principles andtechniques.


29/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

29

e) Principles are the criteria to be used by the teachers in the evaluation of their teaching and

of the learning of the learners. They also serve to determine and evaluate educational

objectives, practices, and outcomes.

f) Principles are needed to guide techniques, but in no way do they supplant the

fundamental role of techniques in carrying on the process and activities which make upthe day-to-day work of teaching and learning.

g) Principles, although based on enduring concepts and values, are themselves subject tochange. They are dynamic, not static. Principles do change with the discovery of new

facts, with new educational philosophy, and with changes in social and moral values.

h) Principles are workable only under normal conditions. When the classroom conditions

are abnormal, common sense must be the guiding factor in meeting the situation.

Common sense is the ability to do and to say the right thing at the right time in the

right way to the right person.

Common sense is the right kind of personality in action. It is practical intelligenceand tact in behavior. It is a product of individual experience gained through contact withpractical problems of life and through lessons derived from success and failure.

i) Principles are of great value if they are basically true and applied into the learningsituations.

Thus, the use of the general principles in the field of teaching involves considerablymore than a mere statement of sound basic principles. If the principles taught are

acquired in the best way, there can be little question of their validity.

j) Principles oftentimes overlap or even at times conflict with each other. However,

although principles at times overlap, nevertheless, they work out harmoniously in

achieving the desired objectives or aims.

k) Principles are means to ends and never ends in themselves. When abstract principles are

used as guides and evaluate the conduct of life, they must be translated into means and

measures of action (Gregorio, 1976:1-14).

F. John Dewey's Philosophy

Dr. John Dewey (1859-1950) was an outstanding American philosopher and educator.

John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in Burlington, Vermont. He graduated from the

University of Vermont in 1879 and received his Ph.D. degree from John Hopkins University in1884. He was a professor of Philosophy at the University of Minnesota in 1888 and at the

University of Michigan from 1889 to 1894. He served also as head of the Philosophy Department

at the University of Chicago in 1894-1904. Up to his retirement, he was a professor of

Philosophy at Columbia University.


30/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

30

As a philosopher, he was an outstanding pragmatist and as an educator, he was known as

progressivist or a democratic educator. His philosophical beliefs have been described as: 1)radical empiricism; 2) experimentalism; 3) intrumentalism; and 4) pragmatism. (Gregorio,

1979:42).

Actually, John Dewey's philosophy was an outgrowth or product of:

a) Rousseau's principles of growth, pupil activity, and individualism;b) Pestalozzi's discipline of sympathy and his principle that learning proceeds from the

known to the unknown, and his doctrine of interest;

c) Froebel's ideal of learning by doing which depended upon self-principled activities orcreative development which is the basic principle of socialization; and

d) Findings in the study of G. Stanley Hall which stimulated an interest in child nature.

Progressive education owes much to John Dewey's philosophy of instrumentalism, a

philosophy which holds that the various forms of human activity are instruments developed byman to solve his problems. It bears a close resemblance to' pragmatism, which states that truth is

measured by experimental results and practical outcomes that can be shared and tested by allwho investigate.

The chief tenets of John Dewey's philosophy are the following:

a) We learn by doing;

b) Education is life, not a preparation for life;

c) Education is growth;d) The school is primarily a social institution; and e) The center of education is the

child's own social activities.

Out of the foregoing tenets have grown, according to Mills and Douglas, the basic

principles of today's learning, which are as follows:

a) Children learn by doing;b) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial;

c) Learning should be gradual and continuous, not discrete;

d) Instruction should be adapted to individual needs;e) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations;

f) Learning depends upon the child's ability; g) Learning comes through sense

impressions;g) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism;

h) Teacher-pupil and, inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative; and

i) Education means improving the quality of living. (Aquino, 1988:39-40).

G. Principles of Good Teaching Based on the Educational Philosophy of John Dewey


31/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

31

a) Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning. This is based on the

concept that the child is made the center of the educative process.

