Political Tendencies in Governances of Central Asian Countries · Becoming a “battleground” for Great Game and New Great Game especially after the collapse of Soviet Union, Central

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Farhad Mehdiyev, Ph.D.

Inci Abdulazizova, M.A.

Political Tendencies in Governances of

Central Asian Countries

Table&of&Contents&1.!Introduction!........................................................................................................................................!3!

Conceptualization!.............................................................................................................................!3!

Methodology!....................................................................................................................................!3!

2.!Political!Governances!of!Central!Asian!States!.....................................................................................!4!

3.!Kazakhstan!..........................................................................................................................................!4!

3.1.!Electoral!Process!........................................................................................................................!5!

3.2.!Political!Pluralism!and!Participation!..........................................................................................!5!

3.3.!Functioning!of!Government!.......................................................................................................!6!

3.4.!Media!Freedom!.........................................................................................................................!6!

3.5.!Closing!Remarks!.........................................................................................................................!7!

4.!Kyrgyzstan!...........................................................................................................................................!7!

4.1.!Electoral!Process!........................................................................................................................!7!

4.2.!Political!Pluralism!and!Participation!..........................................................................................!8!

4.3!Functioning!of!Government!........................................................................................................!8!

4.4.!Media!Freedom!.........................................................................................................................!9!

4.5.!Closing!Remarks!.......................................................................................................................!10!

5.!Turkmenistan!....................................................................................................................................!10!

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5.1.!Electoral!Process!......................................................................................................................!10!

5.2.!Political!Pluralism!and!Participation!........................................................................................!11!

5.3.!Functioning!of!Government!.....................................................................................................!11!

5.4.!Media!Freedom!.......................................................................................................................!12!

5.5.!Closing!Remarks!.......................................................................................................................!12!

6.!Tajikistan!...........................................................................................................................................!12!




6.4!Media!Freedom!........................................................................................................................!14!

6.5.!Closing!Remarks!.......................................................................................................................!15!

7.!Uzbekistan!.........................................................................................................................................!16!




7.2.!Media!Freedom!.......................................................................................................................!18!

7.5.!Closing!Remarks!.......................................................................................................................!18!

8.!Conclusion!.........................................................................................................................................!19!

References:!............................................................................................................................................!20!

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1.#Introduction##The region of central Asia situated amid Russia, China, India and Afghanistan and

accommodates five independent post-soviet states, embroiled in shared history and embraced through common Turkic ethnicity (with Tajikistan exception, who traces its identity to Persian roots). Though the region can be seen indivisible from the outside, inside these nations are as much torn apart as they have in common. Becoming a “battleground” for Great Game and New Great Game especially after the collapse of Soviet Union, Central Asia owes to its highly important geostrategic location. Another important factor that draws attention of regional and global powers is rich hydro-carbon resources found in this region. Mainly Kazakhstan (with 30 billion bbl proven oil reserves ranks 12th in the world1) and Turkmenistan (with 17.5 trillion m3 natural gas reserves ranks 4th in the world2) have been gifted with huge oil and gas reservoirs. Aside from significant geostrategic location and vast natural resources, Central Asian states are entangled in governance problems, corruption, low human rights records and economic difficulties, just to mention a few. In order to precise the focus area of study, this paper will be concentrated on governing problems, specifically on divergent governing patterns of each five country.

Conceptualization#In order to improve aim and scope of the research some concepts need to be clarified. First

of all, the governance is the government’s ability to make and administer rules and to provide services.3 Governance incorporates three key domains: state, private sector and civil society. And for the functioning of good governance all these three parameters are expected to have characteristics of efficiency, participation, rule of law, accountability and transparency.4 “Governance has three legs: economic, political and administrative…Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy”.5 Political governances may take different tendencies depending on the level of consolidation of power, provision of human rights and enforcement of rule of law.6 And by “tendencies” we mean the practices, principles, and reasons in the governance of those countries.

And whether political governances take the path of democracy or authoritarianism is going to be examined thoroughly in the subsequent sections.

Methodology##This research is an explanatory research conducted on secondary data, provided by

organisations like Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Freedom House, World Bank, Transparency International, Reporters Without Borders, Human Rights Watch, BTI (Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index) and scholars’ researches.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Central Intelligence Agency. “The World Factbook”. Country Comparison, Crude Oil, Proved Reserves. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2244rank.html 2 Central Intelligence Agency. “The World Factbook”. Country Comparison, Natural Gas, Proved Reserves. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html 3 Francis Fukuyama. “What is Governance?”. Centre for Global Development. January 2013. Page 3 4 Vladimir Petrovsky. “Growth, Governance And Human Development: Post-Soviet Transition in North and Central Asia”.. Page 159 5“Governance for Sustainable Human Development”. A UNDP Policy Document, United Nations Development Program, January 1997, page 2-3. 6 Joachim Blatter. “Forms of Political Governance: Theoretical Foundations and Ideal Types”.. Page84

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2.#Political#Governances#of#Central#Asian#States#A quick look to political governances of Central Asian states can be framed upon World

Bank’s classification on governance systems of nations in transition7. Considering the fact that Central Asian states succeeded independence through the dissolution of Soviet Union, this classification will be successfully applied to “The Stans” (phrase referred to Central Asian states in West).

The classified four political systems are:

A) Competitive democracies-none of the Central Asian states fits these criteria. B) Concentrated political regimes-systems in which multiparty elections are held with

limited political participation, Kyrgyzstan can be assigned to this group8. C) Non-competitive political regimes-systems where entry of potential opposition party

into election process is constrained. Kazakhstan9, Turkmenistan10 and Uzbekistan11 fall into this group.

D) War-torn political regimes-external or internal conflicts result in a loss of political order, Tajikistan12 being the case. And the latest political situations of Central Asian states illustrated on Freedom House reports for 2015 show how little has changed since their independence. ! FRREDOM!

STATUS!AGGREGATE!SCORE!(100)!

POLITICAL!RIGHTS!

CIVIL!LIBERTIES!

KAZAKHSTAN! NOT!FREE! 24! 6! 5!TURKMENISTAN! NOT!FREE! 4! 7! 7!TAJIKISTAN! NOT!FREE! 16! 7! 6!UZBEKISTAN! NOT!FREE! 3! 7! 7!KYRGYZSTAN! PARTLY!FREE! 38! 5! 5!Source: Freedom House. Country Reports (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan). Freedom in the World. Aggregate score: 0-worst, 100-best democratic record. Political Rights and Civil Liberties: 7-worst, 1-best record.

