!

! 2!

Table of Contents

1. Links to general sources about the European Union 3

2. Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO) 4

3. Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL) 7

4. Committee on Environment, Health and Food Safety (ENVI) 13

5. Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM) 16

6. Committee on International Trade (INTA) 20

7. Committee on Industry, Energy and Research I (ITRE I) 26

8. Committee on Industry, Energy and Research II (ITRE II) 31

9. Committee on Legal Affairs 35

10. Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs 40

11. Committee on Security and Defence 47

!

! 3!

Links to general sources about the European Union

Clear and fun video about the EU, its constitution and its functioning:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUF5t1kRlI.

The institutions of the EU explained by their (ex-) Presidents:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0diZ48_q7U.

Legislative procedure of the EU:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnHer1szjrg.

Table on the division of competences of the EU:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:EU_competences.

!

! 4!

Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO)

Equality)is)a)basic)principle)of)democracy)yet)not)reflected)in)the)EU’s)democratically)elected)

institution.)How)can)the)EU)ensure)an)equal)and)fair)representation)of)Member)States)in)the)

distribution)of)seats)in)the)European)Parliament?)

1. Key Terms • European) Parliament:)The$ only$ directly$ elected$ institution$ of$ the$ European$ Union$

consisting$ of$ 750$ members$ and$ one$ president.$ Each$ country$ is$ allocated$ a$ certain$number$of$seats$which$its$inhabitants$can$vote$for$during$the$European$elections.$))

• Council)of)the)European)Union:)The$Council$(of$the$European$Union)$is$a$legislative$body$ of$ the$ EU$ that$ meets$ in$ various$ configurations$ depending$ on$ the$ topic$discussed.$ The$ Council$ always$ comprises$ 28$ national$ ministers$ with$ the$ same$portfolio$ area.$ Not$ to$ be$ confused$ with$ the$ European$ Council$ or$ the$ Council$ of$Europe,$which$are$both$completely$different$institutions.$ $$

• Degressive) Proportionality:$ The$ current$ system$ used$ in$ allocating$ seats$ of$ the$European$Parliament$ to$countries.$While$not$all$countries$have$the$same$amount$of$seats,$smaller$countries$are$allocated$more$seats$than$they$would$get$based$solely$on$their$population.1$$$

• Treaty)of)Lisbon:) $This$ treaty$–$which$came$ into$effect$ in$December$2009$–$defined$and$expanded$ the$powers$of$ the$European$Parliament,$giving$ it$ equal$ footing$with$the$Council$in$most$areas$of$policymaking.2$$

2. Social Relevance The$European$Parliament$ serves$as$ the$only$directly$elected$EU$ institution,$ thus$making$ it$the$only$organ$in$which$all$Europeans$have$a$direct$say.$It$cannot$propose$any$laws$itself$–$the$right$to$do$so$is$reserved$for$the$European$Commission$P$but$has$to$reach$an$agreement$with$ the$ Council$ on$ whether$ or$ not$ to$ pass$ proposals$ for$ new$ laws3.$ Together$ with$ the$Council$and$ the$Commission,$ the$European$Parliament$ is$amongst$ the$most$ important$EU$institutions$and$its$decisions$on$legislation$affect$our$everyday$lives.$This$makes$it$of$utmost$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 EU election will reshuffle, reduce seats in parliament, Deutsche Welle, 2014, http://www.dw.de/eu-election-will-reshuffle-reduce-seats-in-parliament/a-17501569. 2 Treaty of Lisbon, EUROPA, http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm. 3 About Parliament, European Parliament, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/0081f4b3c7/Law-making-procedures-in-detail.html.!

!

! 5!

importance$to$ensure$that$the$seats$in$Parliament$are$divided$fairly$amongst$Member$States$and$that$the$voice$of$every$country$is$heard.$

3. Stakeholders The$ stakeholders$ in$ this$ question$ are$ the$ citizens)of)Member)States,) represented)by) their)respective)governments.$ In$ the$European$Parliament,$EU$citizens$ are$ represented$by$ their$Member$States’$Members$of$European$Parliament$(MEPs).$The$citizens’$representation$in$the$European$ Parliament$ determines$ their$ indirect$ say$ on$ European$ politics.$ Therefore,$ the$governments$ each$have$ an$ interest$ in$ getting$ a$ fair$ share$ of$ the$ seats$ allocated$ to$ them$ in$order$ to$ influence$ policymaking$ and$ legislation.$ Moving$ away$ from$ degressive$proportionality$ to$ standard$ proportionality$would$ be$ in$ the$ interest$ of$ the$ larger$Member$States,$ who$ would$ earn$ more$ seats,$ while$ it$ would$ be$ disadvantageous$ for$ the$ smaller$Member$ States.$ As$ a$ result,$ it$ is$ mostly$ the$ larger$ Member$ States$ who$ demand$ a$ more$proportional$ distribution,$ while$ the$ smaller$ states$ generally$ want$ a$ more$ degressive$allocation$of$seats.4$$

4. Conflicts The$ European$ Parliament$ currently$ uses$ a$ system$ of$degressive)proportionality,$meaning$that$ in$order$ to$give$ them$a$ say,$ smaller$ countries$are$overrepresented$ in$Parliament.$This$reduces$ the$ risk$ of$ small$ countries$ not$ being$ heard$ and$ the$ European$ Union$ being$dominated$by$only$a$few$large$countries.$However,$it$is$also$in$strong$contradiction$with$the$basic$ principle$ of$ democracy$ that$ all$ votes$ are$ equal.$ Moving$ away$ from$ degressive$proportionality$would$mean$ that$ democratic$ principles$ are$more$ adhered$ to,$while$ it$ also$entails$the$risk$of$smaller$EU$countries$losing$their$voice$in$European$politics.$

One$other$important$aspect$is$that$there$is$always$a$multitude$of$political$views$in$a$country.$Having$only$a$ few$seats$might$not$be$enough$ to$represent$all$ the$different$opinions$of$ the$population$of$a$Member$State$and$might$lead$to$the$voice$of$some$political$groups$not$being$heard.$

Opinion$on$the$method$is$divided,$with$some$MEPs$vehemently$protesting$and$criticising$it,$while$others$are$applauding$it.$Proponents$of$degressive$proportionality$often$refer$to$it$as$an$act$of$’European$solidarity’,$while$the$main$argument$of$its$opponents$is$that$it$is$unjust$and$undemocratic.$5$$ Apart$ from$ MEPs,$ other$ institutions$ have$ also$ voiced$ their$ opinion$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4 Composition of the European Parliament after European elections in June 2009, European Parliament, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20071008IPR11353+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN. 5 Idem.

!

! 6!

about$ the$ allocation$ of$ seats,$ with$ the$ German$ Federal$ Constitutional$ Court$ and$ the$’Deutsche$Welle’$claiming$that$it$increases$the$EU’s$democratic$deficit.6$7$

5. Facts and Figures • The$ European$ Parliament$ has$ the$ right$ of$ codecision$ with$ the$ Council$ in$ most$

policymaking$ areas,$ meaning$ that$ almost$ all$ proposed$ new$ legislation$ has$ to$ be$approved$of$by$both$the$European$Parliament$and$the$Council.$$

• The$ seats$ in$ the$European$Parliament$ are$unevenly$distributed,$with$ each$Member$State$being$allocated$between$six$and$96$seats.$

• The$ number$ of$ votes$ required$ for$ one$ seat$ varies$ strongly$ per$ Member$ State.$Germany,$as$ the$EU^s$most$populous$country$with$80.5$million$people,$ is$given$ the$highest$ number$ of$ seats,$ one$ for$ every$ 838,000$ inhabitants.$ Malta,$ the$ EU^s$ least$populous$ country,$with$412,655$ inhabitants,$has$ six$ seats$ in$parliament,$or$one$ seat$for$every$68,775$people8.$

6. Legislative Background The$Treaty) of) Lisbon$ –$ which$ came$ into$ effect$ in$ December$ 2009$ –$ limits$ the$ number$ of$MEPs$to$750$with$one$president.$Apart$from$this$the$treaty$also$stipulates$that$the$Council,$which$ is$ made$ up$ of$ delegates$ from$ each$ Member$ State,$ has$ to$ come$ to$ a$ unanimous$decision$regarding$the$apportionment$of$seats9.$This$treaty$replaces$all$previous$treaties$and$gives$the$European$Parliament$equal$footing$with$the$Council$of$the$EU$in$most$policy$areas,$meaning$that$almost$all$proposed$legislation$have$to$pass$both$the$European$Parliament$and$the$Council$of$the$EU.$$

7. Key Questions • Is$ it$ necessary$ for$ the$ European$ Union$ to$ move$ towards$ a$ more$ proportional$

distribution$of$seats?$o If$ so,$ how$ can$ the$ EU$ achieve$ this$ without$ disenfranchising$ the$ smaller$

Member$States?$• Will$all$political$opinions$in$a$Member$State$be$represented$if$it$only$has$a$few$seats?$• What$will$be$the$legal$implications$of$the$change$towards$standard$proportionality?$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6 How unequal is the European Parliament’s representation, Bruegel, 2014, http://www.bruegel.org/nc/blog/detail/article/1334-how-unequal-is-the-european-parliaments-representation/. 7 Cf. footnote 1. 8 Cf. footnote 1. 9 The European Parliament, EUROPA, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/lisbon_treaty/ai0010_en.htm.!

!

! 7!

8. Recommended links A$video$made$in$2013$explaining$the$composition$of$the$Parliament$and$some$of$the$issues$at$the$time:$http://europarltv.europa.eu/en/player.aspx?pid=2b9288a9Pe7d4P$4f5fP9197Pa1690128038b.$

EU)elections)will)reshuffle,)reduce)seats)in)parliament,)Deutsche$Welle,$2014,$http://www.dw.de/euPelectionPwillPreshufflePreducePseatsPinPparliament/aP$17501569.$

How)unequal)is)the)European)Parliament’s)representation?,)Bruegel,$2014,$http://www.bruegel.org/nc/blog/detail/article/1334PhowPunequalPisPtheP$europeanPparliamentsPrepresentation/.$

!

! 8!

Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL)

With)soaring)numbers)of)youth)unemployment)and)the)recently)implemented)Youth)

Guarantee,)what)additional)measures)should)the)EU)adopt)to)build)on)its)current)strategy?)

1. Key Terms • Youth)unemployment:)The$unemployed$youth$comprise$all$persons$between$the$age$

of$ 15$ and$ 24$ who$ are$ without$ work.$ You$ are$ deemed$ eligible$ for$ this$ if$ you$ are$currently$available$for$work$and$are$actively$seeking$work$but$have$not$been$able$to$secure$ it,$ not$ even$ for$ one$ hour$ in$ any$ economic$ activity$ (paid$ employment,$ selfPemployment,$or$unpaid$work$for$a$family$business)10.$

$• Labour)Market:$All$ the$people$who$are$able$ to$work$and$want$ jobs$ in$a$country$or$

area,$in$relation$to$the$number$of$jobs$there$are$available$in$that$country$or$area.$$

• Youth) Labour) force:)All$ persons$ between$ the$ age$ of$ 15$ and$ 24$ who$ were$ either$employed$or$unemployed$over$a$specified$reference$period.$

$• Youth)Unemployment)rate:)The$number$of$young$unemployed$persons$divided$by$

the$youth$labour$force.$It$represents$the$percentage$of$youth$that$is$unemployed.$$

• Relax)youth)unemployment)rate:)A$measure$of$the$utilised$youth$labour$potential.$It$is$the$standard$measure$of$youth$unemployment,$only$without$calculating$those$who$are$ not$ technically$ unemployed$ because$ they$ do$ not$ meet$ the$ active$ job$ search$criteria.$The$latter$group$is$called$economically$inactive.$

$• Lost)Generation:)Referring$ to$ the$ youth$who$ are$ seemingly$ ‘forgotten’$ and$ lost$ in$

their$struggle$to$find$gainful$employment.$$

• Youth) Guarantee:) the$ European$ Commission’s$ approach$ to$ tackling$ youth$unemployment,$by$making$sure$that$all$youth$under$25$get$a$goodPquality,$concrete$offer$within$4$months$of$leaving$formal$education$or$becoming$unemployed.$

2. Social Relevance Currently$the$youth$unemployment$rates$are$at$an$allGtime)high.$ In$the$last$four$years,$the$overall$ employment$ rate$ of$ European$ youngsters$ fell$ three$ times$ more$ than$ the$ adult$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10 Youth unemployment, Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Youth_unemployment.

!

! 9!

employment$rate.$More$than$one$in$five$youngsters$on$the$labour$market$are$unable$to$find$work.$$Youth$ unemployment$ demolishes$ social$ mobility$ within$ a$ society$ and$ is$ economically$depleting.$ The$ European$ Foundation$ for$ Living$ and$Working$Conditions$(Eurofound)$ has$estimated$ the$ economic$ loss$ in$ the$EU$of$ having$ 7.5$million$young$people$ out$ of$work$or$education$or$training$at$over$€150)billion)each)year,)which)is)1.2%)of)EU)GDP,$in$terms$of$benefits$ paid$ out$ and$ lost$ output11.$ It$ is$ also$ scarring$ for$ the$ individuals$ involved,$ as$unemployed$youth$is$at$higher$risk$of$being$unemployed$at$later$stages$of$life.$$Young) people) are) also) three) times)more) likely) to) be) unemployed) compared)with) their)older)counterparts.)The$basis$for$this$is$their$lack$of$relevant$work$experience,$which$could$potentially$be$solved$by$getting$organisations$to$support$young$people.$However,$due$to$the$global$economic$crisis$ fewer$organisations$are$able$to$spend$money$recruiting$and$training$young$ workers$ when$ they$ can$ just$ as$ easily$ get$ more$ experienced$ and$ able$ workers$elsewhere.$

3. Stakeholders Needless$to$say,$youth$unemployment$affects$the$‘youth’$of$Europe,$that$is$all)persons)aged)between)15)and)24.$ It$ can$often$deter$of$ shift$decisions$about$higher$education$or$possible$career$ choices.$ Yet,$ such$ decisions$ have$ a$ wider$ impact$ than$ just$ the$ youth$ of$ Europe.$ It$transcends)both)age)and)generational)gaps$ as$parents$are$ forced$ to$support$ their$children$for$ longer.$ This$ prolonged$ care$ diverts$ spending$ and$ postpones$ retirement$ plans,$ all$ of$which$alter$the$consumer$society$hindering$economic$growth.$$Governments) are)key)actors) in$ trying$ to$ ease$ youth$unemployment,$ forcing$ employers$ to$take$on$more$workers$or$by$pushing$universities$and$colleges$to$offer$more$vocational$skills$to$students.$Member$States$are,$however,$limited$as$to$how$much$they$can$do$on$a$European$wide$ scale.$ There$ are$ examples$ where$ states$ have$ come$ together$ to$ provide$ a$ utilised$approach$to$enhance$students’$skills.$The$Erasmus$scheme,$for$instance,$supports$students$to$travel$abroad$as$part$of$their$education$with$the$aim$of$enhancing$their$skills$and$ultimately$making$ them$more$ employable.$Yet,$ there$ is$ no$major$ student$&$ skills$ approach$ and$ as$ a$result$ there$ is$ space$ for$ the$ European) Parliament$ and) Commission$ to$ come$ to$ a$ greater$consensus$ on$ a$ strategy$ to$ tackle$ the$ problem.$ Thus,$ from$ policy) makers) to) employers,)sovereign$ states$ are$ forced$ into$ a$ more$ paternalistic$ frame$ of$ mind$ to$ accommodate$ this$issue.$$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 The EU Youth Guarantee, European Commission, 2014, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-14-530_en.htm.

!

! 10!