The nature of the child and the nature of the learning process and the laws that governits operation determine the type of teaching to be done by the teacher.

b) Teaching is good when it is well-planned such that the activities and experiences of thelearner are continuously related and interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more

inclusive, relation patterns.

c) Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be

accomplished. This concept calls for proper motivation.

d) Learning is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that will insure

understanding. Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional materials and

devices. Instructional materials and devices will challenge the attention of the learner,

stimulate thinking, and facilitate understanding which make learning more meaningful.

e) Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences. This is based on

the psychological principle tl:1at individuals differ from each other in their learningpotential. To be effective, teaching must treat the learner as he is, but at the same timewith reference to what he might become.

f) Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner. This concept isbased on the principle of apperception. This means that learning is easier when you start

from what the pupils already know.

g) Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason. The best teaching

method is that which liberates and encourages thinking. Effective teaching involvesdifferentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis. Generalization of facts learned isimportant in teaching for transfer.

h) Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles. In democratic teaching,

social relationship is placed on a plane of natural respect, cooperation, tolerance, and fairplay. Teaching to be effective must be governed by love and understanding. In other

words, the learners are free from emotional tension.

i) Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and

instructional devices. It is an accepted fact that good method is a synthesis of many

methods. This is based on the principles that the best learning takes place when a greaternumber of senses are stimulated and utilized in the process.

j) Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process.Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching. Evaluation measures the effectiveness of

teaching and learning and completes the function which is essential in teaching. Teaching

is meaningful only when the results of teaching are achieved.


32/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

32

k) Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning.

The teacher must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and

functions. The purpose of review is to bring out relationships of facts learned to give newview or new meaning. (Gregorio & Gregorio, 1979: 63-65).

A Synthesis of John Dewey's Thoughts on Education

I Dewey's Education Theories

Education as a Necessity of Life

- Education makes possible continuance/renewal of social life.

- Education is a communication-making experience.

- Education is a shared possession.

- Education is a self-renewing instrument of a complex society.

Education as a Social Function

- Education provides the social environment that leads to the development of attitudesnecessary for a continuous and progressive life.

- As an educative environment, the school performs three social functions:

a) simplifying/ordering the factor it wishes to develop;

b) purifying and idealizing the existing social function; and

c) creating a wider and better balanced environment.

Education as Direction

- Education directs the natural impulses of the young to agree with the life customs of thegroup through commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals.

- The business of education is to make the young understand the internal controls.

Education as Growth

- Education is all one with life; life is growth and, therefore, education has no end beyond

growth.

- Growth in education is not physical but growth in insight and understanding of

relationship between various experiences and learning episodes.

Education as Preparation

- Education is preparation when it:

a) progressively realizes present possibilities, thus, making the individual better fitted tocope with later requirements; and

b) makes the present rich and significant, thus, merging into the future.


33/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

33

Education as Unfolding

- Education is unfolding when it draws out from the learner what is desired through

suggestive questioning or other pedagogical device.

- Education is unfolding from within.

Education as Training of Faculties

- Education as training of original impulsive activity is selecting those responses that can

be utilized by the individual.

- Education is not mere "exercise" of the faculties of the mind but the development of

initiative, inventiveness, and adaptability.

Education as Formation

- Education is formation when it consists of the selection and coordination of nativeactivities so that the subject matter of the social environment is utilized.

Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection

- Education is not "repeating" the past but utilizing it as a resource in developing the

future.

Education as Reconstruction

- Education is the reorganization of experience which adds to its meaning, increasing its

ability to direct the course of subsequent experience.- In education as reconstruction, increment of meaning corresponds to increased

perceptions of connections and continuities of experiences.

- Education is the fundamental method of social reform.

Education as a Democratic Social Function

- Education gives the individuals a personal interest in social relationship and controls thehabits of the mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder.

- Education emphasizes the cooperative nature of shared human experience which

embraces three key elements:

a) common - represents shared objects, ideas;

b) communication - occurs when people share their experiences; andc) community - results when individuals discuss common experiences through shared

communication.


34/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

34

II. Dewey's Thoughts on Education Aims

A. Natural Development Aim. Spontaneous development not only of the bodily organs buttheir capacities as well.

B. Social Efficiency Aim. Cultivation of power to join freely and fully in shared/common

activities.C. Cultural Aim. Expansion of one's range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings.

III. Dewey's Thoughts on the Correlative Aspects of Education

A.Interest and Discipline

- Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity.

- Interest means one is identified with the objects and activity up to its realization.

- Interest is entering into a situation, continuity of attention, and endurance.

- Interest represents the moving force of education.

- Discipline is the development of the power of continuous attention.

B.Experience and Thinking

- Experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something undergone inconsequence.

- Experience has two elements:

Active - Experience is trying.

Passive - Experience is undergoing.

- Education is an active-passive affair, a separation destroys the vital meaning of anexperience.