For deep understanding of political governances of Central Asian states rest of research is going to concentrate on each country separately. And in every country case electoral process, political pluralism and participation, functioning of government and media freedom will be analysed.

3.#Kazakhstan##Kazakhstan with the highest GDP is the most economically developed country among

Central Asian states. 13 Country owes its speedy economic progress to rich oil and gas resources. However Kazakhstan does not achieve the same level of performance in political

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!7 The World Bank “Transition. The First Ten Years. Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union”, , Washington, D.C., 2002, pages 97-99 8 Jos Bonostra.“Democracy in Central Asia: Showing in Unfertile Fields?” EUCAM. May 2012. Page 2 9 Adam Hug. “Kazakhstan at a Crossroads: Governance, Corruption & International Investment”. The Foreign Policy Center. September 2010. Page15 10 Kareem Al-Bassam. “The Evolution of Authoritarianism in Turkmenistan”. Routledge, London. 1997. Page394 11 Gulshen Aydin. “Authoritarianism versus Democracy in Uzbekistan: Domestic and International Factors”. Pge81 12!Mehrali!Toshmuhammadov,!“Civil!war!in!Tajikistan!and!post]conflict!rehabilitation”.2004.!pages!14]15!!13 Jos Bonostra,“Democracy in Central Asia: Showing in Unfertile Fields?” EUCAM. May 2012. Page 1

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rights, civil liberties and media freedom. And reforms adopted to enhance more democratic regime, strong civil society and media freedom are anything but skilful manoeuvres of façade democracies14. Furthermore, set of amendments made to the constitution over the years have served to consolidate power for president and his party.

3.1.#Electoral#Process##Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian state whose incumbent president is still in office

since independence of the country. During his tenure of more than 20 years Nazarbayev made sure that no reliable political alternative to his reign would occur.15 And the latest presidential election held prior the schedule in 2015 was noted by OSCE to entail instances of fraud, lacking genuine opposition, having huge advantages for the incumbent and lacking transparency.16 Moreover Parliamentary elections held in 2016, according to OSCE observers did not fulfil the fundamental democratic principles, either. Elections “were efficiently organized, with some progress noted, but indicate that Kazakhstan still has a considerable way to go in meeting its OSCE commitments for democratic elections…”17

3.2.#Political#Pluralism#and#Participation#In 2015 Nazarbayev won early presidential election with crushing victory and ensured his

fifth term in the office. During the election campaign handicapped opponents actually were propagating for Nazarbayev and sending praises to his address. One candidate even confessed that he too voted for Nazarbayev.18Apart from ruling party Nur-Otan, only two political parties- AkZhol and The Communist People’s Party have representation in Parliament.19 However these parties can hardly be described as opposition because of their loyalty to the president. And all presidential and parliamentary elections held during these years only contributed to low scores in electoral process and political pluralism in the country.

“Law on Political Parties” of Republic of Kazakhstan “establishes the legal framework for foundation of political parties, defines their rights and obligations...”20. However this legislation does not support pluralism and participation necessarily in the country. Article 6 and Article 10 raise major concerns regarding registration and formation of political parties. Any group that is not capable of establishing nation-wide representation is restricted to register as a political party. Freedom of association and right to establish political parties have been put under indirect restrictions, which have chilling impact on the development of political pluralism in Kazakhstan.21

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14 R.R. Sharma. “Political System And Democratic Discourse In Central Asia: A View From Outside”. October-December, 2004. http://www.asthabharati.org/Dia_Oct04/R.R.%20Shar.htm 15 Philip Shishkin. Bernard Schwartz Fellow. “Central Asia’s Crises of Governance”. Asia Society. January 2012. Page7 16 OSCE. Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Republic of Kazakhstan. Early Presidential Election 26 April 2015. Election Observation Mission Final Report. Warsaw 29 July 2015. Page4 17 OSCE. Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Republic of Kazakhstan. Early Parliamentary Election 20 March 2016. Election Observation Mission Final Report. Warsaw 27 June 2016. Page3 18 Philip Shishkin. Bernard Schwartz Fellow. “Central Asia’s Crises of Governance”. Asia Society. January 2012. Page7 19 The Official Internet Resource . Mazhilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan. http://www.parlam.kz/en/mazhilis/faction 20 “Law on Political Parties” Republic of Kazakhstan. Legislationline. http://www.legislationline.org/documents/id/8899 21 OSCE/ODIHR, “The Law On Political Parties Adopted On July15”. Review: Republic Of Kazakhstan, 2002. Page2

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3.3.#Functioning#of#Government#Corruption is a main problem in Kazakhstan, as in any post-Soviet state. Systematic

corruption prospers in energy sector of the country. Actually corruption is rampant in all levels of government. Elites use their positions to accumulate key resources for personal gain and are not subject to prosecution or investigation.22 Kazakhstan is ranked 123 out of 168 countries in Transparency International Corruption Perception Index for 2015.23 In order to fight corruption Financial Police was established, which was responsible to investigate corruption in the country and bring cases to the Prosecutor General. However being answerable to the president limits the agency’s independence and credibility significantly. The agency itself suffers from corruption among its officers.24 Though modest progress has been made, overall picture is still the same. Corruption cases which involved senior officials were cracked down on basis for being partial or politicised. However some exceptions were witnessed: former Defence Minister D. Akhmetov was relieved from his position for accepting bribe in arms purchase deal with Israel 25and former Environmental Protection Minister N. Iskayev was charged with involvement in corruption scandal of $70 million26. Former Kazakh Prime Minister S. Akhmetov was found guilty of embezzlement and sentenced to 10 years in prison27 and former Sport Minister T. Ermegyaev was sentenced to 14 years in prison for bribe-taking28.