4. Conflicts Not$ all$ European$ youngsters$ are$ economically) active.$ This$ means$ we$ can$ divide$ our$European$ youth$ into$ three$ categories:$ employed,$ unemployed$ and$ economically$ inactive,$unemployed$ meaning$ not$ able$ to$ find$ work$ within$ 4$ months$ after$ leaving$ prior$ form$ of$education.$Being$economically$inactive$means$that$a$person$is$not$actively$looking$for$a$job.$A$question$is$why$these$people$or$not$searching$for$a$job$and$whether$these$people$should$nevertheless$be$provided$with$one.$ $$$$$$$$$Another$problem$is$that$the$youth$mainly$receives$shortGterm)contracts,$which$makes$them$part$ of$ the$ flexible$ labour$market.$ Therefore$ their$ employers$will$ not$ invest$ a$ lot$ in$ their$training,$which$means$that$when$meat$comes$to$end,$the$youth$will$be$first$to$lose$their$jobs.$The$youth$therefore$finds$itself$between$jobs$more$often$than$the$older$generation12.$$It$thus$seems$logical$for$the$EU$to$invest$in$trainings$and$education$to$make$the$youth$more$skilled$and$attractive$to$employers.$However,$this$does$result$in$an$immense$cost$for$the$EU$or$the$Member$States.$Alternatives$for$trainings$and$education$are,$amongst$others,$benefit$systems$ that$ provide$ subsidy$ to$ companies$ that$ hire$ youngsters.$ Which$ of$ the$ possible$alternatives$is$most$cost$effective?$$Apart$from$cost,$reducing$youth$unemployment$by$financial$methods$or$setting$quota$could$affect$the$relationship)that)the)young)employees)have)with)the)rest)of)the)labour)market.$If$there$ is$ a$ big$ advantage$ for$ companies$ to$ start$ hiring$ young$ employees,$ the$ young$employees$will$be$prioritised$over$the$older$employees.$This$brings$a$great$disadvantage$to$older$ workers,$ even$ worsened$ by$ the$ lowering$ of$ the$ retirement$ age$ that$ brings$ more$competition$on$the$labour$market.$It$raises$the$question$whether$it$is$right$to$select$a$young$employee$ rather$ than$ an$ older$ employee$ for$ the$ greater$ good:$ stimulating$ the$ future$economy.$$$Lastly,$ existing$measure$mostly$ include$ providing$ the$ youth$working$ experience$ through$internship)schemes.$Although$youngsters$do$gain$experience$ in$the$working$field$through$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

12!Youth unemployment in Europe and the World: Causes, Consequences and Solutions, Kiel Institute for the World Economy, 2013, https://www.ifw-kiel.de/wirtschaftspolitik/politikberatung/kiel-policy-brief/kpb-2013/KPB_59.pdf.!

!

! 11!

these$internships,$few$of$these$internships$result$in$a$permanent$job.$The$internship$schemes$make$it$actually$easier$for$employers$to$gain$labour$force$without$creating$new$jobs13.$$

5. Facts and Figures In$ the$ following$ figure$ you$will$ be$ able$ to$ see$the$amount$of$unemployment$within$Europe.$

)Nonetheless,$youth$unemployment$is$not)a)big)problem) in) all) of) the) EUG28) countries.$ Three$different$countries$have$managed$to$keep$their$unemployment$rates$low14.$$In$ the$ Netherlands,$ for$ instance,$ due$ to$ great$investment) in) the) flexible) labour) force,$ there$has$been$a$reasonable$stability$among$the$youth$unemployment$ ratio$ since$ the$ 1980’s.$ It$ seems,$if$you$take$the$Netherlands$as$an$example,$that$investing$ in$ a$ flexible$ labour$ market$ paired$with$social$security$can$keep$the$figures$down.$Compared$ to$ other$ countries,$ in$ the$Netherlands$ temporary$ workers$ enjoy$ better$employment$ protection,$ as$ well$ as$ rights$ to$training,$ wage$ guarantees$ and$ supplementary$pensions.$$Another$ country$ that$ has$managed$ to$ keep$ its$youth$unemployment$rate$below$EUP28$average$is$Germany.$Since$2008$the$Unemployment$rates$ in$Germany$have$been$plunging.$Germany$ is$ renowned$ for$ its$Vocational)Education)and)Training) (VET)) system.$ It$ is$ a$ system$ that$ offers$ a$ variety$ of$ tracks$ for$ the$ youth$ to$balance$education$with$work$(internships$etc.).$$Lastly,$ Denmark$ also$ invests$ in$ an$ active) labour)market) policy) (ALMP)$ with$ the$ aim$ to$reduce$structural$unemployment$and$thereby$Denmark$keeps$its$youth$unemployment$rates$low.$ ALMP$ strives$ to$ ease$ the$ transition$ from$ unemployment$ and$ inactivity$ to$ work$ by$means$of$supporting$job$search$and$improving$qualifications$and$employability.$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!13 EU’s Youth Guarantee is unlikely to dramatically help Slovakia’s young unemployment, Vise Grade Revue, 2013, http://visegradrevue.eu/?p=1398. 14 International Lessons: Youth unemployment in the global context, The Work Foundation, 2013, http://www.theworkfoundation.com/DownloadPublication/Report/329_International%20Lessons.pdf.

!

! 12!

6. Legislative Background Though$the$Netherlands,$Germany$and$Denmark$are$doing$fairly$well$in$employing$youth,$Europe$ is$ still$ in$need$of$ lowering$ its$unemployment$ rate$ average.$ So$ far$ the$Commission$has$ launched$ two$ major$ programmes.$ The$ Youth$ guarantee$ programme$ (2014)$ and$ the$European$Alliance$of$Apprenticeships$(2013).$$The)Youth)Guarantee$ is$a$programme$that$strives$to$ lower$the$youth$unemployment$rates$by$means$of$providing$youth$with$education,$internships$or$a$job$within$4$months$after$they$left$their$last$form$of$education.$On$the$basis$of$a$Commission$proposal,$to$complement$the$youth$ guarantee$ programme,$ the$ Council$ of$ Ministers$ adopted$ a$ Quality$ Framework$ for$Traineeships$to$enable$trainees$to$acquire$highPquality$work$experience$under$safe$and$fair$conditions$and$to$increase$their$chances$of$finding$a$good$quality$job.$$The)European)Alliance) for)Apprenticeships15,)established$ in$ 2013,$ brings$ together$ public$authorities,$businesses,$ social$partners,$vocational$education$and$ training$providers,$youth$representatives,$ and$ other$ key$ actors$ in$ order$ to$ improve$ the$ quality$ and$ supply$ of$apprenticeships$across$the$EU$and$change$mindPsets$towards$apprenticeshipPtype$learning.$

7. Key Questions • Is$there$sufficient$knowledge$sharing$of$research$innovations$and$new$scientific$

discoveries$within$the$borders$of$the$EU,$or$could$it$be$improved?$• How$can$the$youth$keep$up$with$the$needs$of$EU$citizens$within$the$current$labour$

market?$$• What$can$the$EU$do$to$uphold$a$competitive,$yet$balanced$labour$market$whilst$

keeping$the$measures$in$place$in$mind?$$

8. Recommended Links Youth)unemployment)in)Europe)and)the)World:)Causes,)Consequences)and)Solutions,)Kiel$Institute$for$the$World$Economy,$2013,$https://www.ifwPkiel.de/wirtschaftspolitik/politikberatung/kielPpolicyPbrief/kpbP2013/KPB_59.pdf.)

Youth)Guarantee,)European$Commission,$2014,$http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1079.)

EU)measures)to)tackle)youth)unemployment,)European$Commission,$2013,$http://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/youth_unemployment_leaflet_en.pdf.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15 European Alliance for Apprenticeships, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/alliance_en.htm.

!

! 13!

The)EU’s)misdiagnosis)of)youth)unemployment,)Euractiv,$2014,$http://www.euractiv.com/sections/socialPeuropePjobs/eusPmisdiagnosisPyouthPunemploymentP301323$

$$

!

! 14!

Committee on Environment, Health and Food Safety (ENVI)

Green)urban)transport:)with)3)out)of)4)citizens)in)the)EU)living)in)cities)and)an)increased)

demand)for)urban)mobility,)how)should)the)EU)further)develop)its)Urban)Mobility)Package)to)

ensure)a)sustainable)and)a)resourceLefficient)transport)system?)

1. Key Terms • Urban)mobility:$The$capability$of$people$living$in$cities$and$the$surrounding$area$to$

move$around$with$all$modes$$and$forms$of$transport.$

2. Social Relevance Over$ 60%$ of$ European$ citizens$ live$ in$ urban$ areas$ populated$ by$ over$ 10,000$ inhabitants.$Everyday$they$share$the$same$space$and$infrastructure.$Urban$transport$accounts$for$40%$of$all$CO2$emissions$of$road$transport$and$up$to$70%$of$other$pollutants$from$transport16.$It$is$also$estimated$that$by$2050$the$average$amount$of$time$European$citizens$spend$in$a$traffic$jam,$will$ triple$to$106$hours$per$year.17$This$will$cause$European$citizens$not$only$to$spend$significantly$more$ time$ on$ small$ journeys$ then$ they$ do$ now,$ as$well$ as$ triggering$ serious$health$ issues$ due$ to$ air$ pollution.$ Hence,$ one$ of$ the$ EU’s$ main$ objectives$ lies$ in$ finding$feasible$ solutions$ to$ improve$ the$ general$ quality$ of$ life$ as$well$ as$mitigating$ the$ negative$effects$of$climate$change.18$$

3. Stakeholders The$ones$ that$are$directly$affected$by$urban$mobility$are$urban)citizens.$These$citizens$benefit$from$a$smooth$traffic$flow19$and$less$pollution,$as$smog$and$polluted$air$can$severely$harm$one’s$health20.$ Citizens$ on$ the$ other$ hand$ are$ also$ the$ consumers$ of$ urban$ transport$ and$ thus$ the$causers$ of$ congestion$ and$ pollution.$Moreover,$ consumers$ can$make$ the$ decision$whether$ to$travel$by$ car$or$public$ transport$ and$whether$ to$ choose$ for$greener$means$of$ transport.$These$means$of$transport$are$provided$either$by$national)institutions$(e.g.$nationalised$train$systems)$or$private)companies,$such$as$car$manufacturers$or$privatised$public$transport$providers.$In$the$case$ of$ private$ transport$ providers,$ market$ competition$ takes$ part$ in$ a$ central$ position$ with$regard$ to$ their$ products$ and$ prices.$ Therefore,$ greener$ products$ and$ services$ are$ not$ always$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!16 Clean transport, Urban transport, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/index_en.htm. 17 The Future of Urban Mobilisation, Arthur D. Little (management consultancy), 2011, http://www.adlittle.com/downloads/tx_adlreports/ADL_Future_of_urban_mobility.pdf. 18 Benefits sustainable urban mobility plans, ELTIS 2013, http://www.mobilityplans.eu/index.php?ID1=6&id=6 19 Risk factors for road traffic injuries, World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_traffic/activities/roadsafety_training_manual_unit_2.pdf. 20 “Urban transport and health”, World Health Organisation 2011, http://www.who.int/hia/green_economy/giz_transport.pdf.

!

! 15!

lucrative$ for$ a$ company$ to$ produce.$ Lastly,$ the$ EU$ has$ great$ interest$ in$ reducing$ the$environmental$damage$that$is$inflicted$by$its$Member$States.$Policies$with$regard$to$health$and$consolidation,$to$name$some$examples,$cannot$accomplish$their$objectives$without$taking$urban$specificities$including$urban$mobility$into$account.21$

4. Conflicts As$ the$ EU^s$ cities$ annually$ grow$ with$ no$ sign$ of$ stopping,$ urbanisation$ and$ economic$growth$ go$ hand$ in$ hand.$ Although$ the$ European$ Commission$ has$ been$ very$ eager$ in$initiating$ and$ supporting$ all$ kinds$of$ initiatives$ that$promote$ and/or$help$ create$ strategies$for$ more$ sustainable$ urban$ transportation,$ there$ are$ still$ areas$ where$ this$ is$ lacking.$Innovation$ in$ the$ field$ of$ urban$ transportation$ is$ scarce.$ Urban$management$ systems$ are$very$often$still$overregulated,)do$not$allow$market$players$to$compete,$and$fail$to$establish$business$models$that$allow$supply$and$demand$to$stabilise.$$

Another$ big$ issue$ is$ that$ the$ competencies$ to$ make$ innovations$ in$ the$ field$ of$ urban$transport$ lies$ primarily$with$ local$ authorities,$ whilst$ the$ need$ to$ solve$ transport$ issues$ is$primarily$a$concern$on$national$or$even$European$level.$The$EU$is$particularly$interested$in$developing$sustainable$transport$systems$in$order$to$reach$the$20P20P20$targets22.$Transport$is$a$shared)competence,$thus$the$EU$has$resolved$to$promote$innovation$in$the$urban$transport$sector$ through$ providing$ funds.$ However,$ EU$ transport$ auditors$ have$ observed$ that$ a$significant$amount$of$EU$funded$urban$transportation$projects$are$underutilised23.$

Lastly,$ financial)disparities24$affect$ the$green$ sector.$ For$urban$ transport$ to$ become$green,$externalities$need$to$be$paid.$Externalities$are$costs$that$affect$parties$that$did$not$choose$to$incur$ that$ cost.$ For$ example,$ a$ driver$ causes$ environmental$ damage,$ and$ in$ this$ way$contributes$to$the$intensified$greenhouse$effect.$Eventually,$this$has$to$be$financed$through$governments$ by$ building$higher$dams.$ This$ can$ be$ achieved$ by$making$users$ pay$ for$ the$external$ costs,$which$ they$ cause$ according$ to$ the$ polluter$ pays$ principle.$ In$ order$ to$ deal$with$ jammed$ infrastructure,$ the$ internalisation$ of$ external$ costs$ can$ encourage$ transport$users$ to$ switch$ over$ time$ to$ cleaner$ vehicles$ or$ transport$ modes.$ However,$ when$internalising$ external$ costs,$ other$ problems$ remain.$ Competition$ between$ companies$ that$provide$ transport$ services$ will$ favour$ the$ ones$ that$ offer$ products$ that$ are$ as$ cheap$ as$possible,$whilst$internalising$external$costs$would$make$products$more$expensive.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!21 “Action Plan on urban mobility”, European Commission 2012, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/action_plan_en.htm. 22 “The 2020 climate and energy package”, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/package/index_en.htm. 23 “EU funded urban transport projects underutilized”, European Court of Auditors 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nhe8TPTN3jg, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_ECA-14-11_en.htm.

24 Disparities explained, http://economics.about.com/cs/economicsglossary/g/externality.htm.

!

! 16!

5. Legislative Framework In$ recent$ years,$ EU$ policy$ and$ legislation$ relevant$ to$ urban$mobility$ has$ been$ developed.$Significant$ funding$ has$ been$ provided$ through$ the$ Structural$ and$ Cohesion$ Funds.$ EUPfunded$ initiatives,$ often$ supported$ by$ the$ Framework$ Programmes$ for$ research$ and$technological$development,$have$helped$to$develop$a$variety$of$innovative$approaches.$EUPwide$allocation$and$replication$of$these$approaches$can$enable$public$authorities$to$achieve$more,$better$and$at$lower$cost.$$

Different$ approaches$ to$ Sustainable) Urban) Mobility) Planning$ (SUMP)$ already$ exist$throughout$Europe.$EnergyGefficient)driving$is$already$a$mandatory$part$of$the$training$and$testing$of$professional$drivers.$The$Commission$will$discuss$with$Member$States,$within$the$regulatory$ committee$ on$ driving$ licenses,$ if$ and$ how$ energyPefficient$ driving$ could$ be$included$ in$ driving$ tests$ for$ private$ drivers,$ and$will$ consider$ followPup$ actions$ and$ give$respective$ support.$ This$ topic$ will$ also$ be$ addressed$ in$ the$ next$ Road$ Safety$ Action$Programme25.$$

Environmentally) friendly) policies$ have$ been$ introduced$ in$ many$ cities$ across$ the$ EU.$Action$at$EU$ level$ can$help$ to$ strengthen$markets$ for$new,$ clean$vehicle$ technologies$ and$alternative$fuels.$$The$Commission$will$ continue$ its$ support$ for$ research$and$demonstration$projects$ funded$through$ the$ Seventh) Framework) Program) for) research) and) technological) development)(FP7)$designed$to$facilitate$the$market$introduction$of$lower$and$zero$emission$vehicles$and$alternative$fuels.$This$was$done,$for$example,$through$the$CIVITAS$Initiative$–$an$initiative$to$help$cities$innovate$their$public$transport$and$to$support$projects$on$the$use$of$hydrogen,$biofuels$and$hybrid$vehicles$in$urban$transport.$In$the$framework$of$the$European$Economic$Recovery$Plan,$the$Commission$has$launched$the$European)Green)Cars)Initiative$

6. Recommended Links Europe’s)transport)infrastructure,)The$Guardian,$2013,$http://www.theguardian.com/publicPleadersPnetwork/2013/oct/30/europesPtransportPinnovationsPprivate.$

Clean)transport,)Urban)transport,)European$Commission,$2012,$http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/action_plan_en.htm.$

Innovation)in)Urban)Mobility,)European$Commission,$2013,$http://www.transportPresearch.info/Upload/Documents/201304/20130417_132707_15935_PB03ENWEB.pdf$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25 “Road Safety Programme”, European Commission 2010, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-10-343_en.htm.