- Thinking is the accurate and deliberate instituting of connections between what is done

and its consequences.

- Thinking includes these steps:

sense of a problem;

observation of the condition;

formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion; and

active experimental testing.

- All thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its

use in thinking.

- Experience provides solidity, security, and fertility to education.

- Thinking unifies all processes of instruction.


35/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

35

C. The Nature of Method

- Method is the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and

fruitfully.

- Method is embedded in the child's' own nature which is active rather than passive.- Good methods are straightforward and promote flexible intellectual intere'st, open-

minded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the

consequences of one's activity.

- "Project" or "Problem" or situation methods shall replace formalized operation.

- Projects and problems should come within the scope and capacities of the experience of

the learner.

- Methods must raise new questions, introduce new undertakings, and create fresh

knowledge.

D. The Nature of Subject Matter

- Subject matter consists of facts observed, recalled, read, and talked about and ideas

suggested in the course of a development of a situation having a purpose.

- The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content

to existing social life.

- Transmission of subject matter needs special selection, formulation, and organization.

- Most subject matters are derived from past col, lective experience,

- The educator's task is to develop the pupil's ability to appropriate and reproduce thesubject matter into his activities.

- The young begins with social activities and proceed to a scientific insight in the materials

by assimilating into their direct experience the ideas of those who have had a largerexperience.

IV. Dewey's Thoughts on the Curriculum

A. Play and Work in the Curriculum

- Both play and work involve ends free and intrinsically motivated but differ in time span.

- Play and work have means and ends connection.

- Play passes gradually into work when it grows more complicated and gains added

meaning by greater attention to specific results.

- Work is psychologically an activity which includes regard for consequences as a part ofitself.

B. Geography and the Curriculum

- The function is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by

furnishing the context, background" and outlook


36/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

36

- Geography emphasizes the physical and natural side; and history, the social and the

human.

- Geography must coordinate the mathematical, astronomical, physiographic, topographic,political, and commercial phases.

- History includes primitive, economic, industrial, and intellectual history.

- Geography provides the material and medium of development for mankind.

C. Science

- It represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience.

- It aims to reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief.

- Its function:

emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience; and

opening of intellectual vistas through destruction, generalization, and formulation.

H. Basic Principles of Successful Teaching at Any Academic Level by Olsen, et al.

Edward G. Olsen and his associates have formulated a summary of basic principles ofsuccessful teaching applicable to any academic level. They ate as follows:

1. Educate the whole child. The child is not just a mind to be instructed: he is a physically,socially, emotionally, ethically, and intellectually growing person. If his powers are to

develop in proper harmony, he needs learning activities which challenge his emerging

interests and abilities in all the areas of growth.

2. Keep the program informal, flexible, and democratic. Children are restless and need

confidence in their own power and achievements. They, therefore, need every chance to askquestions freely, confer with other children informally, share in planning their individual andgroup activities, carry personal responsibility for group projects, and help to judge critically

the results of their efforts.

This requires that the entire classroom atmosphere is friendly and democratic as well as

informal and flexible and that children are not held in unfair competition with standards of

performance beyond their possible ability to achieve.

3. Capitalize upon present pupil interests. It is of utmost importance that the teacher first

discovers what interests and purposes his students already have and then use these drives as

springboards to further desirable learning.

Thus, limited interests may develop into wider interests, undesirable purposes into

praiseworthy purposes as to how the child's educational growth can be best promoted.

4. Let motivation be intrinsic. Most learners find few desirable incentives in the traditional

system of school marks, honors, and penalties. Their most moving incentives are those ofreal life itself:


37/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

37

a) to explore the new and the interesting;

b) to associate actively with other people;c) to manipulate and construct things;

d) to compare opinions about matters which seem important; and

e) to express one's self artistically.

5. Make learning experiences vivid and direct. Generalizations will be mere verbalisms

unless they are based upon meaningful personal experiences.

That is why children need constant opportunity for motion pictures, radio programs,

excursions, interviews, service projects, work experience, and the like. Through such media,the children receive more concrete, interesting, and meaningful experiences than they are

likely to receive through the printed page alone.

6. Stress problem-solving, the basis of functional learning. Real education comes about

when children intelligently attack real problems, think them through, and then do somethingto solve them. Every chance should, therefore, be given for pupils to discover, define, attack,

solve, and interpret both personal and social problems within the limitations of their ownpresent abilities, interests, and needs.