3.4.#Media#Freedom#Though the constitution provides freedom of media, the government has constantly

harassed or shut down independent outlets. Most of the media sector is controlled by president’s family members or other groups.29 Since 2012, dozens of independent news websites, television channels and newspapers have been shut down. Websites Nakanune.kz, Ratel.kz, Zonaks.kz, newspapers Respublika, Adam Bol, Adam, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) were shut down or blocked on charges of extremism and libel.30 Though Guljan Yergaliyeva, Yulia Kozlova, Guzal Baidalinova were released after being arrested on different charges, Yaroslav Golyshkin still faces criminal charge of extortion and is sentenced to eight years in prison.31

Kazakhstan repeatedly was subject to harsh international criticism because of the government control over internet.32 In 2009 the president signed amendments to the mass media law. And according to Human Rights Watch “under the new law, all forms of internet content - including websites worldwide, blogs, chat rooms, and the like - could potentially be

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!22 Joanna Lillis, “Kazakhstan”. Nations in Transit. Page 11 23 Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2015, https://www.transparency.org/country/KAZ 24 Adam Hug. “Kazakhstan at a Crossroads: Governance, Corruption & International Investment”. The Foreign Policy Center. Page 8 25 Yassi Melman. “Kazakh minister arrested in Israeli arms sales bribe case” April 14, 2009 http://www.haaretz.com/kazakh-minister-arrested-in-israeli-arms-sales-bribe-case-1.274065 26 Adam Hug. “Kazakhstan at a Crossroads: Governance, Corruption & International Investment”. Page 10 27 “Ex-Kazakh Prime Minister Jailed on Corruption Charges”. RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service. December 11, 2015. http://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-prime-minister-jailed-akhmetov-corruption/27421402.html 28 “Former Kazakh Minister Jailed on Corruption Charges”. RFE/RL. June 09 2016. http://www.rferl.org/a/ex-kyrgyz-minister-jailed-corruption/27788457.html 29 Fatima Kukeyeva, Oxana Shkapyak. “Central Asia’s Transition to Democracy”. Elsevier. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences. 2013. Page80 30 Joanna Lillis. “Kazakhstan”. Nations in Transit. Page9 31 Reporters Without Borders. “No free Press Means No Free Election in Kazakhstan”. March 21 2016 https://rsf.org/en/news/no-free-press-means-no-free-elections-kazakhstan 32 Adam Hug. “Kazakhstan at Crossroads: Human Rights and Democracy”. Page 10

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considered "internet resources". As such, they will be subject to existing restrictive laws on expression, such as criminal libel.”33

In early years of independence Kazakhstan had “partly free” media score, which was a significant record. However, media freedom has deteriorated over 20 years. Kazakhstan’s grade in press freedom dropped from 60 in 1994 to 85 in 2015.34(In this scale 0-30 “free”, 31-60 “partly free”, 61-100 “not free”). Government’s constant repression of media still continues. New rules against spreading false information were adopted. Defamation still stands as a criminal offence.

3.5.#Closing#Remarks#But unlike counterparts in the region, Kazakhstan is governed by a more enlightened

authoritarian regime.35 Thanks to profits coming from oil revenues government has been able to grant economic security and stability to its citizens. But political freedoms and rights are hardly enjoyed by its citizens, though the Constitution of the country grants wide range of rights and freedoms. In recent years Kazakhstan performed poorly at functioning of government and rule of law as well. Decline in price of oil have contributed in great to this outcome. Fortunately, Kazakhstan is not the worst example of democracy in the region. Kazakhstan’s democratic potentials seem to be more promising in comparison with Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

4.#Kyrgyzstan##Kyrgyzstan is the only country in the region which is not characterized as a “consolidated

authoritarian regime”36. Country has gone through two revolutions, several constitutional changes, two presidential abdications and transition from presidential to parliamentary system since independence.

4.1.#Electoral#Process##After 2010 revolution, with the intention of “to make a return to authoritarianism

impossible”37, Kyrgyzstan made a transition to parliamentary system. But the new constitution does not set a pure parliamentary system of government.38 President still enjoys certain significant executive functions. Constitutional amendments made in 2010 expanded parliament from 90 to 120 deputies and no party is allowed to hold more than 65 seats.39 Another co-chair of the executive branch- president serves a six-year term in office having no possibility of re-election.40

2011 presidential election commemorated the final step of transition period after 2010 revolution.41 According to OSCE report election was held in peaceful manner, candidate !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!33 Human Rights Watch. “Kazakhstan: Rescind New Media Restrictions”. https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/07/14/kazakhstan-rescind-new-media-restrictions!!34 Freedom House, Kazakhstan, country report, freedom of the press, 1994-2015. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/kazakhstan 35 “Central Asia: Governance, Geopolitics and Development Challenges”. Overseas Development Institute. Briefing Paper. May 2007. Page4 36 Catherine Putz. “Bad News About Democracy in Central Asia”. The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2015/06/bad-news-about-democracy-in-central-asia/ 37 Shairbek Juraev. “Is Kyrgyzstan’s New Political System Sustainable?” `American University of Central Asia (Bishkek). Ponars Eurasia Policy Memo No. 210.July 2012. Page1 38 “Kyrgyzstan: Political Situation”. European Parliament Research Service. April 2015. Page 2 39 The Constitution Of The Kyrgyz Republic, Section 4, Legislative Power of the Kyrgyz republic, Article 70 40 The Constitution Of The Kyrgyz Republic, Section 3, The President of the Kyrgyz Republic, Article 61 41 OSCE/ODIHR. Kyrgyz Republic, Presidential Election 30 October 2011, page6

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registration was wide-range, voters were given wide choice and electoral campaign respected fundamental freedoms, however significant irregularities were witnessed in process of counting and arrangement of votes.42 2015 parliamentary elections displayed higher level of impartiality and political pluralism than it did before, and it was described to be “competitive and provided voters with a wide range of choice, while the manner in which they were administered highlighted the need for better procedures and increased transparency”43. And according to International Crises Group, 2015 parliamentary election reminded an auction: ensuring a place on a party list could cost politicians up to $500.000.44

4.2.#Political#Pluralism#and#Participation##Kyrgyz citizens have the freedom to establish political parties, especially at local level.

However locally consolidated groups are discouraged from participating in national politics because of 7% threshold and parties must win at least 0.7 % of vote in every nine regional division of the country.45 And as the main aim of the 2010 constitution is to prevent re-emergence of authoritarianism, no single party is allowed to dominate Parliament, and to formulate a government at least three-party coalition is required.46 In 2015 parliamentary elections out of 14 political parties 6 passed threshold securing seats in the Parliament.47 However existence of such a large number of political parties should not be accredited to political pluralism. Unlike in democratic countries with influential institutions, political parties in Kyrgyzstan do not possess strong ideological platforms and programs.48