!

! 17!

Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM) A)31%)difference)in)income)per)year)between)men)and)women)in)the)EU:)as)the)gender)pay$

gap)remains)despite)undertaken)measures,)what)further)steps)should)the)EU)take)to)ensure)a$

fair)and)equal)payment)regardless)of)gender?$

1. Key Terms • The)gender)pay)gap:$The$difference$between$male$and$female$earnings$expressed$as$

a$percentage$of$male$earnings.$$

• Glass) ceiling:) The$ term$ used$ to$ describe$ the$ unseen$ barrier$ hindering$ (mostly)$women$ despite$ their$ job$ qualifications,$ from$ advancing$ to$ top$ positions$ in$ the$corporate$world.$$$

$• AtGriskGofGpoverty) rate:) The$ amount$ of$ people$ with$ an$ income$ below$ 60%$ of$ the$

national$median$income26.$$

• Labour)Market:$the$place$where$workers$and$employees$interact$with$each$other.$$$

• Unskilled)Labour:)A$segment$of$the$work$force$associated$with$a$low$skill$level$or$a$limited$ economic$ value$ for$ the$ work$ performed.$ Unskilled$ labour$ is$ generally$characterized$by$low$education$levels$and$small$wages.$

2. Social Relevance The$European$Union$ (EU)$has$been$aspiring$ to$achieve$gender$pay$equality$ever$ since$ the$creation$ of$ the$ founding$ Treaty$ of$ Rome$ in$ 1957.$Nowadays$ the$ principle$ of$ equal$ pay$ is$enshrined$in$The$Treaty$on$the$functioning$of$the$European$Union.$In$addition$the$Charter$of$Fundamental$Rights$ of$ The$European$Union27$dictates$ that$ equality) between)women) and)men)must)be)ensured)in)all)areas,) including)employment,)work)and)pay.$ In$2010$women$made$up$ for$51,2%$ of$ the$ total$European$population$ and$ the$amount)of) female)graduates) is)averagely)higher$ than$male.$ Still$women$make$ up$ for$ less$ than$ 14.6%$ of$ all$ top$ positions.$With$ the$European$population$ageing$and$workingPage$population$shrinking,$it$is$now$of$the$utmost$importance$ that$ the$ human$ capital$ base$ is$ widened$ and$ all$ skills$ are$ properly$ exploited.$Furthermore$this$underutilization$of$women’s$talents$would$interfere$with$The)Europe)2020)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!26People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, Eurostat, 2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/People_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion#Methodology. 27 Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 23, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0389:0403:en:PDF.

!

! 18!

strategy$whose$main$pillars$are$knowledge,$competence$and$innovation.$Moreover,$from$an$economic$standpoint,$ research$has$shown$that$a$more$gender$diverse$management$ team$is$beneficial$for$a$company’s$performance.$Over$the$years$the$European$Commission$(EC)$has$implemented$various$directives$to$tackle$inequality$in$pay,$but$the$fact$remains$that$women$averagely$earn$16.4%$less$than$men$when$executing$ the$exact$ same$profession.$The$predicted$decrease$ in$ the$gender)pay)gap)(GPG)$turned$ out$ lower$ than$ expected,$ in$ some$ member$ states$ it$ has$ even$ increased.$ This$discrepancy$ causes$ women$ to$ exhibit$ a$ higher) atGriskGofGpoverty) rate) than$ men$ and$ will$very$likely$enlarge$the$existing$pension)gap)as$well.)Lower$incomes$could$result$in$a$larger$dependence$ on$ one^s$ partner^s$ income$ or$ the$ state’s$ provisions,$ which$ would$ eventually$negatively$affect$the$economy$as$a$whole.$$$

3. Stakeholders The$ European) Commission)plays$ a$ crucial$ role$ in$ tackling$ gender$ inequality$ by$ creating$new$and$ intensifying$ existing$policies.$As$ the$EC$ lacks$ the$power$ to$ force$measures$upon$national)governments,$it$is$up$to$them$to$put$laws$into$practice.$Their$role$could$vary$from$monitoring$ companies$ in$ obeying$ pay$ policies$ to$ setting$ quotas$ in$ gender$ diversity.$Alongside$ there$ is$ room$ for$ a$ company’s$ own$ initiative$ to$ follow$ through$ on$ the$ EC$directives$and$in$the$end$they$play$the$central$ role$as$ this$ is$where$change$ is$needed.$Most$companies’$ main$ incentive$ is$ profit$ and$ will$ direct$ their$ strategies$ towards$ attaining$ that$profit.$In$companies$where$mostly$men$fulfil$the$managing$positions,$a$shift$towards$a$more$feminine$ board$may$ be$ seen$ as$ needless$ or$ at$ may$ at$ least$ be$ less$ prioritised$ than$ other$internal$strategy$changes$ in$ the$company.$However,$ the$change$does$matter$ for$women)as$they$benefit$from$fairer$salaries$and$positions.$Additionally,$impacts$of$a$gender$balance$in$the$boards$of$the$same$companies$discussed$before$must$be$considered.$

4. Conflicts In$2012,$women$earned$16.4$%$less$than$men,$on$average.$This$indicator$has$been$defined$as$unadjusted$ (e.g.$not$adjusted$according$ to$differences$ in$ individual$ characteristics$or$other$observable$characteristics$ that$may$explain$part$of$ the$earnings$difference)$because$ it$gives$an$ overall$ picture$ of$ gender$ discrimination$ and$ the$ inequalities$ in$ the$ labour$market$ that$explain$gender$differences$in$pay.$From$the$new$Eurostat$estimates,$it$appears$that$there$are$considerable$differences$ between$ the$Member$ States$ in$ this$ regard,$with$ the$GPG$ ranging$from$ less$ than$ 10%$ in$ Slovenia,$Malta,$ Poland,$ Italy,$ Luxembourg$ and$ Romania,$ to$more$than$ 20%$ in$Hungary,$ Slovakia,$ the$ Czech$ Republic,$ Germany$ and$Austria,$ and$ reaching$30%$in$Estonia.$However,$ the$GPG$ is$not$an$ indicator$of$ the$overall$ inequality)between)women)and)men)since$it$only$concerns$salaried$people.$The$gender$pay$gap$must$be$looked$at$in$conjunction$with$ other$ indicators$ linked$ to$ the$ labour)market,$ in$ particular$ those$ ones$ that$ reflect$ the$

!

! 19!

different$working$patterns$of$women.$In$countries$where$the$female$employment$rate$is$low$(e.g.$ Italy),$ the$ pay$ gap$ is$ lower$ than$ average.$ This$ may$ be$ a$ reflection$ of$ the$ small$proportion$of)lowGskilled)or)unskilled$women$in$the$workforce.$A$high$pay$gap$is$usually$characteristic$of$a$labour$market$which$is$highly$segregated,$meaning$that$women$are$more$concentrated$ in$ a$ restricted$ number$ of$ sectors$ and/or$ professions$ (e.g.$ Czech$ Republic,$Estonia$ and$ Finland),$ or$ in$which$ a$ significant$ proportion$ of$women$work$ partPtime$ (e.g.$Germany$and$Austria).$Finally,$ institutional$mechanisms$and$ systems$on$wage$ setting$ can$influence$the$pay$gap.$

5. Facts and Figures Between$October$2010$and$January$2012,$it$can$be$said$that$the$best$progress$in$many$years$was$ made$ in$ improving$ the$ gender$ balance$ on$ company$ boards.$ This$ development$ is$certainly$ linked$ to$ the$ intensified$ public$ debate$ initiated$ by$ the$ Commission’s$ and$ the$European$ Parliament’s$ calls$ for$ action,$ which$ were$ followed$ in$ some$ Member$ states$ by$concrete$steps$to$accelerate$the$pace$of$change.$However,$this$report$shows$that$progress$continues$to$be$very$limited.$In$January$2012,$the$average$ number$ of$ female$ board$members$ in$ the$ largest$ companies$ listed$ in$ the$ EU$was$13,7%$ compared$ to$ 11,8%$ in$ 2010.$ Moreover,$ only$ 3,2%$ of$ chairpersons$ were$ women$ in$January$2012$compared$to$3,4%$in$2010.$The$overall$trend$does$not$show$significant$improvement.$So$far,$only$24$companies$across$Europe$ have$ signed$ the$ ‘Women$ on$ board$ Pledge$ for$ Europe’$ and$ have$ committed$ to$achieving$quantitative$ targets.$With$progress$at$ the$ same$pace$as$ in$ recent$years,$ it$would$take$more$than$40$years$to$arrive$at$genderPbalanced$boards.$$

The unadjusted gender pay gap in 2012. Source: Eurostat.

$

!

! 20!

$

6. Legislative Background In$ 2011$ the$ European) Pact) For)Gender) Equality$ was$ adopted$ to,$ amongst$ others,$ ensure$equal)pay)for)equal)work$and$to$promote$the$equal$participation$of$women$in$decisionPmaking.$To$intensify$the$current$directives$and$realize$the$objectives$set$in$the$Women’s$Charter$the$EC$adopted$the$Strategy)for)Equality)Between)Women)and)men)2010G2015.$ Its$aims$are$to$raise$the$women’s$employment$rate$to$75%$by$2020$and$to$improve$the$position$of$woman$on$the$labour$market.$This$strategy$is$also$aligned$with$The)Europe)2020)Strategy)in$which$the$action$plan$for$the$advancement$of$the$European$economy$is$described.$Various$member$states$have$adopted$ legislation$prescribing$quotas)for)gender)balance$ in$ company$boards.$For$example$the$Netherlands$has$set$a$quota$of$40%$women$in$the$100$largest$companies$and$state$ owned$ companies.$ Lastly$ there$ are$ initiatives$ to$ raise$ awareness$ amongst$ the$ public$such$as$the$Equal)Pay)Day28.$

7. Key Questions • What$ are$ the$ causes$ of$ the$ gender$pay$gap?$Why$are$women$on$ average$paid$ less$

than$men?$• How$can$the$female$employment$rate$be$increased?$• What$measures$can$be$taken$to$decrease$the$gender$gay$gap?$• What$is$the$effect$of$gender$roles$on$the$gender$pay$gap?$

8. Recommended Links An$ overview$ on$ the$ gender$ pay$ gap,$ issues$ by$ the$ European$ Commission:$http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderPequality/genderPpayPgap/index_en.htm$$$A$ 2014$ European$ Commission$ publication$ on$ tackling$ the$ gender$ pay$ gap$ in$ the$ EU:$http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderPequality/files/gender_pay_gap/140227_gpg_brochure_web_en.pdf$$$$$$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!28 Closing the gender gap, Equal Pay Day, 2014, http://equal-pay-day.com/.

!

! 21!

Committee on International Trade (INTA)

Human)rights)and)global)competitiveness:)Now)that)trade)agreements)are)an)exclusive)EU)

competence,)how)can)the)EU)maintain)a)competitive)position)on)the)markets)whilst)

advocating)good)governance)and)the)protection)of)human)rights)in)its)trade)agreements?)

1. Key Terms ● Trade)agreements:)A$trade$agreement$ (also$known$as$ trade$pact)$ is$a$widePranging$

tax,$ tariff$ and$ trade$ treaty$ that$ often$ includes$ investment$ guarantees.$ The$ most$common$ trade$ agreements$ are$ of$ the$ preferential$ and$ free$ trade$ types$ and$ are$concluded$in$order$to$reduce$(or$eliminate)$tariffs,$quotas$and$other$trade$restrictions$on$items$traded$between$the$signatories29.)$

● Foreign)Trade)Association)(FTA):)The$FTA$is$Europe^s$premier$association$for$trade$policy$ and$ global$ supply$ chains.$ It$ brings$ together$ over$ 1200$ retailers,$ importers,$brand$ companies,$ and$ national$ associations$ to$ improve$ the$ political$ and$ legal$framework$for$trade.$)$

● World) Trade) Organization) (WTO):) The$ WTO$ is$ a$ memberPdriven$ organization$composed$ of$ governments$ and$ customs$ territories$ (such$ as$ the$ EU).$ It$ sets$ the$framework$for$trade$between$its$members$with$decisions$taken$on$a$consensus$basis.)$

● Tariff:$A$government$duty$imposed$on$imports$of$certain$products.$$

● NonGtariff) barriers:) Trade$ barriers$ that$ restrict$ imports,$ and$ which$ are$ not$ in$ the$form$of$tariffs.)

2. Social Relevance The$ EU$ is$ both$ the$ largest$ exporter$ and$ the$ largest$ importer$ in$ the$ world.$ Imports$ have$always$played$a$vital$role$ in$keeping$an$economy$running.$Especially$in$the$present,$while$we$ are$ rebuilding$ Europe’s$ economy,$ it$ is$ more$ important$ than$ ever$ to$ establish$ and$maintain$ a$ healthy$ and$ optimal$ functioning$ trading$ relationship$with$ countries$ outside$ of$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!29 Free trade agreements, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/international/facilitating-trade/free-trade/.

!

! 22!

the$EU.$However,$trade$agreements$are$often$negotiated$without$reference$to$their$impact$on$the$rights$to$health,$education,$food,$work,$and$water30.$$On$24$April$2013,$Rana$Plaza,$an$eightPstory$commercial$building,$collapsed$in$the$capital$of$Bangladesh.$With$a$death$toll$of$1129$it$is$considered$to$be$the$deadliest$accidental$structure$failure$ in$modern$human$history.$The$building$housed$several$ factories$ that$manufactured$garments$for$28$brands.$One$of$these$factories$acted$as$a$supplier$to$Primark.$Primark$is$an$Irish$company,$and$therefore$has$to$deal$with$European$legislation$when$it$comes$to$import$and$ labour$ conditions.$ However,$ in$ countries$ like$ Bangladesh$ the$ legislation$ regarding$labour$conditions$is$not$as$strict$as$in$the$EU$and$consequently$Bangladeshi$product$can$be$manufactured$for$a$lower$price.$By$outsourcing$manufacturing$to$countries$like$Bangladesh,$Primark$ saves$ costs;$ but$ it$ does$ not$ save$ lives.$ Importing$ goods$ from$ less$ developed$countries$ thus$has$ two$sides.$The$responsibility$ to$ take$action$and$prevent$ future$disasters$like$ the$ collapse$ of$ Rana$ Plaza$ from$ happening$ lies$ on$ the$ one$ hand$ with$ companies.$Additionally,$ the$ EU$ can$ make$ a$ big$ difference$ by$ using$ its$ power$ in$ forms$ of$ import$legislation.$$In$a$world$where$one$cannot$operate$properly$without$allies,$ it$would$be$unwise$to$cut$off$countries$ that$do$not$meet$up$ to$our$ standards$and$stop$exchanging$our$goods.$However,$that$ does$ not$mean$ that$we$ cannot$ and$ should$ not$ do$ anything.$ The$ fact$ remains$ that$ in$some$of$the$countries$we$trade$with$human$rights$are$not$regarded$as$highly$as$they$are$in$the$EU.$

3. Stakeholders The$European)Commission$acts$on$behalf$of$all$Member$States$and$represents$the$interests$of$the$EU$as$a$whole.$In$the$case$of$trade$negotiations,$the$European$Commission$delivers$a$negotiating$proposal,$which$must$be$approved$before$starting$negotiations$by$the$Council)of)the) European) Union.$ It$ is$ also$ the$ EU$ Commission$ that$ has$ the$ ability$ to$ implement$initiatives$ such$ as$Generalised$ Scheme$of$ Preferences$ (GSP,$ see$ “Legislative$ background”)$for$example.$Furthermore,$the$European)Parliament$has$the$right$to$express$its$opinion.$All$final$agreements$must$be$approved$by$the$Council$and$the$Parliament.$Together,$these$three$EU$institutions$represent$the$wishes$and$incentives$of$the$Member$States.$It$is$in$the$Member$States’$benefit$ to$on$ the$one$hand$be$able$ to$buy$cheap$products$abroad,$and$on$ the$other$hand$be$able$ to$sell$ the$products$produced$in$the$EU.$To$make$sure$that$competition$from$cheap$ nonPEU$ products$ does$ not$ render$ European$ producers$ incapable$ of$ selling$ their$products$ on$ the$European$market,$ the$European$Commission$has$ set$ import$ tariffs.$ These$tariffs$are$to$be$paid$by$the$trading)partners.$It$is$in$their$interest,$as$well$as$in$the$EU’s,$to$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!30 Human rights in the trade arena, Joint report from the UN Human Rights office (OHCHR) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2011, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx. !