7. Provide for the achievement of lasting pupil satisfactions. Students who dislike their work

learn little from it and retain that little briefly. Every effort should, therefore, be made tomaintain learning situations wherein children will achieve genuine success, find personal

satisfaction therein, and, thus grow, intellectually, emotionally, and socially.

8. Let the curriculum mirror the community. Learning situations must reflect life in the

pupil's own community if they are to be most effective.

I. Principles of Humanistic Teaching

Humanistic teaching involves three conditions. These are emphatic understanding,

respect or non-possessive warmth, and genuineness which are necessary for the development ofself-actualizing persons. They are necessary for self-initiated, meaningful, experiential learning.

They permit the child to actualize his potentialities.

1. Emphatic understanding. By emphatic understanding is meant understanding of another

from an internal frame of reference, achieved by putting oneself in the place of another,

so that one sees him and the world as closely as possible, as he does.

2. Respect or non-possessive warmth. It is respect which provides for a warm acceptance

for another as a person, with all his faults, deficiencies, or undesirable/unacceptablebehavior. Respect also means a deep interest and concern for his development and

welfare. It involves acceptance of each child as he is, for what he is.


38/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

38

3. Genuineness. It is the congruence or integration of the therapist in the relationship. The

humanistic teacher is genuine and real. She is not putting an act nor trying to play the role

of the mythical teacher.

The totality of these conditions can be summarized in two ways:

First, they are nonthreatening. The humanistic teacher reduces the tension, fear, and

anxiety which are so prevalent in classrooms and which we know inhibit learning.

Second, the essence of these conditions is love. It is the love which has been recognized

by humanistic teachers as the basic requirement of a good teacher.

J. Principles of Good Teaching

There are certain principles of good teaching that the teacher should familiarize himself

with. These principles are almost important as the stimulation and inspiration of a good teacher.

1. Active Learning. The pupil must be mentally active most of the time and physically

active some of the time. Extensive physical and mental activity on the teacher's part willnot necessarily guarantee learning on the pupils part. In numerous learning situations, thechild learns better if he is engaged in' some physical and mental activities while

concentrating upon a mental task. For example, in an arithmetic lesson, a pupil who is

able to put a group of three objects with another group of two objects will learn morequickly that 2 + 3 = 5 than if he were merely told the number fact.

2. Many Methods. There is no single correct way to teach a cla.ss. There are many goodways. A method which fails with one child may be very helpful to another.

3. Motivation. Effective motivation arises from children's interests, needs, problems, andexpressed purposes. Although we humans learn only what we want to learn, it is

nevertheless true that interest in the unfamiliar can be developed by relating the unknown

to the known interests.

4. Well-balanced Curriculum. The curriculum should serve two purposes: to provide

essential skills for the child to enable him to become a useful member of society; and to

satisfy the child's personal and immediate needs. There should be a blend and balance ofthe two throughout the day's curriculum.

5. Individual Difference. Good teaching recognizes individual differences. The slow-learning child, the average child, and the bright child, the three commonest categories,

have to be taught in different ways. In addition to children's intellectual differences, there

are differences in emotional, social, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, and moral development.Good teaching will adapt methods, activities, assignments, and advice to each pupil based

on an understanding of his unique characteristics.


39/200


PREPARED BY MPAS

39

6. Lesson Planning. Units, lessons, activities, and even housekeeping must be well-

planned. Daily planning should be detailed and classroom management should be made

routine. All planning should be flexible.

7. The Power of Suggestion. Suggestions are more fruitful than dictation. Through the

power of positive suggestions, children are willing to undertake tasks and procedurewhich they may have felt inadequate to tackle before. Suggestions may be given as to

which books and materials to use, how to solve problems, and what procedures to follow.

8. Encouragement. Praise, given only when earned, makes pupils aware of their successes.

Constructive criticism may be needed where persistent errors are being made.

9. Remedial Teaching. Good teaching is both diagnostic and remedial.

10. Democratic Environment. Children learn democracy by living it. In return for rights and

privileges within the classroom, children should be aware of their responsibilities to the

group and of group service.

11. Stimulation. Each child can be stimulated within the limits of his abilities to exceed hispresent efforts. Challenge can be provided through the teacher's expression of confidencein her own pupils' aptitudes and skills, through provoking curiosity, and through

encouraging creative endeavor.

Documents

Principles-and-Strategies-of-Teaching-Lecture MPAS.pdf