4.3#Functioning#of#Government#As in Kazakhstan, corruption is widespread in Kyrgyzstan as well. In order to tackle the

issue Anti-Corruption Service was created in 2010.49 Government has undertaken several other reforms, too. But their effectiveness is being undermined by a corrupt judiciary system.50 After all some progress has been made. In 2013 twelve former officials faced charges of corruption over 2003 deal with Canadian Gold Company.51 And in 2015 the head of president’s office D. Narymbaev was arrested on charges of fraud.52 Another former Kyrgyz official, ex-Bishkek mayor N. Tuleev was found guilty of corruption and charged with 11 years in prison.53 While some positive results have been achieved with the prosecution of senior officials, Kyrgyz government’s war on corruption can still be described !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!42 Ibid, page 3 43 OSCE. Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Kyrgyz Republic. Parliamentary Elections 4 October 2015. Election Observation Mission Final Report. 28 January 2016. Page 3 44 Tynan Deirdre, April 2016, “Tracing political circles in Kyrgyzstan”. International Crises Group. http://blog.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/2016/04/06/tracing-political-circles-in-kyrgyzstan/ 45 “Joint Opinion on the Draft Law on Political Parties of the Kyrgyz Republic”. Venice Commision. Council of Europe. OSCE/ODIHR, page3-4 46 Erica Marat, “Kyrgyzstan”. Freedom House Publications, 2016. Page 4 47 “ Final Results Confirmed in Kyrgyz Parliamentary Race”. Catherine Putz. The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2015/10/final-results-confirmed-in-kyrgyz-parliamentary-race/ 48 “Political Parties and Pluralism in Kyrgyzstan”. Newseurasia. https://www.neweurasia.net/politics-and-society/political-parties-and-pluralism-in-kyrgyzstan/ 49 Kyrgyzstan 2016, Freedom Barometer. Page2 50 Kyrgyzstan Corruption Report,GAN Business Anti-Corruption Portal. http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/kyrgyzstan 51 “More Kyrgyz Officials face Corruption Charges over Kumtor”, RFE/RL Kyrgyzstan. http://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-kumtor-gold-corruption/25153975.html 52 Samuel Ramani, “Kyrgyzstan’s anti-corruption failure”, The Diplomat, October 05,2015 http://thediplomat.com/2015/10/kyrgyzstans-anti-corruption-failure/ 53 “Ex-Bishkek Mayor Jailed for Corruption”, RFE/RL, Kyrgyzstan, July 30,2013 http://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-bishkek-mayor-corruption/25060829.html

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as a failure. Because Kyrgyzstan ranks 123th in Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.54

4.4.#Media#Freedom#In comparison with other regional states Kyrgyzstan has been performing better on

democratic governance, electoral process, political pluralism and participation. Kyrgyzstan also holds the best score on media freedom in Central Asia, though it has not been classified “partly free” since 1996.55 While looking at the records of media freedom in past 11 years, we can see how scores fluctuated in accordance with political turbulences in the country. After 2005 revolution and overthrow of Akayev’s rule, media freedom has improved from 71 to 64. However new elected president Bakiyev has done little to sustain democracy and fight corruption. Media freedom deteriorated as well, new government vanished achievements of the revolution and dropped to 73 score in press freedom in 2009. With 2010 revolution Kyrgyzstan once again improved its media freedom, but still remains in the category of “not free”.

Media Freedom

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Kyrgyzstan 71 64 67 70 72 73 70 69 69 66 67 67

Source: Freedom House, Kyrgyzstan, Country Report, Freedom of the Press, 2004-2015. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan was the first country in Central Asia to decriminalize libel in 2011.56 But this achievement was lost with the signing of “False Accusation Law” by president Atambayev in 2014. With the new legislation intentional defamation will face a criminal offence that can be condemned up to 3 years in jail.57 Though the constitution provides freedom of speech, the observance of it is not consistent. Chief-editor of Maalymat newspaper was fined to pay $26.000 after “insulting the honor and dignity of the president”.58 Leading Russian-language newspaper Vecherniy Bishkek lost 65% of its shares to former owners with court decision.59 And arrest & deportation of US journalist Umar Farooq from Kyrgyzstan in 2015 is the evidence to lack of tolerance of Kyrgyz authorities towards independent journalism.60 According to civil society members Kyrgyzstan’s increasing political alliance with Russia and its accession to Eurasian Economic Union had a negative impact on the freedom of media.61

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!54 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index. https://www.transparency.org/country/KGZ!!55 Kyrgyzstan, Freedom House, Freedom of the Press. 2015. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/kyrgyzstan 56 “OSCE hails Kyrgyz decision to decriminalize libel”. Asian Correspondent. July 19, 2011. https://asiancorrespondent.com/2011/07/osce-hails-kyrgyz-decision-to-decriminalize-libel/ 57 “Kyrgyzstan re-criminalizes libel with vague new law”. Eurasianet. May 20, 2014. http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68388 58 Kyrgyzstan, Freedom House, Freedom of the Press.2016. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/kyrgyzstan 59 Kyrgyzstan, Nations in Transit, Erica Marat. Page 8. 60 “US journalist deported from Kyrgyzstan after interrogation”, The Guardian. March 31, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2015/mar/31/us-journalist-deported-from-kyrgyzstan-after-interrogation 61 “Kyrgyzstan at crossroads: shrink or widen the scene for human rights defenders”. The Observatory for the Protection of Human Defenders. International Mission Report. June 2016. Page 13

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4.5.#Closing#Remarks#Though Kyrgyzstan is far ahead of the other Central Asian states, it still has much to do to

reach democratic governance, rule of law and strong civil society. It is no doubt that Bakiyev regime’s push towards authoritarianism was the key factor causing 2010 protests. But the scenarios behind the uprising were not clear-cut, whether the revolution was bottom-up constructed or it was a struggle of greedy elite trying to have a slice of the pie62. Though hopes for democratic transformation after 2010 revolution were high, profound problems within society became more evident with the ethnic clashes between Uzbek and Kyrgyz communities in the south of the country.63 And recent referendum held in December 11, 2016 on constitutional changes seems to promise little for democratization. The amendments foresee strengthening prime minister’s powers in respect to that of Kyrgyzstan’s parliament. With these constitutional changes, authorities will have the power to deprive Kyrgyz nationals of citizenship if they join Islamist groups64. Kyrgyzstan has to confront difficult questions that still challenge the country, such as north-south division, ethnic conflicts, rising religious radicalization, failure of physical and social infrastructure

5.#Turkmenistan#Turkmenistan has gained a reputation to be one of the most repressive regimes of the 21st

century. Few countries can compete with Turkmenistan in ridiculousness of the cult of personality established by its first president Sapparmurat Niyazov.65 After the death of Niyazov, the next president of the country became Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov. Though initially he signaled to be ready to engage with the world and start reform programs, after 10 years under Berdymukhammedov’s leadership, the country is still left unreformed.66

5.1.#Electoral#Process#Turkmenistan has never experienced free and fair elections since its independence, and it

is not an electoral democracy.67 Elections in Turkmenistan have preserved many aspects of the Soviet-era examples; actually electoral system of the country resembles that of the Soviet system.68 Berdymukhammedov was formally elected to his first term in office in 2007. While five-year electoral period in Turkmenistan was re-introduced69 in 2008 constitution. He was re-elected for second time in 2012 receiving 97% of the vote. 70 2012 presidential election was the second in the history of Turkmenistan since independence to feature more than one