!

! 23!

establish$an$optimal$functioning$exchange$of$products$to$benefit$from$each$other’s$expertise$resulting$ in$ economic$ growth.$ Therefore,$ it$ is$ as$ beneficial$ for$ them$ to$ retain$ the$ EU$ as$ a$trading$partner,$as$it$is$the$other$way$around.$$Another$party$involved$is$comprised$of$the$companies$that$fabricate$products.$Their$aim$is$to$ produce$ their$ products$ for$ the$ lowest$ costs$ possible$ in$ order$ to$ compete$ with$ other$companies.$They$are$mostly$interested$in$keeping$customers$interested$in$their$products,$in$order$to$make$as$much$profit$as$they$can.$$

4. Conflicts

Conflicts$arise$when$we$maintain$our$ trading$relationship$with$countries$ that$do$not$meet$the$European$standards$ in$ the$ field$of$human$rights31.$Take$China,$ for$example.$The$EU$ is$China’s$greatest$trading$partner$and$China$is$the$EU^s$biggest$source$of$imports32.$Yet,$China$is$a$country$child$labour$has$still$not$been$put$to$an$end.$We$simply$cannot$stop$trading$with$China,$as$this$would$result$in$a$tremendous$loss$of$income$for$Europe.$Though,$when$China$joined$the$WTO$in$2001$they$were$obliged$to$start$social$reforms$in$their$economy.$In$order$to$help$China$and$advertise$our$own$standards,$the$EUPChina$Trade$Project$II$(EUCTP)$was$developed$and$implemented.$The$aim$of$the$project$is$for$the$Chinese$government$to$reform$its$ trade$ economy$ and$ to$work$ towards$ sustainable$ development$with$ help$ from$ the$ EU.$This$project$however$will$end$in$2015$and$China$still$has$a$long$way$to$go$before$they$can$meet$the$EU$standards.$

Another$example$is$the$trading$relationship$between$Europe$and$India.$It$can$be$argued$that$the$difference$with$China$is$that$the$trade$with$India$is$less$important$to$the$economy$of$the$EU,$as$it$accounts$for$only$less$than$2%$of$its$trade33.$Does$this$mean$that$the$EU$should$put$an$end$to$its$trading$relationship$with$India$until$it$starts$to$improve$the$working$conditions$there$and$lives$up$to$the$WTO$standards?$$

The$same$applies$to$Vietnam.$A$country$much$weaker$than$the$EU$economically$speaking,$especially$when$it$comes$to$trade,$Therefore,$Vietnam$needs$the$EU$much$more$as$a$partner$than$the$other$way$around.$The$EU$needs$to$decide$whether$it$should$establish$new$FTAs$in$both$India$and$Vietnam.$How$far$should$the$EU$go$in$supporting$these$FTAs,$and$if$a$deal$is$finally$reached,$how$can$the$EU$make$sure$that$it$is$being$respected?$$$

These$three$examples$demonstrate$the$difficulties$that$arise$when$setting$up$a$trade$strategy$for$ the$ EU,$ as$ the$ needs$ vary$ with$ different$ trade$ relationships.$ Firstly,$ the$ question$ is$whether$the$EU$should$have$the$incentive$to$help$developing$countries$improve$their$labour$standards,$with$regard$to$the$EU’s$development$policy.$The$second$question$addresses$how$!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!31 Human rights in the trade area, United Nations, 2011, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx. 32 Countries and regions: China, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/countries/china/. 33 Idem.

!

! 24!

the$EU$should$help$or$not$help$the$country$with$which$the$EU$undergoes$a$specific$relation.$One$ of$ the$ problems$ is$ that$ the$ expected$ relationship$ between$ trade$ agreements$ and$governance$ is$ almost$ entirely$ based$ on$ assumptions34.$ It$ is$ therefore$ not$ clear$ whether$liberalisation$ of$ trade$ increases$ or$ increases$ corruption$ in$ the$ respective$ country,$ so$ ‘onePsizePfitsPall’$trade$agreements$will$not$be$effective.$

5. Facts & Figures • There$are$approximately$168$million$child$labourers$worldwide35.$• China$ is$ the$EU^s$biggest$ source$of$ imports$by$ far,$ and$has$also$become$one$of$ the$

EU^s$fastest$growing$export$markets.$The$EU$has$also$become$China’s$biggest$source$of$imports.$China$and$Europe$now$trade$well$over$€1$billion$a$day36.$

• The$value$of$EUPIndia$trade$grew$from$€28.6$billion$in$2003$to$€72.7$billion$in$201337.$$• Workers^$ rights$ and$ privacy$ are$ contentious$ human$ rights$ issues$ in$ China.$ There$

have$ been$ several$ reports$ of$ core$ International$ Labour$ Organization$ conventions$being$ denied$ to$ workers.$ One$ of$ these$ reports$ was$ released$ by$ the$ International$Labour$Rights$Fund$in$October$2006;$it$states$that$factories$in$China$are$characterized$by$harsh$ conditions$and$mistreatment$of$workers.$ It$ also$ states$ that$many$ factories$are$unsafe,$do$not$pay$a$living$wage,$force$workers$to$work$overtime$without$extra$pay,$do$not$offer$vacations$or$maternity$leave$and$are$run$by$managers$who$verbally$abuse$workers38.$$

• Over$ the$next$ ten$ to$ fifteen$years,$ 90%$of$world$demand$will$ be$generated$outside$Europe.$That$is$why$it$is$a$key$priority$for$the$EU$to$tap$into$this$growth$potential$by$opening$ up$ market$ opportunities$ for$ European$ businesses$ abroad.$ One$ way$ of$ensuring$this$is$through$negotiating$agreements$with$our$key$partners39.$

6. Legislative Background

First$of$all,$ the$World)Trade)Organisation$ (WTO)40$is$one$of$ the$biggest$organisations$ that$promotes$ and$ supervises$ international$ trade.$ The$WTO$makes$ sure$ that$ erga$ omnes$ legal$obligations$ are$ met.$ Erga) omnes$ rights$ or$ obligations$ are$ universal$ in$ the$ international$community,$which$means$ that$ every$ state$ can$ be$ held$ accountable$ for$ violations$ by$ other$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!34 Trade and governance, APRODDEV, 2008, http://www.aprodev.eu/files/Trade/trade-and-gov.pdf. 35 Child labour, International Labour Organization, 2013, http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/child-labour/lang--en/index.htm#a1. 36 Cf. 3. 37 Cf. 4. 38 Justice for all: the struggle for worker rights in China, Cornell University ILR School, 2004, http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=reports. 39 Trade: Agreements, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/. 40 What we do, WTO, 2014, http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/what_we_do_e.htm.

!

! 25!

countries.$In$the$WTO,$the$EU$Member$States$are$represented$by$the$European$Commission$and$therefore$are$seen$as$a$single$party.$$$

It$ is$ important$to$emphasise$once$again$the$fact$that$trade)agreements)are)an)exclusive)EU)competence,$and$therefore$can$only$be$made$by$the$Commission$(though$it$must$be$agreed$upon$ by$ the$ Parliament$ and$ the$ Council).$ The$ EU$ has$ no$ say$ in$ agreements$ that$ were$already$in$place$before$the$Lisbon$treaty.$Therefore,$she$can$only$wait$until$they$expire.$She$must$be$aware$at$all$times$of$the$fact$that$there$are$agreements$in$place$that$may$contradict$an$agreement$that$the$EU$wants$to$fabricate.$

Furthermore,$the$EU$has$its$own$set$of$legal$tools$to$regulate$the$amount$of$imports.$It$is$not$too$ hard$ to$ imagine$ that$ for$ example$ tariff$ as$ well$ as$ nonPtariff$ barriers$ have$ a$ negative$impact$on$the$amount$of$goods$imported$into$the$EU,$as$it$is$more$expensive$for$companies$to$get$them$within$our$borders.$Mostly,$this$is$done$to$protect$the$EU’s$own$producers$from$failing$to$compete$on$the$international$market,$as$ labour$costs$are$lower$outside$of$the$EU.$The$EU$can$also$make$use$of$GSP41$in$order$to$support$third$world$countries$ in$competing$with$the$rest$of$ the$world;$ this$ is$an$example$of$a$measure$that$has$a$positive$effect$on$the$amount$of$goods$imported$into$the$EU.$$

Lastly,$ it$must$be$recognized$that$the$EU$has$no$legal$power$in$nonPEU$countries$in$which$products$are$made.$They$are$only$able$to$check$whether$the$laws$and$agreements$are$being$lived$up$to$once$the$country$has$permitted$them$to$do$so.$

7. Key Questions • What$ is$ the$ EU’s$ right$ balance$ between$ the$ protection$ of$ human$ rights$ in$ other$

countries$and$its$competitive$position?$o How$can$the$EU$secure$its$strong$economic$position$when$other$countries$that$

import$goods$maintain$lower$import$standards?$$

• How$can$the$EU$make$it$appealing$for$countries$from$which$goods$imported$into$EU$territory$originate$to$fabricate$goods$in$a$manner$that$reaches$our$ethical$standards?$

o How$ can$ the$ EU$make$ sure$ that$ trading$ agreements$ are$ being$ lived$ up$ to,$when$the$production$takes$place$thousands$of$miles$away?$$

• How$ can$ the$ EU$ make$ sure$ it$ does$ not$ destroy$ trading$ relationships$ by$ refusing$products$to$be$imported?$

$• What$ is$ the$ EU$ to$ do$ about$ the$ trading$ agreements$ made$ by$ its$ Member$ States$

previous$ to$ the$ Lisbon$ Treaty,$ which$ sometimes$ contradict$ or$ overlap$ with$ the$trading$agreements$the$EU$now$wants$to$implement?$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!41 Generalised Scheme of Preferences, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/development/generalised-scheme-of-preferences/.!!

!

! 26!

8. Recommended Links Towards)a)Comprehensive)European)International)Investment)Policy,$European$Commission,$2010,$available$at$http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2011/may/tradoc_147884.pdf.$

Overview)of)FTA)and)other)trade)negotiations,$European$Commission,$2014,$http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/december/tradoc_118238.pdf.$

The)WTO)can…)encourage)good)governance,)World$Trade$Organisation,$2014,$http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/10thi_e/10thi05_e.htm.$

Human)rights)in)the)trade)area,)United$Nations,$2011,$http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/HRInTheTradeArena.aspx.$

$

!

! 27!

Committee on Industry, Energy and Research I (ITRE I)

Establishing)the)app)economy:)with)the)air)of)a)gold)rush)in)the)current)application)technology)

market,)how)can)the)EU)develop)its)technological)capacities)and)ensure)an)accessible)platform)for)

developers?$

1. Key Terms • StartGup:$ A$ startPup$ is$ a$ company$ that$ is$ newly$ created.$ These$ companies$ are$ mostly$

exploring$a$new$market,$so$they$are$in$a$state$of$development.$$

• Application:$An$application,$also$known$as$‘app’,$is$usually$used$on$mobile$devices,$they$support$ social$ networks$ or$ they$ are$ for$ other$ connected$ devices$ like$ smart$ TVs.$Consumers$download$an$app.$They$either$buy$ it,$or$download$ it$ for$ free.$Apps$can$be$for$any$purpose.$They$differ$from$weather$forecast,$finances,$communication,$to$PayPal$purchases.$$

2. Social Relevance With$Internet$becoming$more$and$more$important,$the$globe$gets$connected.$There$is$a$growing$amount$of$time$people$spend$on$their$phones$and$social$networks.$Shopping,$banking,$playing$games,$ all) this) is) on) their) apps.$ Developers$ build$ these$ apps.$ In$ a$ time$ where$ the$ youth$unemployment$ numbers$ are$ high,$ Neelie$ Kroes$ stated42 $that$ developing$ could$ create$ an$opportunity)for)jobs$in$Europe.$And$not$only$that:$apps$could$also$make)the)lives)for)people)in)Europe)so)much)easier.$However,$developers$are$still$dealing$with$a$lot$of$bottlenecks.$In$an$era$where$ digitalization$ could$ do$ so$ much$ for$ a$ continent$ as$ Europe$ the$ EU$ should$ help$ the$developers,$tackle)the)bottlenecks$for$developers,$and$get$connected.$

3. Stakeholders The$ civil) society$ P$ the$ consumers$ of$ the$ appsP$ has$ a$ large$ influence$ on$ whether$ an$ app$ is$successful$or$not.$Developers$make$money$because$consumer$buy$apps$ (approximately$€3,100$million$is$made$out$of$that43),$do$inPapp$purchases$(app.$€1,600$million$is$made$out$of$that4)$and$consumers$rate$the$apps$of$developers.$If$an$app$is$rated$really$well,$advertisers$are$more$likely$to$ advertise$ in$ an$ app.$ About$ €1,500$ million$ revenue$ comes$ from$ that4.$ A$ bottleneck$ for$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!42 Speech: The app opportunity, European Comission, 2014, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-14-128_en.htm. 43 Sizing the EU app economy, Gigaom Research, 2014, p. 8.

!