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!62 Deirdre Tynan. “Tracing Political Circles in Kyrgyzstan”. International Crises Group. April 6.2016 http://blog.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/2016/04/06/tracing-political-circles-in-kyrgyzstan/ 63!Reid!Standish.!“Five%years%on,%has%Kyrgyzstan’s%democratic%revolution%put%down%roots?”!Foreign!Policy.!April!2015.!http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/07/five]years]revolution]tulip]democracy]central]asia]kyrgyzstan/!!64 “Day of Silence in Kyrgyzstan Ahead Off Constitutional Referendum”. Azernews 10 December 2016. http://www.azernews.az/region/106316.html! 65!Philip Shishkin. Bernard Schwartz Fellow. “Central Asia’s Crises of Governance”. Page 17 66!!Annette!Bohr.!“Turkmenistan:%Power,%politics%and%petroAauthoritarianism”,!Russia!and!Eurasia!programme,!March!2016,!Page!15!67!Turkmenistan.!Freedom!House.!Country!Report!2016.!!https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom]world/2016/turkmenistan!!68!Annette!Bohr.!“Turkmenistan:%Power,%politics%and%petroAauthoritarianism”,!Page!27!69!Saparmurat!Niyazov!had!abolished!presidential!elections!in!1999!declaring!himself!president!for!lifetime.!70 Turkmenistan country report, BTI (Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index) 2016. Page 8

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candidate. The candidates were handicapped and associated with the ruling party.71 And as like presidential election of 2012, parliamentary election of 2013 was marked to be first multi-party elections to unicameral Mejlis.72 While government declares that these election will proclaim a new phase of Turkmenistan’s democracy, in reality opposition is forbidden and human rights group’s activists have gone missing or jailed.73 And though OSCE/ODIHR election observation mission was not invited in 2012 presidential election, in 2013 limited participation of observation mission was welcomed by the government.74

5.2.#Political#Pluralism#and#Participation#Following the adoption of first-ever law on political parties in Turkmenistan in 2012, two

new political parties alongside with the ruling party-Democratic Party of Turkmenistan was established.75 Though new legislation forbade “to create political parties by regions or by being based on professional principle”76, Turkmen president initiated the establishment of The Agrarian Party and The Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs. New political parties were composed of officials loyal to the government.77

Opposition movement in Turkmenistan had little contribution to political pluralism since independence. Turkmenistan had one of the weakest opposition movements in post-Soviet states when it became independent.78 And currently no political opposition exists in Turkmenistan; they are either in exile or in prison.79

5.3.#Functioning#of#Government##Turkmenistan is one of the most corrupt countries of the world. Almost in all indices

evaluating corruption and economic freedom around the world, Turkmenistan commonly comes at the bottom ranks.80 Rich hydrocarbon resources of the country favor the well-being of only small elite group around the president. And 45% of the country’s wealth is controlled by 4% of the Turkmen population, in sharp contrast to 60% of the families who do not possess even their own homes.81

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!71!“Turkmenistan’s%president%reAelected%with%97%%of%vote”.!The!New!York!Times.!February!13,!2012.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/14/world/asia/berdymukhammedov]re]elected]president]of]turkmenistan.html!!72%“Turkmenistan%holds%its%first%multiparty%parliamentary%elections”.!The!Central!Asia]Caucasus!Analyst.!https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/field]reports/item/12885]turkmenistan]holds]its]first]multiparty]parliamentary]elections.html!!73!“Turkmenistan:%no%threat%to%tight%grip%in%Turkmenistan%from%multiAparty%vote”.!Reuters.!https://thevotingnews.com/international/asia/turkmenistan/!!74!OSCE.!Elections!in!Turkmenistan.!http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/turkmenistan!!75%“Turkmenistan:%elections%highlight%fundamental%pluralism%deficit”.!Chronicles!of!Turkmenistan.!http://en.chrono]tm.org/2013/12/turkmenistan]elections]highlight]fundamental]pluralism]deficit/!!76!Law!of!Turkmenistan!“On%Political%Parties”.!Article!8!“Restrictions%related%to%the%formation%and%functioning%of%political%parties”.%%77!Turkmenistan,!Freedom!House,!Country!Report.!!http://en.chrono]tm.org/2013/12/turkmenistan]elections]highlight]fundamental]pluralism]deficit/!!78!“The%evolution%of%authoritarianism%in%Turkmenistan”.!Kareem!Al]Bassam.!Page!7!79Human!Rights!Watch:!Turkmenistan.!!https://www.hrw.org/world]report/2015/country]chapters/turkmenistan!!80!“Turkmenistan:%Power,%politics%and%petroAauthoritarianism”!Annette!Bohr.!Page!37!81!“Unpublished%census%provides%rare%and%unvarnished%look%at%Turkmenistan”.!Eurasia!daily.!https://jamestown.org/program/unpublished]census]provides]rare]and]unvarnished]look]at]turkmenistan/#.Vf6Gzd]qqko!!

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With the adoption of the first legislation “On Combatting Corruption” almost nothing has changed in the country.82 As president has consolidated a tight control on power, any information on corruption cases can hardly be noticed in Turkmen media.83

5.4.#Media#Freedom##A new media law that was adopted in 2013 completely banned censorship and illegal

interference into media activities. The new law put forward targets to guarantee media pluralism and independence.84 However “worst of worst” situation in media freedom of Turkmenistan remains untouched. All print and electronic media are under tight control of the state, and foreign media outlets can hardly get access into the country.85 Radio Azatlyk, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty(RFE/RL), Alternative News of Turkmenistan were subject to harassment and closures. And in 2013 Turkmen citizens were forced to demolish privately owned television satellite dishes and switch to state controlled cable packages.86 Labeled by Reporters Without Borders as one of the world’s information black holes, Turkmenistan is ranked 178th out of 180 states in press freedom.87

5.5.#Closing#Remarks#President Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov has established his own powerhouse since he

acquired the control of the presidential office. Neither democratic opening, nor any reform program was ever observed. And domestic reforms made till now proved to be anything but cosmetic changes. No doubt that decisive factor behind the political relationship between Turkmenistan and Western countries is energy. Because of its vast natural gas resources Turkmenistan has been enjoying a leverage in this relationship despite its poor performance in fundamental human rights and freedoms. “The lack of any real democratic progress under the current president underlines the importance of reinforced international action to promote follow-through on international human rights obligations and commitments in the country.”88

6.#Tajikistan##Tajikistan was one of the poorest states in Soviet Union, and during 26 years of

independence economic situation of the country has little improved. Unlike counterparts of the region Tajikistan has gone through devastating civil war once it became independent. Five years of civil war divided country into two camps: Russian backed ruling elite and Islamist Tajik opposition.89 Though civil war ended with power-sharing agreement, Islamist

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!82!Turkmenistan!country!report.!BTI!2016.!Page!12!https://www.bti]project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Turkmenistan.pdf!!83!Turkmenistan!corruption!report.!!GAN!business!anti]corruption!portal.!http://www.business]anti]corruption.com/country]profiles/turkmenistan!!84!“Turkmenistan:%elections%highlight%fundamental%pluralism%deficit”.!Chronicles!of!Turkmenistan.!http://en.chrono]tm.org/2013/12/turkmenistan]elections]highlight]fundamental]pluralism]deficit/!!85!!Human!Rights!Watch,!Turkmenistan!events!of!2015,!!https://www.hrw.org/world]report/2016/country]chapters/turkmenistan!!86!Turkmenistan,!Nations!in!transit.!Page!6!!87!Reporters!without!borders.%Turkmenistan,%ultraAclandestine%journalism.!https://rsf.org/en/turkmenistan!88!!“Turkmenistan:%elections%highlight%fundamental%pluralism%deficit”.!Chronicles!of!Turkmenistan..!!http://en.chrono]tm.org/2013/12/turkmenistan]elections]highlight]fundamental]pluralism]deficit/!!89!“Tajikistan,%at%a%glance”.!Political!parties.!European!Parliament.!July!2015.!

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opposition was not allowed to operate fully within the agreement framework. And sharing border with Afghanistan Tajikistan is face-to-face with the threat of religious radicalisation.90

6.1.#Electoral#Process#Free and fair conduct of election process is not adequately ensured by Tajikistan’s

electoral laws. Actually the country’s Electoral Law constantly has been subject of criticism by western countries, OSCE and EU.91 2015 Parliamentary elections “took place in a restricted political space... Although the government stated its ambition to hold democratic elections,… restrictions on the right to stand, freedoms of expression and assembly, and access to media limited the opportunity to make a free and informed choice”92. And European Parliament’s representative Norbet Neuser stated that he was pleased with the peaceful conduct of elections, however “significant shortcomings, including multiple voting and ballot-box stuffing, and disregard of counting procedures meant that an honest count could not be guaranteed.”93

6.2.#Political#Pluralism#and#Participation#Real political opposition is pervasive in Tajikistan, however with Tajik Constitution

providing a strong presidential post, Emamoli Rakhmonov has consolidated all power under his control, and political opposition has little impact on accountability and credibility of the government. There are seven political parties in Tajikistan alongside the ruling People’s Democratic Party of Tajikistan(PDPT)94, 3 out of which is genuine opposition: Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRPT), Communist Party of Tajikistan, Social Democratic Party of Tajikistan.95

IRPT was established after 1999 constitutional permission to formulate religion based political parties and was the only registered Islamist party in Central Asia. The party played crucial role during civil war and peace negotiations in 1997. 96 In 2015 august, IRPT was banned by Justice Ministry of Tajikistan.97 Second largest political party in the country with more than 40.000 supporters IRPT was declared illegal, and its status as republican party was annulled.98

Communist party of Tajikistan remained largest one after the end of civil war, though its membership was not in large scale as it was in late Soviet period.99 Till 2000 the party was a

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!90!“Central Asia’s Crises Of Governance”. Philip Shishkin. Bernard Schwartz Fellow. Asia Society. Page 15 91!Tajikistan!country!report,!2016.!Freedom!House!https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom]world/2016/tajikistan!!92!OSCE/ODIHR.!Republic!of!Tajikistan.!Parliamentary!Elections!2015!February.!Page4!93!“Tajikistan’s%ruling%party%wins%election%decries%as%“farce””.!Radio!Free!Europe/Radio!Liberty.!!Tajik!service.!2015!march.!http://www.rferl.org/a/tajik]elections]rahmon]party]victory/26877105.html!!94!“Election%in%Tajikistan”!IFES.!https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/2015_ifes_tajikistan_parliamentary_elections_faqs_f_0.pdf!!95!“Tajikistan%political%parties”.!Global!security.org!http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/tajik]political]parties.htm!!96!“Tajikistan’s%ruling%party%wins%election%decries%as%“farce””.!Radio!Free!Europe/Radio!Liberty.!!Tajik!service.!2015!march.!http://www.rferl.org/a/tajik]elections]rahmon]party]victory/26877105.html!!97!“Tajikistan%bans%Islamic%Opposition%Party”.!Eurasinet.org!http://www.eurasianet.org/node/74856!!98!“Tajikistan:%reverse%political%party%closure”.!Human!Rights!Watch.!September!2015.!https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/09/14/tajikistan]reverse]political]party]closure!!99!Political!parties!in!Tajikistan.!Facts!and!details.!!http://factsanddetails.com/central]asia/Tajikistan/sub8_6d/entry]4887.html!!

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nominal opposition expressing support for Rakhmonov in most issues. But lately Communist Party emerged as the most severe voice of opposition, criticising government and elections.100

The Social Democratic Party of Tajikistan (SDPT), also known as the “Party of Lawyers”, is democratic opposition movement. The founder of the party R. Zoyirov has repeatedly appealed to president as a political compromise to appoint him Minister of Justice.101

6.3.#Functioning#of#Government#Corruption is a serious problem in Tajikistan. Almost all sectors of the economy run on

bribery and gifts. Patronage and clientelism hinder competitive business environment.102 State resources are extorted to provide financial interests and private gains of ruling elite, whereas the needs and necessities of citizens are hardly fulfilled by the government. For example, in winter people are left without heating and electricity because of the insufficiency of the government to provide energy supply to its citizens.103 And a report issued by the Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs of the US Department of State describing financial risks to business investors and the problem of government corruption has received furious reaction from Tajik officials.104 Tajikistan was also condemned by OECD to “bring criminal anti-corruption legislation in full compliance with international standards”105. As nepotism does not constitute to be “the brand of corruption Tajikistan’s anticorruption agency is looking for”, President of Tajikistan appointed his son Rustam Emomali head of the country’s anti-corruption agency in 2015.106 High level officials also are not often penalized for corruption accusations. Public prosecution of embezzlement is mostly executed at lesser levels of state administration.107

6.4#Media#Freedom#The situation in respect to freedom of press remains extremely problematic in Tajikistan.