! 28!

developers$ is$ that$ consumers$ mostly$ don’t$ want$ to$ pay$ for$ apps,$ which$makes$ it$ harder$ for$developers$ to$ gain$ revenue.$ The$ appGdevelopers$ are$ the$ people$ involved$ in$ the$ process$ of$developing$ apps.$ Developers$ can$ have$ different$ jobs.$ They$ can$ work$ for$ large$ companies$(contract$labour),$whose$primary$business$is$not$necessarily$selling$apps.$For$instance,$a$media$company$wants$to$publish$their$articles$on$an$app.$Developers$who$work$for$these$companies$are$ called$ inPhouse$ developers.$ Finally$ there$ are$ two$ other$ groups:$ large$ independent$developers$ and$ small$ independent$ developers.$ Large$ independent$ developers$ usually$ have$people$ who$work$ for$ them,$ while$ small$ independent$ developers$ are$mostly$ hobbyists.$ AppPdevelopers$earn$their$money$from$the$sales$of$apps$and$inPapp$sales$and$advertising$(6.0$billion$EUR44)$but$mostly$from$contractPlabor$(11.5$billion$EUR5).$Additionally,$the$appPeconomy$offers$growth$ to$ the$nonGdeveloper)workforce.$ Not$ only$ developers$work$ in$ the$ appPindustry,$ but$there$is$a$broader$variety$of$ jobs$generated$by$the$European$app$economy.$Large$independent$developers$ can$ for$ instance$ have$ an$ account,$ HR$ and$ management$ but$ jobs$ like$ testers$ and$designers$of$also$related$to$the$appPeconomy.45$

Yet$ other$ stakeholders$ on$ the$ supply$ side$ of$ the$ story$ are$ the$American) giants$ P$ Facebook,$Google$and$Apple.$They$are$ the$dominant$platforms$people$design$apps$ for.$These$platforms$are$ so$ huge$ that$ it’s$ hard$ for$ developers$ to$ get$ discovered.$ Even$ though$ the$ apps$ may$ be$European,$ the$ platforms$ are$ certainly$ not.$ In$ a$ lot$ of$ cases$ these$ companies$ take$ a$ certain$percentage$ of$ the$ gaining$ of$ the$ app46,$which$makes$ it$ even$ harder$ for$ developers$ to$make$ a$good$living$out$of$developing.$Other$(European$or$multinational)$companies$feel$the$benefits$of$apps.$ Brands$ like$McDonalds$ use$ apps$ for$marketing,$ but$ there$ are$ also$ companies$who$ use$developers$to$create$apps$in$order$for$their$employees$to$work$more$efficiently.$$

Finally,$ the$ EU$ is$ maximising$ the$ benefits$ of$ the$ appPeconomy$ by$ the$Digital) Agenda.$ The$Digital$ Agenda$ aims$ to$ boost$ the$ economy$ in$ Europe$ by$ getting$ most$ out$ of$ the$ digital$technologies.47$Neelie$Kroes,$ vice$ president$ of$ the$ European$Council$ and$ leader$ of$ the$Digital$Agenda$agreed$in$a$speech3$that$in$light$of$the$Digital$Agenda$and$a$Connected$Continent$the$App$Economy$is$important$for$Europe.$$

4. Conflicts Because$ there$ is$ not$ a$ single$ market$ for$ telecom$ providers$ in$ Europe,$ there$ is$ a$ lack$ of$harmonisation$in$consumer$protection$rules$and$connectivity.$Each$country$has$different$rules:$there$ is$ no$ standardisation,$ no$ coordinated$ spectrum,$ and$ no$ common$ consumer$ protection$rules.$This$all$makes$it$harder$for$developers$in$Europe$to$get$their$apps$launched,$since$there$!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!44 Cf. footnote 4, p. 2. 45 Cf. footnote 4, p.11. 46 Cf. footnote 4, p.13. 47 Digital Agenda for Europe, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/our-goals. !

!

! 29!

are$ so$many$policies$ to$ take$ into$account.$Furthermore,$LongPTerm$Evolution$ Internet$ (4G)$ in$Europe$is$far$from$fully$developed,$especially$when$compared$to$the$United$States$or$Korea.$In$Europe$ only$ six$ per$ cent$ of$ the$ mobile$ devices$ are$ connected$ through$ 4G,$ whereas$ in$Japan/Korea$this$is$40%,$and$in$the$U.S.$even$50%.48$$

Additionally,$ there$ are$ hardly) any) other) platforms$ apart$ from$ Facebook,$ Google$ and$ Apple$where$developers$can$show$their$applications.$Since$ there$are$so$many$apps,$ it$ is$hard$for$ the$consumer$ to$become$well$ informed$due$ the$vast$ supply$of$ these$platforms.$Arguably$an$even$more$important$issue$is$that$large$developers,$such$as$the$aforementioned$corporations,$want$a$percentage$of$the$revenue$as.$For$example,$Apple$and$Google$want$a$30$per$cent$revenuePshare.$

Moreover,$financial$problems$form$an$obstacle$for$European$developers.$Firstly,$consumers)are)reluctant)to)pay)for)apps,$although$most$of$the$developers$make$most$revenue$from$sales.$This$is$ seen$ as$ problematic$ for$ the$ supply$ and$ demand$ of$ the$ application$ market.$ Moreover,$ the$acquisition$ costs$ are$ considerably$ high$which$makes$ it$ even$ harder$ for$ the$ developers$ to$ get$their$applications$sold.$49$Developers$find$it$hard$to$compete$with$U.S.$salaries.$Lastly,$a$solution$has$to$be$found$for$developers$that$miss)the)relevant)education)in$business$skills$and$network$skills$in$order$to$manage$their$companies.6$

5. Facts & Figures • Only$six$per$cent$of$the$people$in$Europe$are$connected$through$4G.50$• Labour$ in$EU$app$developing$ is$projected$ to$grow$from$1$million$ in$2013$ to$2.7$million$ in$

2018.$This$workforce$consists$out$of$39$per$cent$small$ independent$developers,$37$per$cent$large$independent$developers$and$24$per$cent$inPhouse$developers.11$

• EU$app$companies$attribute$42$per$cent$of$the$app$revenue$across$the$U.S.$and$EU.$51$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!48 Connected continent: a single telecom market & growth jobs, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/connected-continent-single-telecom-market-growth-jobs

49 Cf. footnote 4, p. 12. 50 A Telecom Single Market for #Connected Continent, DigitalAgendaEU YouTube, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thJ2AelUVkQ&list=UUYBQQU7VCu8M6djxI4dvpIg#t=20. 51 Cf. footnote 4, p. 4-5.!

!

! 30!

$

$

$

$

!

! 31!

6. Legislative Background Eurapp$ was$ launched$ by$ the$ European$ Commission’s$ startPup$ initiative.$ Eurapp$ investigates$how$to$overcome$the$bottlenecks$in$the$European$application$market.$They$generate$highPlevel$knowledge$about$the$application$market$in$Europe$and$organise$workshops$for$stakeholders.$52$Furthermore,$there$has$been$a$proposal$by$the$European$Union$intended$to$make$Europe$more$connected,$ called$Connected)Continent.$ The$ goal$ is$ to$ secure$ the$ freedom$ to$ provide$ and$ to$consume$(digital)$services$wherever$one$is$in$the$EU.$Currently$however$this$proposal$is$more$focused$ on$ the$ consumer$ and$ less$ on$ the$ developers.$ Telecom$ providers$ cannot$ charge$additional$costs$for$incoming$calls$and$are$required$to$allow$their$consumers$to$roam$on$cheaper$services$ within$ the$ EU.$ The$ aim$ of$ the$ proposal$ can$ be$ exemplified$ by$ the$ policies$ for$ the$regulation$of$companies$and$further$expanding$4G$technology.53$

7. Recommended Links Speech:)The)app)opportunity,$European$Comission,$2014,$http://europa.eu/rapid/pressPrelease_SPEECHP14P128_en.htm.$Sizing)the)EU)app)economy,$Gigaom$Research,$2014,$p.$8.$A)Telecom)Single)Market)for)#Connected)Continent,$DigitalAgendaEU$YouTube,$2013,$https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thJ2AelUVkQ&list=UUYBQQU7VCu8M6djxI4dvpIg#t=20

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!52 “Brief”, Eurapp, http://eurapp.eu/about. 53 “Connected Continent Legislative Package”, European Comission, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/connected-continent-legislative-package.

!

!

! 32!

Committee on Industry, Research and Energy II (ITRE II)

Conscious)uncoupling:)As)an)overall)energy)dependence)of)53,4%)in)the)EU)causes)many)

potential)threats)on)to)the)economic)and)political)stability,)what)can)the)EU)do)to)reduce)its)

reliance)on)imported)energy?

1. Key Terms • Final) energy) consumption:$ The$ energy$ finally$ consumed$ in$ transport,$ industrial,$$

commercial,$ agricultural,$ public,$ and$ household$ sector,$ excluding$ deliveries$ to$ the$$energy$transformation$sector$and$to$the$energy$industries$themselves.$$

• Primary)energy)production:$The$extraction$of$energy$from$a$natural$source.$$

• Energy)import)dependency:$The$extent$to$which$a$country$relies$upon$imports$in$order$$to$meet$its$energy$needs.$$

$• Renewable)energy:$Energy$ that$ is$produced$using$a$ source$ that$ is$not$depleted$when$$

used,$such$as$hydroelectric,$biomass,$wind,$solar,$tidal$and$geothermal$power.$$

• OPEC) Countries:$ The$ 12$ countries$ that$ are$ members$ of$ the$ Organisation$ of$ the$$Petroleum$Exporting$Countries$(OPEC),$including$Algeria,$Angola,$Ecuador,$Iran,$Iraq,$Kuwait,$Libya,$Nigeria,$Qatar,$Saudi$Arabia,$United$Arab$Emirates,$and$Venezuela.$The$OPEC$ is$ a$permanent$ intergovernmental$organisation$ that$ coordinates$ and$unifies$ the$$petroleum$policies$of$its$member$countries.$

2. Social Relevance A$secure$supply$of$energy$in$our$society$nowadays$is$more$crucial$than$it$has$ever$been$before.$Our$modernPday$society$is$driven$by$energy,$as$all$of$our$machines$and$equipment$are$powered$by$ it.$ Therefore$ a$ fluctuation$ in$our$ energy$ supply$ could$ result$ in$households$not$ getting$ the$amount$of$energy$they$need.$Thus,$our$everyday$life$can$be$affected$by$it,$illustrated$by$the$gas$crisis$ of$ 2006P200954$in$ Ukraine.$ Furthermore,$ a$ scarce$ supply$ of$ energy$ will$ cause$ a$ rise$ in$energy$ prices$ at$ the$ same$ time.$ This$ could$ cause$ poverty$ among$ European$ citizens,$ as$purchasing$ expensive$ energy$ will$ deal$ a$ heavy$ blow$ to$ their$ economic$ status.$ In$ worse$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!54 Gas crisis: 2006, 2009... 2015, Budapest Times, 2014, http://budapesttimes.hu/2014/07/18/gas-crisis-2006-2009-2015/.

!

! 33!

situations$ it$ could$ lead$ to$ exclusion$ of$ energy,$ as$ citizens$ will$ not$ be$ able$ to$ afford$ energy$anymore.$To$ensure$that$energy$will$remain$affordable$and$available,$the$European$Union$has$to$take$ steps$ in$ becoming$ less$ energy$ reliant$ on$ few$ other$ countries,$ especially$when$ those$ few$countries$ have$ a$ monopoly$ over$ a$ particular$ energy$ source.$ For$ example,$ Russia$ has$ almost$complete$monopoly$over$gas.$

3. Stakeholders There$are$two)main)stakeholders$ in$this$problem.$On$one$side$there$are$the$exporters,$such$as$the$OPEC$countries$and$Russia.$Because$these$exporters$decide$whether$they$sell$ their$oil$and$gas$or$keep$it$to$themselves,$they$control$the$supply$side$of$the$market.$On$the$other$side$there$are$the$consumers,$the$importers.$In$this$case$those$are$EU$member$states.$At$the$moment$they$have$ to$ rely$ on$ the$ exporters$ for$ their$ energy$ needs.$ To$ secure$ enough$ energy,$ the$Member$States$want$to$become$less$energy$dependent.$Two$ways$to$accomplish$this$are$by$reducing$the$Member$ States’$ consumption$ of$ energy$ and$ by$ exploiting$ the$ Member$ States’$ capacity$ to$generate$energy$their$selves.$

These$two$parties$relate$very$closely$as$more$consumption$will$mean$more$need$for$exporting$and$ less$ exporting$ will$ mean$ less$ energy$ available$ for$ consumption.$ Therefore,$ both$ parties$cannot$make$sudden$moves$to$ increase$consumption$or$decrease$exporting.$They$both$rely$on$each$other.$

4. Conflicts Considering$ the$effect$of$ the$gas$crisis$ in$2006P200955,$when$Ukraine$became$unable$ to$sustain$the$energy$needed$by$its$citizens$due$to$Russia$stopping$the$export$of$gas,$the$main$conflict$ is$that$our$current$ supply$of$energy$ is$not$ stable$enough$ to$ rely$on.$Any$political$escalation$can$evolve$ into$Member$ States$ losing$ their$ energy$ supply.$Not$ only$ can$ the$ exporter$ shut$ off$ the$supply,$ they$ can$also$make$use$of$ it$ as$ leverage$ to$ earn$more$benefits$ and$ financial$ support56$

from$the$consumer$countries.$Furthermore,$ in$2013,$ the$EU$imported$oil$up$to$a$ total$value$of$291$billion$EUR57$in$just$one$year.$This$is$an$enormous$expense$and$fluctuation$in$yearly$income$of$Member$States$could$result$in$them$being$unable$to$afford$these$costs.$However,$producing$stable$energy$sources$of$our$own$will$also$need$great$ investments,$as$new$facilities$ should$be$researched$ and$ built.$ Therefore$ the$ EU$ has$ to$ make$ a$ choice$ between$ importing$ energy$ or$boosting$their$energy$production.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!55 Idem. 56 Conscious uncoupling, The Economist, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111-reducing-europes-dependence-russian-gas-possiblebut-it-will-take-time-money-and-sustained. 57 EU crude oil imports, European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/oil/import_export_en.htm.

!

! 34!

5. Facts & figures • Finland,$Estonia,$Lithuania$and$Latvia$are$completely$dependent$on$Russia$for$their$gas$

supply.58$$• The$EU$imports$39%$of$their$gas$supply$and$33%$of$their$oil$supply$from$Russia.59$• Denmark$is$the$only$EU$member$state$that$exports$oil.$Denmark$and$the$Netherlands$are

$the$only$gas$exporters.60$• Cyprus,$Malta$and$Luxembourg$are$completely$dependent$on$energy$import$for$their$en

ergy$supply.61$

6. Legislative background For$ several$years,$ the$EU$has$attempted$ to$ increase$ the$ security$of$ energy$ supply.$ In$order$ to$secure$ supply$ of$ energy,$ the$ European$ Commission$ has$ published$ an$ EU) energy) security)strategy62$on$28$May$2014.$This$strategy$contains$both$shortPterm$measures$and$medium$to$longPterm$measures.$In$the$shortGterm,$the$Commission$proposes$energy)security)stress)tests.$These$tests$will$simulate$a$disruption$in$the$gas$supply$to$check$how$well$the$EU’s$energy$system$can$manage$ with$ security$ of$ supply$ risks,$ and$ to$ develop$ emergency$ plans$ and$ backPup$mechanisms.$Furthermore,$the$strategy$suggests$actions$in$five)key)areas$for$in$the$medium)to)longGterm.$ Next$ to$ the$ abovePmentioned$ steps$ to$ secure$ the$ energy$ supply,$ the$ EU$ has$ also$taken$ steps$ to$ make$ its$ energy$ more$ sustainable.$ The$ EU$ has$ adopted$ a$ set$ of$ binding)legislation,$ the$ climate$ and$ energy$ package,$ to$ reach$ the$ 20G20G20) targets63)for$ 2020.$ These$targets$aim$to$have$a$20%$reduction$in$EU$greenhouse$gas$emissions$from$1990$levels,$a$raise$to$a$ 20%$ share$ of$ EU$ energy$ consumption$ produced$ from$ renewable$ sources,$ and$ a$ 20%$improvement$in$the$EU’s$energy$efficiency$by$2020.$Several$measures$have$already$been$taken$to$reach$those$targets.$Finally,$the$2030)policy)framework)for)climate)and)energy64)also$aims$at$making$ the$ EU$ economy$ and$ energy$ system$more$ competitive,$ secure,$ and$ sustainable.$ The$objectives$are$to$cut$greenhouse$gas$emissions$even$more,$to$raise$the$share$of$renewable$energy$consumption$and$to$create$a$more$efficient$energy$system.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!58 Conscious uncoupling, The Economist, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111-reducing-europes-dependence-russian-gas-possiblebut-it-will-take-time-money-and-sustained.!!59 Security of energy supply, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/security_of_supply_en.htm 60 Energy Key Figures, European Commission, 2011, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/countries/doc/key_figures.pdf 61 Idem. 62 European Commission op.cit. 63 The 2020 climate and energy package, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/package/index_en.htm. 64 2030 framework for climate and energy policies, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/2030/index_en.htm.!!

!

! 35!