Media and journalists are regularly harassed or intimidated because of critical reporting. Combat against terrorism was manipulated by the government to eliminate political opposition. Interrogations by intelligence officers, blackmail, surveillance have become a part of independent journalists’ daily lives.108

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!100!“Tajikistan%political%parties”.!Global!security.org!http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/tajik]political]parties.htm!101!Ibid.!102!!Tajikistan!Corruption!Report.!GAN!business!anti]corruption!portal,!2016!!august,!!!http://www.business]anti]corruption.com/country]profiles/tajikistan!!103!Transparency!International.!Overview!of!corruption!and!anti]corruption!in!Tajikistan.!2013.!U4!expert!answer.!!Page!2!104!“Tajikistan’s%government%enraged%by%corruption%allegations”.!The!Central!Asia]Caucasus!analyst,!2014!august.!https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/field]reports/item/13017]tajikistans]government]enraged]by]corruption]allegations.html!!105%“Tajikistan%should%step%up%its%fight%against%corruption”.!OECD.!!http://www.oecd.org/corruption/tajikistan]should]step]up]its]fight]against]corruption.htm!106!Catherine!Pultz.!“Nepotism:%not%the%kind%of%corruption%Tajikistan%is%looking%for”.!The!Diplomat.!June!2015.!http://thediplomat.com/2015/06/nepotism]not]the]kind]of]corruption]tajikistan]is]looking]for/!!107!Tajikistan!country!report.!BTI!2016.!Page!12!!!https://www.bti]project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Tajikistan.pdf!!108!Reporters!Without!Borders.!Tajikistan.!A!dangerous!slope.!https://rsf.org/en/tajikistan!!

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Arbitrary blocking of websites is witnessed regularly in last years. In 2014, after an opposition party made online call for an anti-government protest, some hundreds of websites all of a sudden became unavailable.109 According to Human Rights Watch, Communication Ministry of Tajikistan orders internet service providers to block websites- Google, Facebook and RFE/RL Tajik service and others.110

In 2015 July, a protocol signed by the president announced National Information Agency of Tajikistan- Khovar the only channel through which can be communicated with the government. All state agencies were obliged to provide information first to Khovar. And other media bodies should republish form Khovar.111

In 2012, Emomali Rahmon signed a new law decriminalizing libel, according to which libel( Article 135) and insult( Article 136) were removed from the Penal Code.112 However in 2013, weekly newspaper Imruz News was condemned by court rule to pay fine of 50.000 somoni ($10.500) for insulting son of the head of Tajikistan’s State Rail Company.113 And in 2014, independent Asia-Plus newspaper was fined to pay 30.000 somoni( €4500) for defaming Tajikistan intellectuals.114

In tenure of one year Tajikistan has dropped in 34 places in media freedom index of Reporters Without Borders. It fell from 116th place in 2015 to 150th in 2016.115

6.5.#Closing#Remarks#Tajikistan’s performance on political rights has gone from bad to worse. Current

economic slowdown is almost undoing the progress achieved in last decade. After the downfall in Russian economy and impose of strict rules on migration of workers from non-EEU (Eurasian Economic Union) countries by Russian authorities Tajikistan’s economic situation has fallen under severe stagnation. In the first half of 2015, remittances from Russia declined 32%, which compromise 49% of GDP of Tajikistan.116 Member of Collective Security Treaty Organization, Tajikistan has held itself from joining the EEU. However its dependence on Russia has not been reduced. Whether Tajikistan will make a step from “Prospective Member” status to membership in EEU is a dilemma the government is currently facing.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!109!“Tajikistan,%submission%of%the%UN%universal%periodic%review”.!International!Partnership!For!Human!Rights.!September!2015.!Page1!110!“Trending%in%Tajikistan:%media%repression”.!RFE/RL!.!may!2016.!!http://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan]media]crackdown/27717919.html!!111!Nadin!Bakhron.!“Tajikistan%clamps%down%on%Media”.%Silk!Road!Reporters.!August!2016.!http://www.silkroadreporters.com/2015/08/16/tajikistan]clamps]down]on]media/!!112!“Tajikistan%passes%law%decriminalizing%libel”.!Asia]Plus.!2012.!!http://www.news.tj/en/news/tajikistan]passes]law]decriminalizing]libel!!113!“Tajik%weekly%fined%for%allegedly%insulting%government%official’s%son”.!IFEX.!2013!February.!https://www.ifex.org/tajikistan/2013/02/26/weekly_defamation/!!114!“The%Tajik%journalist%fined%for%collective%libel”.%Institute!For!War!And!Peace!Reporting.!http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/271776/400455_de.html!!115!“Tajikistan:%index%shows%collapse%in%media%freedom”.!Eurasianet..org!http://www.eurasianet.org/node/78401!!116!Catherine!Pultz,!“Tajikistan:!remittance!values!fall”.!The!Diplomat.!2016!january.!http://thediplomat.com/2016/01/tajikistan]remittance]values]fall/!!

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7.#Uzbekistan##In September 2, 2016 Uzbekistan’s long-term president Islam Kerimov died following a

stroke. After 25 years of authoritarian rule Uzbekistan elected a new president, Shavkat Mirziyoyev. Though political leadership changed, Uzbekistan still remains one of the most repressive countries of the world. Significant improvements in extremely low human rights records and political freedoms are not expected. Rigid control over population, imprisonments on politically motivated charges, forced labour and torture is still widespread.117

7.1.#Electoral#Process#With termination of Islam Karimov’s fourth term in presidential office, Uzbekistan held

early presidential election in December 2016. Shavkat Mirziyoyev who had served as prime minister since 2003, and was appointed acting president upon Kerimov’s death won the presidential election with 88.6% of the vote.118 Two opponents of Mirziyoyev, K. Ketmanov and N. Umarov, were running in 2015 presidential election as well, which was characterized as a sham organized to guarantee the fourth term for Kerimov.119 In its history since independence, Uzbekistan never had free and fair elections. 2016 presidential election was not an exclusion either- “The format for Uzbek elections has not changed since Karimov's death”120. However compared with previous elections some improvements have been observed. OSCE for the first time was permitted to send a full scale mission to monitor the campaign.121 According to OSCE/ODIHR monitoring report legal framework was not sufficient to hold democratic elections. Election process lacked political pluralism and genuine competition. And because of highly restricted and controlled media coverage, voters were not allowed to acquire an alternative viewpoint.122