7. Key Questions • How$can$the$EU$secure$a$stable$energy$supply?$• Is$it$necessary$to$completely$stop$importing$energy?$• Is$there$a$possibility$for$the$EU$to$diversify$its$energy$import,$rather$than$importing$$

mostly$from$Russia?$• Are$there$alternatives$for$renewable$energy$sources$or$nuclear$energy$for$the$EU$to$$

create$a$stable$energy$supply?$

8. Recommended Links Key)figures)of)Energy)in)the)EU,$European$Commission,$2011,$http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/countries/doc/key_figures.pdf.$$

The)struggle)to)reduce)dependence)on)Gazprom,$The$Guardian,$2009,$http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/02/russiaPukrainePgazprom.$$

Energy:)Security)of)Energy)Supply,$European$Commission,$2014,$http://ec.europa.eu/energy/security_of_supply_en.htm.$$

Concious)Uncoupling,$The$Economist,$2014,$http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21600111PreducingPeuropesdependencePrussianPgasPpossiblebutPitPwillPtakePtimePmoneyPandPsustained.$

Oil)prices:)Energy)Investment,)Political)Stability)in)the)Exporting)Countries)and)OPEC’s)dilemma,)Chatham$House,$2012,$http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Energy,%20Environment%20and%20Development/1012pp_opec.pdf.$$

The)Past,)Present)and)Future)of)Russian)Energy)Strategy,$Stratfor$Global$Intelligence,$2013,$http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/pastPpresentPandPfuturePrussianPenergyPstrategy#axzz3CjZWclRL.$$

$

!

! 36!

Committee on Legal Affairs (JURI)

The)line)between)freedom)of)speech)and)the)right)to)online)privacy:)as)the)European)Court)of)

Justice)has)recently)ruled)that)citizens)have)the)“Right)to)be)Forgotten”,)how)can)the)EU)ensure)

this)verdict)is)complied)with)adequately)whilst)maintaining)a)free)and)accessible)Web?)

1. Key Terms

• Freedom)of)speech:$The$political$right$to$communicate$one^s$opinions$and$ideas$using$one^s$body$ and$ property$ to$ anyone$ who$ is$ willing$ to$ receive$ them.$ The$ term$ freedom$ of$expression$is$sometimes$used$synonymously,$but$includes$any$act$of$seeking,$receiving$and$imparting$information$or$ideas,$regardless$of$the$medium$used.$$

• Right)to)oblivion/right)to)be)forgotten:$The$right$to$oblivion,$equally$called$the$right$to$be$forgotten,$is$the$right$for$natural$persons$to$have$information$about$themselves$deleted$after$a$certain$period$of$time,$when$those$data$are$inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$for$the$purposes$of$the$data$processing.$$

• Right)to)object:$The$right$to$object$to$the$processing$of$data.$The$data$subject$should$have$the$ right$ to$ object,$ on$ legitimate$ grounds,$ to$ the$ processing$ of$ data$ relating$ to$ him/her.$He/she$ should$ be$ informed$ before$ personal$ data$ are$ disclosed$ to$ third$ parties$ for$ the$purposes$ of$ direct$ marketing,$ and$ be$ expressly$ offered$ the$ right$ to$ object$ to$ such$disclosures.$$

• Personal)data:$Any$ information$ relating$ to$ an$ individual,$whether$ it$ relates$ to$ his$ or$ her$private,$ professional$ or$ public$ life.$ It$ can$ be$ anything$ from$ a$ name,$ a$ photo,$ an$ email$address,$your$bank$details,$ to$your$posts$on$social$networking$websites$and$your$medical$information.$$

• Data)protection:$Legal$obligations$to$protect$personal$information$about$individuals.$

2. Social Relevance

Rapid$ technological$ developments$ and$ globalisation$ of$ the$ Internet$ have$ brought$ new$challenges$ for$ data$ protection.$With$ social$ networking$ sites,$ cloud$ computing,$ locationPbased$services$and$smart$cards,$we$leave$digital$traces$with$every$move$we$make.$In$this$“brave$new$data$world”$we$need$a$robust$set$of$rules$in$order$to$keep$our$data$private.$

!

! 37!

In$ 1998$ a$ Spanish$ citizen$ had$ hit$ financial$ difficulties.$ Later$ in$ his$ life$ he$ discovered$ not$ any$bank$would$grant$him$a$ loan$and$his$ reputation$was$damaged$because$whenever$you$would$search$ for$ his$ name$ in$ any$ search$ engine$ the$ first$ hit$would$ be$ an$ article$ about$ his$ financial$difficulties$ in$ the$ past.$ This$ was$ impossible$ to$ erase$ and$ he$ started$ to$ pursue$ the$ case.$ The$European$Court$of$Justice$(ECJ)$shared$his$concern$establishing$that$even$though$the$newspaper$acted$in$the$public$interest$in$publishing$the$piece,$Google$was$violating$his$privacy$by$making$the$ information$ available.$ The$ control$ over$ who$ you$ are$ disclosing$ your$ information$ to$ is$problematic$and$once$something$has$been$published$online$it$will$be$available$permanently.$The$ECJ$ stated$ it$ was$ not$ clear$ whether$ the$ Data$ protection$ Directive$ of$ 199565$applied$ to$ search$engines$ such$ as$ Google$ and$ whether$ an$ individual$ has$ the$ right$ to$ request$ that$ his$ or$ her$personal$data$would$be$removed$from$accessibility$via$a$search$engine66.$In$its$ruling$of$13$may$2014$ the$ ECJ$ created$ the$ “Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten”:$ individuals$ have$ the$ right$ P$ under$ certain$conditions$P$ to$ask$search$engines$to$remove$links$with$personal$ information$about$them.$This$applies$where$the$information$is$inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$for$the$purposes$of$the$data$processing.$The$ECJ$found$that$in$this$particular$case$the$interference$with$a$person’s$right$ to$ data$ protection$ could$ not$ be$ justified$ merely$ by$ the$ economic$ interest$ of$ the$ search$engine.$ At$ the$ same$ time,$ the$ ECJ$ explicitly$ clarified$ that$ ‘the$ right$ to$ be$ forgotten’$ is$ not$absolute$ but$ will$ always$ need$ to$ be$ balanced$ against$ other$ fundamental$ rights$ such$ as$ the$freedom$of$expression$and$media.$

Therefore,$inevitably,$the$victory$is$pyrrhic:$the$ECJ$ruling$has$huge$implications,$and$is$hugely$contentious.$It$could$add$significant$burdens$to$online$businesses,$and$could$even$lead$to$tech$giants$closing$European$offices$to$escape$the$law’s$reach.$

3. Stakeholders

As$the$European)citizens$are$mostly$involved$in$what$personal$data$is$put$on$the$web,$they$play$a$big$role$in$the$protection$of$their$data.$Even$more$so,$now$citizens$are$partly$able$to$take$their$personal$ data$ down$ from$ search$ engines,$ individuals$ have$ a$ powerful$ tool$ to$ put$ forward$against$search$engines$that$allow$accessibility$of$ their$data.$This$ is$also$where$the$conflict$ lies.$Search$engines$have$a$commercial$interest$and$want$to$maximise$their$profits$by$a$high$amount$of$visits$to$their$engine.$Nowadays,$any$search)engine)inside)the)EU$has$to$process$the$requests$of$ individuals$ to$ take$down$ any$personal$ data.$ If$ too$much$ information$ is$ removed$ from$ the$search$engine$through$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten,$the$search$engine$is$risking$to$be$considered$as$insufficient$and$censored$by$the$public.$Also$search)engine)outside)the)EU$will$be$affected$by$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!65 Protection of personal data, Europa Summaries of EU Legislation, 2011, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/information_society/data_protection/l14012_en.htm. 66 Free speech vs. Internet Privacy, Commerce Times, 2014, http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/80567.html.!

!

! 38!

the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten,$ as$ the$ information$ on$ the$ Internet$ is$ mostly$ provided$ by$ large$multinationals$such$as$Google$and$Yahoo!.$Finally,$the$European$Court$of$Justice$has$to$decide$whether$the$information$is$indeed$inaccurate,$irrelevant,$inadequate$or$excessive$and$must$not$be$visible$to$the$public$in$search$engines.$

4. Conflicts

In$ a$world$where$ everyone$ can$ be$ found$ online,$ it$ is$ difficult$ to) balance) the)needed)privacy)with)the)freedom)of)speech)and)expression.$Which$is$more$important:$the$right$to$be$forgotten$or$ the$ right$ to$ know?$ In$ order$ to$ protect$ its$ citizens$ the$ ECJ$ has$ taken$ on$ a$ law$ that$ enables$individuals$ to$ erase$ their$ personal$ data$ under$ certain$ circumstances.$ However,$ the$ court$decision$ has$ not$ brought$ enough$ clarity$ on$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten$ yet.$ The$ ECJ$ has$outsourced)the)decision)to)grant)the)removal$of$personal$data$to$the$search$engines67.$Although$Google$and$Yahoo!$have$now$officially$recognised$the$court’s$decision,$European$citizens$are$not$guaranteed$ that$ their$ request$ for$ removal$ will$ be$ granted$ on$ the$ right$ grounds.$ The$ exact$implementation$of$the$law$has$not$yet$been$clarified$and$so$it$leaves$room$for$search$engines$to$decide$on$their$own$view$on$the$interpretation$of$the$law.$$

A$second$problem$of$the$ECJ’s$decision$is$the$impact$it$might$have$on$international)freedoms)of)expression)and)media.$As$the$biggest$search$engines$like$Google$and$Yahoo!$are$companies$cited$in$ United$ States,$ EU$ laws$ on$ data$ protection$ directly$ influence$ policies$ abroad.$ It$ must$ be$explored$whether$ the$ court’s$decision$ conflicts$with$ foreign$policies$ and$ if$ it$ does,$ how$ these$clashes$can$be$solved.$Although$Google$and$Yahoo!$have$confirmed$to$take$into$account$the$ECJ’s$decision,$ there$ remain$ other$ search$ engines$ that$ do$ not$ yet$ comply$ with$ the$ Right$ to$ be$Forgotten.$Furthermore,$the$ECJ’s$decision$may$not$only$affect$EU’s$internal$transparency,$but$also$international$transparency$as$important$information$is$hidden$from$the$public.$

5. Legislative Background

Directive)95/46/EC$is$the$reference$text,$at$European$level,$on$the$protection$of$personal$data.$It$sets$up$a$regulatory$framework$that$seeks$to$strike$a$balance$between$a$high$level$of$protection$for$ the$ privacy$ of$ individuals$ and$ the$ free$ movement$ of$ personal$ data$ within$ the$ European$Union.$To$do$so,$ the$Directive$sets$ strict$ limits$on$ the$collection$and$use$of$personal$data$and$demands$ that$ each$Member$ State$ sets$ up$ an$ independent)national)body) responsible) for) the)protection) of) these) data.$ However,$ it$ was$ not$ clear$ whether$ the$ Directive$ applied$ to$ search$engines$such$as$Google,$whether$it$applied$to$a$data$processing$server$which$is$located$in$the$US$and$ whether$ an$ individual$ has$ the$ right$ to$ request$ his$ or$ her$ data$ to$ be$ removed$ from$!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!67 The Solace of Oblivion, The New Yorker, 2014, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/29/solace-oblivion.

!

! 39!

accessibility$via$a$ search$engine.$The$Ruling)of)May)the)13th)2014)of)the)EU)Court)of)Justice$ruled$ that$ citizens$ have$ the$ “Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten”68.$ Big$ search$ engines$ such$ as$Google$ and$Yahoo$ have$ accepted$ the$ Right$ to$ be$ Forgotten,$ and$ now$ have$ the$ task$ of$ dealing$ with$ the$requests$of$citizens$to$remove$specific$personal$data.$

6. Key Questions

• How$can$the$EU$assure$the$online$privacy$of$its$citizens$whilst$maintaining$the$freedom$of$expression?$

• How$does$ the$Right$ to$be$Forgotten$conflict$with$foreign$and$international$policies$on$data$protection$and$freedom$of$expression?$How$can$the$EU$make$sure$search$engines$located$outside$of$Europe$follow$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten?$$

• How$can$the$ECJ$make$sure$the$court$persuasions$are$most$accurate?$How$can$the$EU$make$sure$the$ECJ’s$decision$will$be$clarified$so$that$it$can$be$applied$for$all$future$cases$regarding$the$Right$to$be$Forgotten?$

• Who$should$make$the$decisions$for$granting$the$requests$of$removal$of$personal$data?$Who$ should$ perform$ the$ checks$ whether$ the$ personal$ data$ to$ be$ removed$ is$ indeed$inaccurate,$inadequate,$irrelevant$or$excessive$for$the$purposes$of$the$data$processing?$

7. Recommended Links The)Right)to)be)Forgotten,$Stanford$Law$Review,$2012,$http://www.stanfordlawreview.org/online/privacyPparadox/rightPtoPbePforgotten?em_x=22.$$

EU)invites)Google,)Microsoft,)to)discuss)“Right)to)be)Forgotten”,)Wall$Street$Journal,$2014,$http://online.wsj.com/articles/euPregulatorsPinvitePgooglePmicrosoftPtoPdiscussPrightPtoPbePforgottenP1405592730.$

Costeja)González)and)the)memorable)fight)for)the)‘right)to)be)forgotten’,)The$Guardian,$2014,$http://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2014/may/14/marioPcostejaPgonzalezPfightPrightPforgotten.$$

Factsheet)on)the)‘Right)to)be)Forgotten’)ruling,)European$Commission,$2014,$http://ec.europa.eu/justice/dataPprotection/files/factsheets/factsheet_data_protection_en.pdf.)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!68 Factsheet on the ‘Right to be Forgotten’, European Commission 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/files/factsheets/factsheet_data_protection_en.pdf.

!

! 40!

EU)Court)backs)“right)to)be)forgotten”:)Google)must)amend)results)on)request,)The$Guardian,$2014,$http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/may/13/rightPtoPbePforgottenPeuPcourtPgooglePsearchPresults.)

Protection)of)personal)data,)European$Commission,$2014,$http://ec.europa.eu/justice/dataPprotection/.$$

$

!

! 41!

Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) With)more)refugees)than)ever)crossing)external)borders)into)Europe,)how)can)the)rights)of)

refugees)be)safeguarded)while)respecting)Member)Statesa)sovereignty?)

1. Key Terms • Refugee:)A$person$who,$owing$to$a$wellPfounded$fear$of$persecution$for$reasons$of$race,$

religion,$ nationality,$ membership$ of$ a$ particular$ social$ group$ or$ political$ opinions,$ is$outside$the$country$of$his$or$her$nationality$and$is$unable$or$unwilling,$due$to$such$fear,$to$avail$himself$of$the$protection$of$that$country69.$$

• Asylum) seeker:) A$ person$ who$ seeks$ safety$ from$ persecution$ or$ serious$ harm$ in$ a$country$other$ than$his$or$her$own$and$awaits$a$decision$on$the$application$for$refugee$status$ under$ relevant$ international$ and$ national$ apparatuses.$$

• Irregular)migrant:)A$person$who,$owing$to$unauthorized$entry,$breach$of$a$condition$of$entry,$or$ the$expiry$of$his$or$her$visa,$ lacks$ legal$status$ in$a$ transitory$or$host$country.$The$ term$ uirregularu$ is$ preferable$ to$ uillegalu$ because$ the$ latter$ carries$ a$ criminal$connotation$and$is$seen$as$denying$migrants^$humanity.$$

• Burden) sharing:) The$ need$ for$ sharing$ responsibility$ for$ protection$ of$ refugees$ in$situations$of$mass$influx$from$a$financial$as$well$as$a$physical$point$of$view,$in$this$case$by$the$Member$States.$ $)

• Principle) of) nonGrefoulement:)A$ principle$ of$ law$ that$ forbids$ the$ rendering$ of$ a$ true$victim$of$persecution$to$their$persecutor.$In$refugee$law,$this$mostly$applies$to$refugees$coming$from$war$zones$and$other$disaster$areas.))

• Dublin)system70:)This$system$serves$to$determine$which$EU$member$state$is$responsible$for$ examining$ an$ asylum$ application$ lodges$ in$ one$ of$ the$Member$ States.$ The$Dublin$system$contains$EURODAC$and$the$Dublin$Regulation.))

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!69 Key migration terms, International Organisation for Migration, 2011, http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/about-migration/key-migration-terms-1.html#Irregular-migration. 70 “Dublin” cases, European Court of Human Rights, 2014, http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Dublin_ENG.pdf.!!

!

! 42!

2. Social Relevance The$ Lampedusa$ disaster,$ which$ took$ place$ in$ October$ 2013,$ is$ known$ as$ the$ biggest$ refugee$disaster$to$have$ever$taken$place$on$the$Mediterranean$Sea.$A$boat$packed$with$approximately$500$African$migrants$sank$before$the$coast$of$the$Italian$island$of$Lampedusa.$The$very$few$that$were$ lucky$to$survive$underwent$further$victimization$as$they$were$confronted$with$the$Bossi$Fini$act71,$an$Italian$law$that$makes$it$an$offense$to$aid$and$abet$illegal$immigrants.$As$a$result$of$this$ act,$ irregular$migrants$may$ face$ prosecution$ and$ a$ fine$ up$ to$ €5000$ and$ risk$ being$ sent$home$before$the$application$process$for$asylum$even$begins.$As$this$law$also$treats$giving$of$aid$to$migrants$ on$ Italian$waters$ as$ an$ offence,$which,$ in$ this$ particular$ case,$ kept$ boat$ captains$from$helping$the$migrants$in$distress$in$order$to$avoid$persecution.$

With$ the$EU$being$ the$ recipient$of$ 48,9%$of$ all$ asylum$applications$made$worldwide,$ a$great$stream$ of$ migrants$ has$ to$ be$ dealt$ with$ by$ the$ EU$ border$ police$ on$ a$ daily$ basis.$ Recent$developments$in$Eritrea,$Iraq$and$Syria$have$resulted$in$vast$streams$of$migrants$to$the$EU$and$more$migrants$are$risking$the$dangerous$journey$across$the$Mediterranean$Sea.$The$EU$believes$the$ right$of$asylum$should$be$granted$ to$ those$ in$need,$a$ right$ laid$down$ in$ the$1951$Geneva$Convention$ Relating$ to$ the$ Status$ of$ Refugees72.$ The$ combination$ of$ this$ fact$ and$ the$ vastly$growing$ number$ of$ irregular$ migrants$ has$ led$ to$ a$ situation$ in$ which$ the$ EU$ is$ facing$ the$challenging$task$of$safeguarding$irregular$migrants’$human$rights.$The$necessity$of$a$system$in$which$human$ rights$ are$ safeguarded$whilst$ having$ a$minimum$amount$ of$ red$ tape$ is$ higher$than$ever.$

$

3. Stakeholders Asylum$ seekers$ arrive$ in$ the$ EU$ in$ irregular$ streams,$ their$ number$ varying$ each$ year.$ Their$exact$ place$ of$ arrival$ is$ not$ always$ the$ same$ either.$ In$ 2013) Member) States) have$ seen$ a$considerable$ increase$ in$ the$ number$ of$ new$ asylum$ requests$ compared$ to$ previous$ years73.$Unstable$ political$ situations$ in$ the$ proximity$ of$ the$ EU$ have$ played$ a$ significant$ role$ in$ this$influx.$ These$ asylum$ requests$ are$ not$ divided$ evenly$ across$Member$ States,$which$ results$ in$some$countries$being$unable$to$properly$process$them.$Moreover,$Member$States$located$at$the$EU’s$ external$border$ are$having$great$difficulty$ accommodating$ the$vast$numbers$of$ refugees$arriving$on$their$territory.$At$the$same$time,$Member$States$are$under$international$obligation$to$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!71 Italy: Bossi-Fini immigration law sparks controversy, France 24, 2013, http://www.france24.com/en/20131010-italy-lampedusa-bossi-fini-immigration-law/. 72 The 1951 Refugee Convention, The United Nationa Refugee Agency, 2011, http://www.unhcr.org/4ec262df9.html. 73 Asylum Statistics, Eurostat, 2014, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-24032014-AP/EN/3-24032014-AP-EN.PDF.!

!

! 43!

take$in$people$fleeing$persecution$or$serious$harm$in$their$own$country,$and$grant$them$certain$rights$as$laid$down$in$the$1951$Convention$Relating$to$the$Status$of$Refugees.$$$Large$numbers$of$asylum)seekers)originate$from$areas$where$they$are$in$constant$danger,$and$attempt$to$reach$the$safe$haven$of$the$EU.$These$people$have$an$incredibly$hard$time$reaching$the$EU$to$seek$asylum$there.$Many$of$them$try$to$reach$EU$soil$by$crossing$the$Mediterranean$Sea$with$vessels$departing$from$the$North$African$coast.$Most$of$these$crossings$are$organised$by$human$traffickers$and$smugglers$on$unseaworthy$vessels,$often$leading$to$great$loss$of$life.$Those$who$do$arrive$often$find$themselves$in$poor$living$conditions$while$waiting$for$the$result$of$their$asylum$application$process.$$$In$ the$ EU,$ asylum$ seekers$ rights$ are$ protected,$ amongst$ others,$ by$ the$European)Council) on)Refugees)and)Exiles)(ECRE).$This$umbrella$organisation$of$82$NGOs$protects$and$advances$the$rights$of$refugees,$asylum$seekers$and$displaced$persons.$Their$methods$are$research,$advocacy$and$the$sharing$of$knowledge$and$expertise.$$Taking$a$look$outside$of$the$EU$one$may$find$that$the$massive$streams$of$asylum$seekers$affect$not$ only$ European$ countries.$ The$ surges$ of$ refugees$ heading$ to$ EU$ territory$ pass$ by$ states)outside)the)EU)on$their$journey.$Northern$African$coasts$are$crowded$with$refugees$waiting$for$their$chance$to$travel$to$the$EU.$These$countries,$which$act$as$refugee$hubs,$often$lack$asylum$systems$in$compliance$with$international$standards,$and$can$therefore$not$adequately$deal$with$all$of$these$people74.$$

4. Conflicts As$stated$ in$ the$Dublin$system,$ the$bulk$of$asylum$requests$have$ to$be$ filed$ in$ the$country$ in$which$an$asylum$seeker$arrives.$Member$States$at$the$external$border$of$the$EU$are$the$easiest$to$reach$ for$ asylum$ seekers,$ and$ therefore$ have$ to$ process$ vast$ amounts$ of$ these$ requests.$ This$places$great)strain)on)their)asylum)systems$and$sometimes$ leads$ to$ inadequate$conduction$of$the$ process.$ The$ problem$ is$ even$ greater$ in$ new$Member$ States$ as$ their$ asylum$ systems$ are$often$not$equipped$to$handle$the$increasing$number$of$refugees.$$There$ have$ been$ attempts$ to$ increase$ burden$ sharing,$ but$ the$ Dublin$ Regulation$makes$ this$difficult.$ At$ the$ same$ time$Member$ States$ are$ obliged$ to$ take$ in$ refugees$ who$ are$ at$ risk$ of$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!74 2014 UNHCR regional operations profile – North Africa, UNHCR, 2014, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e45ac86.html. !

!

! 44!

prosecution$or$ severe$ violence$ in$ their$ former$ country$ of$ residence.$Major$ groups$ of$ refugees$come$from$conflict$zones$such$as$Syria$and$Iraq,$or$repressive$states$such$as$Eritrea.$$$Not$every$Member$State$applies$the$same$criteria$when$determining$whether$or$not$an$asylum$seeker$has$to$be$granted$refugee$status,$even$though$there$has$been$some$improvement$in$this$area$ in$ recent$years$with$ the$development$of$ the$Common)European)Asylum)System$ (CEAS,$see$ “Legislative$ Background”)75,$ which$ aims$ to$ establish$ common$ minimum$ standards$ for$asylum.$$Despite$the$introduction$of$the$CEAS,$it$still$takes$many$Member$States$an$incredible$long$time$to$process$asylum$requests,$due$ to$ the$complexity)of)the)process)and)the)amount)of)requests)filed.$ This$means$ that$ asylum$ seekers$ often$ have$ to$ spend$ long$ periods$ of$ time$ in$ retention$centres,$in$which$conditions$are$frequently$poor.$Because$of$the$huge$influx$of$asylum$seekers$in$recent$years,$these$facilities$are$often$overcrowded.$Even$more$shocking$is$the$fact$that$in$some$of$ these$ centres$ asylum$ applicants$ are$ detained$ in$ prisonPlike$ conditions$ with$ their$ freedom$severely$restricted,$as$reported$by$Amnesty$International76.$$In$the$past$few$years,$xenophobic)and)racist)movements$have$sprung$up$and$gained$support$all$across$ the$ EU.$A$particularly$ extreme$ example$ of$ such$ a$movement$ is$ the$ neoPfascist$Golden$Dawn$party$in$Greece.$The$supporters$of$this$group$go$as$far$as$to$physically$attack$minorities.77$The$rise$of$ these$movements$shows$ that$xenophobic$sentiments$are$ flourishing$amongst$some$parts$of$the$EU$population.$The$image$of$immigrants$is$often$rather$negative,$even$as$evidence$shows78$that$ immigration$has$positive$ effects$ on$ the$ economic$ and$ social$ situation$of$Member$States$as$well.$$$

5. Facts and Figures • Only$5$Member$States$handle$70%$of$all$asylum$applications$in$the$EU.79$• One$third$of$all$asylum$applications$made$in$the$EU$result$in$a$positive$decision.80$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!75 Common European Asylum System, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/asylum/index_en.htm. 76 Abusive detention of migrants and asylum seekers flouts EU law, Amnesty International, 2014, http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/cyprus-abusive-detention-migrants-and-asylum-seekers-flouts-eu-law-2014-03-18. 77 Greece’s Golden Dawn party describes Hitler as ‘great personality’, the Guardian, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/16/greece-golden-dawn-hitler. 78 Immigration has a positive impact, says Office for Budget Responsibility head, Telegraph, 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/10570839/Immigration-has-a-positive-impact-says-Office-for-Budget-Responsibility-head.html. 79 Asylum in the EU, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/docs/infographics/asylum/infographic_asylum_print_a_en.pdf. 80 Idem.

!

! 45!

• On$the$2nd$of$December$2013$Eurosur$ (see$“Legislation”)$became$operational$ for$ the$19$Schengen$Member$States$ located$at$ the$southern$and$eastern$borders$of$ the$EU$and$on$the$1st$of$December$2014$it$will$become$operational$for$the$remaining$11$Member$States.81$

$

6. Legislative Background The$ main$ framework$ of$ legislation$ concerning$ refugee$ rights$ and$ process$ is$ the$ Common)European)Asylum)System)(CEAS)82.$ It$consists$of$numerous$directives$and$regulations,$aimed$at$all$facets$of$refugee$law.$

First$ of$ all,$ the$Reception) Conditions) Directive8384)sets$ out$ the$ standard$ living$ conditions$ of$asylum$ applicants.$ The$ revised$ version$ of$ this$ directive$ has$ added$ some$ clarifications$ and$benefits$for$unaccompanied$minors$and$victims$of$torture,$as$well$as$a$time$limit$of$nine$months$in$which$access$to$employment$must$be$granted$to$asylum$seekers.$However,$it$is$still$very$hard$for$asylum$seekers$to$challenge$any$decisions$made$concerning$the$outcome$of$their$application$in$practice.$$

Furthermore,$ there$ is$ the$Dublin) III8586$regulation,$ which$ outlines$ the$ criteria$ that$ determine$which$Member$State$is$responsible$for$examining$the$asylum$procedure.$In$essence,$it$states$that$the$ first$ EU$ country$ of$ entrance$ is$ responsible$ for$ the$ asylum$ procedure.$ That$ means$ that$refugees$end$up$sleeping$on$the$streets$more$often$than$not.$This$is$because$of$the$overcrowded$detention$ centres$ in$ the$ country$ in$ question$ in$ combination$ with$ being$ denied$ movement$outside$ of$ the$ country.$ In$ order$ to$ make$ the$ identification$ process$ of$ asylum$ seekers$ more$manageable$for$the$Member$States,$asylum$seekers’$fingerprints$are$being$taken$and$put$into$an$EUPwide$database$under$the$Eurodac$regulation.$Interpol$and$national$police$forces$can$use$the$fingerprints$obtained$by$the$EU$in$this$way$for$refugee$identification$at$the$border$or$in$case$of$criminal$investigation$such$as$murder$investigation.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!81 Eurosur, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/docs/infographics/eurosur/eurosur_en.pdf.!!82 A Common European Asylum System, European Commission, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/docs/ceas-fact-sheets/ceas_factsheet_en.pdf. 83 Reception Conditions, European Commission, 2013, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/asylum/reception-conditions/index_en.htm. 84 Analysis: The EU Directive on Reception Conditions: A weak compromise, Statewatch, 2012, http://www.statewatch.org/analyses/no-184-reception-compromise.pdf. 85 Dublin Regulation, Official Journal of the European Union, 2013, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:180:0031:0059:EN:PDF. 86 Exploiting a tragedy: the securitization of EU borders in the wake of Lampedusa, Border Criminologies, 2013, http://bordercriminologies.law.ox.ac.uk/exploiting-a-tragedy/.

!

! 46!

On$ the$ other$ hand,$ there$ is$ the$ framework$ for$ border$ security$ and$ surveillance,$ which$ is$Eurosur.$ Originally,$ its$ main$ goals$ were$ purely$ focused$ on$ the$ protection$ of$ the$ EU.$ $ Some$might$argue$that$it$still$lacks$humanitarian$right$protection$insurance$today,$as$demonstrated$by$the$pushbacks$occurring$under$Frontex8788)(see$the$following$paragraph),$which$are$in$violation$of$ the$ nonPrefoulement$ principle.$ However,$ its$ official$ goals$ are$ to$ reduce$ the$ number$ of$undetected$irregular$migrants,$to$decrease$the$number$of$deaths$at$the$maritime$border$and$to$prevent$crossPborder$crime.$$

Frontex$ is$ mostly$ the$ executive$ body$ of$ Eurosur.$ It$ operates$ through$ joint$ operations$ with$national$ border$ police$ and$ EU$ associated$ forces$ such$ as$ Europol.$ Collaboration$ between$ EU$institutions$ and$ national$ stakeholders$ is$ highly$ necessary$ in$ developing$ an$ effective$ asylum$system$ in$Europe.$However,$ Frontex$does$ not$ own$many$of$ its$ own$ resources$ and$personnel$and$is$therefore$very$reliant$on$national$resources.$As$a$result,$national$governments$can$have$a$reluctant$ approach$ towards$ their$ obligations$ towards$ Frontex,$ and$ hereby$ the$ collaboration$aimed$at$is$not$fully$established$yet.$

$

7. Key Questions • How$can$the$EU$deal$with$asylum$requests$more$efficiently?$

o How$can$burden$sharing$between$the$Member$States$be$ensured?$• Is$ the$balance$between$EU$external$border$protection$and$ the$ rights$of$asylum$seekers$

adequate$at$the$moment?$o Should$Frontex’s$objectives$and/or$measurements$be$changed?$o Is$the$Eurodac$system$secure$enough?$o Is$the$principle$of$nonPrefoulement$implemented$in$practice$enough?$

• What$is$the$impact$of$immigration$on$the$European$civilization?$• What$should$the$EU’s$stance$be$on$cooperation$with$Northern$African$countries?$

o How$do$streams$of$asylum$seekers$affect$European$citizens?$o Is$ there$ need$ to$ revise$ the$ Member$ States’$ application$ processes$ in$ terms$ of$

number$of$applicants$that$are$granted$asylum?$o Should$ the$ EU$ intend$ to$ enlighten$ the$ burden$ on$ the$ few$Member$ States$ that$

handle$asylum$applications$nowadays,$by$cooperating$with$the$Northern$Arfican$countries$where$the$asylum$seekers$pass$by?$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!87 Mission and tasks, Frontex, 2014, http://frontex.europa.eu/. 88 Ombudsman calls on Frontes to deal with complaints about fundamental rights infringements, EUROPA, 2013, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_EO-13-17_en.htm.!

!

! 47!

8. Recommended Links Asylum)Statistics,$Eurostat,$2014,$http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3P24032014PAP/EN/3P24032014PAPPEN.PDF.$

Abusive)detention)of)migrants)and)asylum)seekers)flouts)EU)law,$Amnesty$International,$2014,$http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/cyprusPabusivePdetentionPmigrantsPandPasylumPseekersPfloutsPeuPlawP2014P03P18.$

Exploiting)a)tragedy:)the)securitization)of)EU)borders)in)the)wake)of)Lampedusa,)Border$Criminologies,$2013,$http://bordercriminologies.law.ox.ac.uk/exploitingPaPtragedy/.)

Analysis:)The)EU)Directive)on)Reception)Conditions:)A)weak)compromise,)Statewatch,$2012,$http://www.statewatch.org/analyses/noP184PreceptionPcompromise.pdf$

!

! 48!

Committee on Security and Defence (SEDE)

In)light)of)developments)close)to)the)EU’s)borders,)an)increasing)number)of)international)

conflicts)and)Member)States)rethinking)cuts)to)military)spending,)how)far)should)the)EU)go)in)

developing)its)military)capacities?)

1. Key Terms • ))))Treaty)of)Lisbon:)Signed$in$October$2007$and$came$into$force$on$1$December$2009,$the$

Lisbon$ Treaty$ is$ a$ treaty$ that$ amends$ two$ already$ existing$ treaties:$ the$ Treaty$ of$ the$European$ Union$ (TEU)$ and$ the$ Treaty$ on$ the$ Functioning$ of$ the$ European$ Union$(TFEU).$Among$other$reforms,$it$contains$important$provisions$related$to$the$Common$Security$and$Defence$Policy$ (CSDP),$along$with$ the$creation$of$ the$European$External$Action$ Service$ (EEAS).$ The$Treaty$ of$ Lisbon$ added$ the$possibility$ for$ those$members$whose$ military$ capabilities$ fulfil$ higher$ criteria$ and$ which$ have$ made$ more$ binding$commitments$to$one$another$in$this$area$to$establish$permanent$structured$cooperation$within$the$EU$framework.$

$• ))))Common)Foreign)and)Security)Policy)(CFSP):$Organised$foreign$policy$of$the$EU$that$

deals$with$international$issues$of$diplomatic$or$political$nature.$It$is$based$on$diplomacy$and$ backed$where$ necessary$ by$ trade,$ aid$ and$ security$ and$ defence.$ The$ aims$ of$ the$CFSP$are$to$preserve$peace$and$strengthen$international$security,$promote$international$cooperation$and$develop$and$consolidate$democracy,$the$rule$of$law,$respect$for$human$rights$and$fundamental$freedoms.$

$• $$$$Common)Security)and)Defence)Policy)(CSDP):)Draws$on$the$EU’s$military$and$civilian$

assets$to$play$a$role$in$conflict$management,$peacekeeping$and$international$security.$$

• $$$$European) Union) Military) Staff) (EUMS):) Department$ of$ the$ European$ Union$responsible$ for$ supervising$ operations$within$ the$ realm$ of$ the$Common$ Security$ and$Defence$Policy,$and$is$part$of$the$EEAS.$

)• $$$$European) External) Action) Service) (EEAS):) The$ EEAS$ is$ the$ European$ Union^s$

diplomatic$service.$ It$helps$ the$EU^s$ foreign$affairs$chief$–$ the$High$Representative$ for$Foreign$ Affairs$ and$ Security$ Policy$ –$ carry$ out$ the$ Union^s$ Common$ Foreign$ and$Security$Policy.$

$

!

! 49!

$

2. Social Relevance Since$ its$establishment,$ the$EU$has$kept$ the$area$of$security$and$defense$exclusive$ to$Member$States.$This$means$that$decisions$made$in$the$terrain$of$military$missions,$military$development$and$military$structure$can$be$made$by$the$Member$State$without$consulting$institutions$of$the$EU.$Nowadays$the$common$foreign,$security$and$defense$policies$do$give$the$EU$opportunity$to$coordinate$policies$on$these$areas$to$a$certain$level:$“The)Union)coordinates)Member)States)policies)or)implements)supplemental)to)theirs)common)policies,)not)covered)elsewhere”89.)

The$development$of$EU’s$military$capacities$would$ thus$mean$ that$ some$supplementary$ laws$would$be$revised$and/or$created.$Political$developments$in$countries$close$to$the$EU’s$borders$require$the$attention$of$many$Member$States’$defense$ministries.$Some$Member$States$have$sent$or$are$ sending$military$ forces$ to$ the$areas$where$ intervention$ is$needed,$demonstrated$by$ the$current$situation$in$Syria.$Not$only$are$soldiers$sent$away$from$their$home$country,$the$whole$of$the$ European$ population$ indirectly$ pays$ for$ these$missions$ through$ taxation.$ Supplementary$laws,$created$by$the$EU,$can$–amongst$others$–$result$in$more$cooperation$in$military$missions$of$individual$Member$States.$This$could$influence$the$amount$of$missions$happening,$but$most$of$ all$ it$ could$ influence$ the$ coordination$ of$ missions$ and$ the$ amount$ of$ teamwork$ between$forces$of$different$Member$States.$

3. Stakeholders Currently,$ missions$ are$ coordinated$ solely$ by$ the$ Member) States$ themselves$ or,$ more$specifically,$ their$defence)ministries.$Member$ States$ greatly$differentiate$ in$ their$ approach$ to$defence.$Some$Member$States$have$an$enormous$military$expenditure$but$some$have$decreased$theirs90.$ Member$ States$ need$ to$ balance$ their$ limited$ budgets$ between$ different$ ministries.$Member$ States’$ citizens$ benefit$ from$ security$ and$ defence$ against$ terrorism$ and$ regional$instability.$Because$European$countries$are$now$united$ in$ the$European$Union,$some$Member$States$ feel$ there$ is$ little$ risk$ at$ war$ and$ thus$ little$ need$ to$ invest$ in$ armed$ forces.$ However,$Member$States$currently$do$use$their$military$expenditure$to$protect$human’s$rights$outside$the$EU.$ When$ and$ where$ a$ Member$ State$ sends$ its$ forces$ is$ also$ influenced$ by$ the$ NATO’s$agreements.$The$North)Atlantic)Treaty)Organization$(NATO)$is$an$intergovernmental$military$alliance$where$its$members$cooperate$in$defence91.$Its$purpose$is$to$safeguard$the$freedom$and$!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!89 Template: EU competences, Wikipedia, 2013, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:EU_competences. 90 The European Army: It might be European. It won’t be an army, The Telegraph, 2013, http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/finance/matspersson/100026307/the-european-army-it-might-be-european-it-wont-be-an-army/. 91 What is the NATO?, NATO, http://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/index.html.

!

! 50!

security$ of$ its$members$ through$political$ and$military$means.$The$NATO$also$ takes$ an$ active$role$ in$ crisisPmanagement$operations$and$missions.$These$missions$ can$be$ called$ for$by$a$UN$mandate.$The$United)Nations$(UN)$can$establish$peacekeeping$operations$and$the$UN)Security)Council$ can$give$peacekeeping$mandates92.$Although$ the$UN$has$ 193$member$ states,$ the$UN$Security$ Council$ only$ exists$ of$ 15$ countries:$ 5$ permanent$ members$ (China,$ France,$ Russian$Federation,$the$United$Kingdom$and$the$United$States)$with$veto$power$and$ten$nonPpermanent$members.$ The$ 5$ permanent$members$ can$ thus$ veto$mandates,$ with$ reasons$ such$ as$ keeping$their$ trading$ relation$ with$ the$ affected$ country.$ The$ UN$ does$ not$ have$ its$ own$ army$ and$member$states$can$send$their$soldiers$on$a$UN$mission$on$a$voluntary$basis.$The$countries)in)which)the)UN,)NATO)or)national)missions)take)place,$or$ the$countries$ in$which$ they$should$take$place,$are$greatly$affected$by$the$amount$of$forces$or$political$diplomats$from$abroad$enter$the$ country.$ Bad$ governance$ or$ civil$ war$ often$ plagues$ these$ countries.$ Military$missions$ to$return$the$peace$in$the$country$are$beneficial$when$successful.$However,$sometimes$missions$do$not$change$the$situations$in$the$country$and$can$even$worsen$it.$Another$aspect$to$point$out$is$that$ the$ incentives$ and$ interests$ of$ countries$where$missions$ are$directed$ to$ are$ often$hard$ to$deduce.$ As$ most$ of$ these$ countries$ suffer$ from$ political$ division$ or$ its$ citizens$ suffer$ from$suppression,$it$is$hard$to$find$out$what$the$actual$needs$are$of$these$countries$

4. Conflicts European$defence$ outlays$ have$ declined$ significantly$ since$ the$ end$ of$ the$Cold$War93.$At$ the$EU–US$ summit$ on$ 26$ March,$ President$ Barack$ Obama$ voiced$ his$ concerns$ over$ diminished$levels$ of$ defence$ spending$ in$ many$ NATO$ European$ states,$ warning$ that:$ ‘The) situation) in)Ukraine) reminds) us) that) our) freedom) isn’t) free,) and)we’ve) got) to) be) willing) to) pay) for) the) assets,) the)personnel,)the)training)that’s)required)to)make)sure)that)we)have)a)credible)NATO)force)and)an)effective)deterrent)force.’$$ Europe$ faces$ a$ great$ variety$ of$ threats$ in$ the$ form$ of$ terrorism,$international$piracy$and$regional$instability.$Combined$with$uncertainties$on$the$EU$periphery$and$long$term$strategic$issues$at$play$in$Ukraine,$Turkey,$the$Middle$East$and$Northern$Africa,$the$EU$is$in$need$of$a$strong$security$and$defence$strategy.$Although$both$European$countries$and$the$United$States$join$the$NATO,$the$United$States$can$no$longer$provide$what$the$EU$lacks$and$is$no$longer$prepared$to$act$as$a$‘backPup’$where$the$EU$comes$up$short.$As$a$result$of$this,$‘it) is) of) great) importance) that) the) EU) assumes) greater) responsibility) for) its) own) security’,$ as$ said$ by$Catherine$Ashton,$EU$High$Representative$of$the$Union$for$Foreign$Affairs$and$Security$Policy$for$the$EU.$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!92!The!Security!Council,!United!Nations,!http://www.un.org/en/sc/.!!93!Giri!Rajendran:!What!now!for!European!defence!spending?,!International!Institute!for!Strategic!Studies,!2014,!http://www.iiss.org/en/militarybalanceblog/blogsections/2014H3bea/aprilH7347/whatHnowHforHeuropeanH

defenceHspendingHe70e.!!

!

! 51!

These$arguments$could$ lead$to$ the$more$concrete$development$of$ the$EU’s$military$capacities.$However,$ the$ EU$ has$ always$ been$ known$ for$ advancing$ the$ causes$ of$ peace,$ reconciliation,$democracy$and$human$rights$ in$Europe$and$even$won$ the$Nobel$Peace$Prize$2012$due$ to$ the$latter.$How$acceptable$is$it$for$a$paragon$of$peace$to$further$expand$its$military$power?$$

Furthermore,$it$is$hard$for$the$EU$to$make$any$drastic$steps$towards$the$integration$of$military$systems.$Although$the$EU$has$some$competence$to$act$within$the$CSDP,$Member$States$are$free$to$withdraw$in$the$permanent$structured$cooperation$proposed$in$the$CSDP94.$Additionally,$as$many$ Member$ Sates$ are$ cutting$ their$ military$ expenditure,$ it$ remains$ a$ question$ whether$Member$States$actually$do$want$to$invest$in$EU’s$military$capacities.$Some$Member$States$have$already$formed$alliances$that$result$in$multinational$forces95.$Do$the$missions$the$EU$undertakes$suffice?$And$if$they$do$not,$how$can$the$EU$develop$its$military$capacities$successfully?$

5. Facts and Figures • In$2011,$the$total$cuts$to$military$spending$in$the$EU$amounted$to$45$billion$US$dollars96.$• In$ most$ of$ Europe$ military$ spending$ is$ declining,$ with$ only$ three$ EU$ countries$ now$

above$NATO’s$recommended$2$per$cent$of$GDP$threshold97.$• The$Nobel$Peace$Prize$2012$was$awarded$to$European$Union$(EU)$ufor$over$six$decades$

contributed$ to$ the$ advancement$ of$ peace$ and$ reconciliation,$ democracy$ and$ human$rights$in$Europe”98.$

6. Legislative Background Over$ the$ years$ the$ Political$ and$ Security$ Committee$ (PSC),$ which$monitors$ the$ international$situation$ in$ the$ areas$ covered$by$ the$CSDP$and$ the$CFSP,$ coordinated$many$missions$ in$ and$outside$Europe99.$These$missions$have$proven$that$the$EU$and$its$Member$States$still$need$a$lot$of$ improvement$ on$ defence$ and$ security.$ As$ a$ result$ the$ EEAS$ has$ published$ an$ EU$ policy$document$ in$ June$2013.$This$document$was$widely$misinterpreted)as)advocating)a)European)army.$The$EEAS$have$made$clear$that$proposal$was$only$related$to$civilian$capabilities$and$that$the$capabilities$are$only$owned$and$operated$by$the$Member$States,$supported$by$the$European$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!94 Common Security and Defence Policy, EUROPA, 2010, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/lisbon_treaty/ai0026_en.htm. 95 Idem. 96 Shrinking Europe Military Spending Stirs Concern, New York Times, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/world/europe/europes-shrinking-military-spending-under-scrutiny.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 97 Cf. footnote 2. 98 The Nobel Peace Prize 2012, Nobel Media, 2014, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/. 99 Politica land Security Committee, EUROPA, 2011, http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/foreign_and_security_policy/cfsp_and_esdp_implementation/r00005_en.htm.!!

!

! 52!

Defence$ Agency.$ The) European) Defence) Agency$ was$ constituted$ in$ 2004$ and$ supports$ the$European$Council$and$the$Member$States$in$their$effort$to$improve$the$EU’s$defence$capabilities$through$cooperative$projects$and$programs100.$$$Since$the$establishment$of$the$CSDP)under)the)Treaty)of)Lisbon,$three$more$tasks$are$added$to$the$ competencies$ of$ the$ EU$ in$ calling$ for$ missions,$ namely$ joint$ disarmament$ operations,$military$advice$and$assistance$tasks$and$tasks$in$postPconflict$stabilisation101.$Although$this$does$enlarge$the$EU’s$capabilities$to$a$certain$extend,$Member$States$are$still$free$to$cooperate$in$and$withdraw$ from$ specific$ missions.$ The$ Treaty$ of$ Lisbon$ also$ laid$ some$ fundaments$ on$ the$establishment$of$a$permanent$structured$cooperation$in$defence,$but$without$any$restrictions$to$the$Member$States.$$

7. Key Questions • Does$the$EU$need$to$increase$its$military$capacities?$

o If$ so,$ how$would$ this$ be$ justified$ against$ the$ demonstrated$ decline$ in$military$expenditure$by$the$Member$States?$

• How$can$the$EU$maintain$its$role$as$peacekeeper$whilst$ensuring$global$security$through$military$actions?$

• Is$ a$ more$ intensive$ cooperation$ between$ the$ military$ capacities$ of$ Member$ States$necessary?$

o What$form$would$a$possible$cooperation$take?$

8. Recommended Links What)now)for)European)Defense)Spending?,)International$Institute$for$Strategic$Studies,$2014,$http://www.iiss.org/en/militarybalanceblog/blogsections/2014P3bea/aprilP7347/whatPnowPforPeuropeanPdefencePspendingPe70e.$

Shrinking)Europe)Military)Spending)Stirs)Concern,$New$York$Times,$2013,$http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/world/europe/europesPshrinkingPmilitaryPspendingPunderPscrutiny.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.$$$The)European)Army:)It)might)be)European.)It)won’t)be)an)army,)The$Telegraph,$2013,$http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/finance/matspersson/100026307/thePeuropeanParmyPitPmightPbePeuropeanPitPwontPbePanParmy/.$$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!100 About Us, European Defence Agency, 2014, http://www.eda.europa.eu/Aboutus. 101 Cf. footnote 6.!

!

! 53!

$EU)debate:)A)European)Air)Force?,)Full$Fact,$2014,$https://fullfact.org/europe/european_air_force_drones_army_farage_cleggP31052.$http://eeas.europa.eu/csdp/webdoc/index.html%23milestones%23english.$$

!

! 54!

!