7.2.#Political#Pluralism#and#Participation#When Uzbekistan became independent in early 1990s, the government set a goal of

establishing a multiparty democracy. However this agenda went unrealized. Since the first days of independence till the present, seven political parties were registered by the Justice Ministry of Uzbekistan.123 And at the moment out of seven only four political parties are still

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!117!Human!Rights!Watch.!Uzbekistan!events!of!2016.!!https://www.hrw.org/world]report/2017/country]chapters/uzbekistan!azzxz!118!Abdurasilov!Abdujalil.!6!December!2016,!!“Uzbekistan!elects!a!new!president”.!BBC!News.!http://www.bbc.com/news/world]asia]38208054!!119!Najibullah!Farangis,!4!December!2016,!“Uzbeks!vote!in!presidential!election!whose!outcome!is!largely!a!foregone!conclusion”,!Radio!Free!Europe/Radio!Liberty.!!http://www.rferl.org/a/uzbekistan]presidential]election]mirziyaev]karimov]successor/28154842.html!!120!“Uzbekistan!votes!in!first!polls!since!Karimov’s!death”,!5!December!2016,!Aljazeera.!Kamoliddin!Rabbimov!quoted!to!AFP!(Agence!France]Presse)!http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/uzbekistan]presidential]election]161204095819645.html!!121!Nechepurenko!Ivan, 5 December 2016, “In a year of election upsets, Uzbekistan delivers the expected”. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/05/world/asia/uzbekistan-election-president.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FUzbekistan&action=click&contentCollection=world&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=2&pgtype=collection !122!OSCE/ODIHR,!Republic!of!Uzbekistan,!early!presidential!election,!statement!on!preliminary!finding.!Page1!123!Rabbimov!Kamoliddin.!2007,!“Uzbekistan’s!political!parties!between!the!government!and!society”.!Central%Asia%and%the%Caucasus.!No.1(43).!Page!58!

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registered- Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party (UzLiDeP), Adolat Social Democratic Party, Milli Tiklanish( National Revival) Democratic Party and People’s Democratic Party.124 With UzLiDep as a ruling party, other three parties are pro-governmental and no genuine opponent parties operate officially.125 And after the amendments to Elections Law in 2008, to Legislative Chamber elections only pro-governmental parties were permitted to present candidates, independent candidates were banned to stand for the elections. 126 During 25 years of authoritarian rule under Kerimov’s regime, political opposition was banned, opposition leaders were imprisoned or exiled.

7.3.#Functioning#of#Government#Central Asia might be considered one of the world’s worst regions, when the matter is

corruption. And Uzbekistan may be regarded to be the worst example of the region. Corruption is persistent at all levels of government and public administration, bribery, extortion, abuse of office and nepotism is widespread.127 Cotton industry in Uzbekistan particularly has been in the focus of international attention. The sector is characterized as a corrupt mechanism in which “… money disappears into a mysterious fund that’s off the budget”128. International Labour Organization condemned Uzbekistan government on human rights abuses, slave wages, unbearable work conditions and use of child labour in cotton production.129

Whereas Uzbek Criminal Code forbids bribery, embezzlement and any other corruption related acts, it does not fully meet international anti-corruption standards. In an attempt to demonstrate political will of the government to fight corruption Uzbekistan joined Istanbul Anti-Corruption Action Plan in 2010.130 However prosecutions against several well-known business people in 2010 were not based on corruption charges, on the contrary government’s “war on corruption” was selective and indicated power struggle within the elite.131 And in a most well-known corruption scandal in 2012, Gulnara Karimova- former president Islam Karimov’s eldest daughter, lost her business empire facing allegations of corruption for accepting more than $1 billion from telecom companies.132

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!124!Central!Intelligence!Agency,!2016!October.!The!World!Factbook.!Political!Parties!and!World!Leaders.!https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the]world]factbook/fields/2118.html#!!125!Uzbekistan]!Political!Parties,!Global!Security.org!http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/uzbek]political]parties.htm!!126!European!Parliament,!July!2015,!Political!Parties!In!Uzbekistan,!http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2015/564400/EPRS_ATA(2015)564400_EN.pdf!!127!Uzbekistan’s!corruption!report,!GAN!business!anti]corruption!portal,!2015!June,!!http://www.business]anti]corruption.com/country]profiles/uzbekistan!!128!Pannier,!Bruce.!June!2016.!The!perfect!storm!of!corruption!in!Central!Asia.!Radio!Free!Europe/Radio!Liberty.!http://www.rferl.org/a/corruption]central]asia/27779246.html!!129!International!Labor!Organization.!20!November!2015.!Third!party!monitoring!of!the!use!of!child!labor!and!forced!labor!during!the!Uzbekistan!2015!cotton!harvest.!Submitted!to!the!World!Bank.!Pages!10]15!130!OECD,!December!2010,!OECD!anti]corruption!network!for!eastern!Europe!and!Central!Asia,!Istanbul!anti]corruption!plan,!Uzbekistan!assessment!and!recommendation.!Pages!1,!16.!131!Lewis!David!G.!!June!2016.!“Tackling!Corruption!in!Uzbekistan:!a!white!paper”.!New!York!,US.!Open!society!Eurasia!Program.!PP!10]12!132!Lillis!Joanna,!March!2015,!“Uzbekistan’s!first!daughter!accused!of!pocketing!$1!bn!in!phone!deals”.!The!Guardian.!https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/24/gulnara]uzbekistan]daughter]corruption!!

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7.2.#Media#Freedom#While the constitution of Uzbekistan provides freedom of expression and press, in practice

these freedoms are hardly exercised by the citizens. Uzbekistan’s libel and defamation law are extremely severe, journalists can be prosecuted on charges of “interference in internal affairs” and “insulting the dignity of citizens”.133 Under 2014 amendments to the Law on Informatization, media content restrictions were extended to online information sources. Any content that deemed inaccurate, untrue, separatist or extremist by authorities were banned with the new law provisions.134 Almost all media outlets directly or indirectly associated with the state. Non-government media outlets primarily operate outside Uzbekistan, Ozodlik service of RFE/RL, Ferghana News, And Eurasianet are independent information sources that are blocked in Uzbekistan.135 In 2014, German based news website UzNews.net was shut down after the editor-in-chief’s email account had been hacked.136

According to Reporters Without Borders 10 journalists are imprisoned in Uzbekistan.137 And in accordance with Committee to Protect Journalists research Muhammad Bekjanov and Yusuf Ruzimuradov are the longest-imprisoned journalists worldwide.138

7.5.#Closing#Remarks#After the death of Islam Karimov, Mirziyoyev expressed the intention of new leadership

to reform the longstanding policies that isolated Uzbekistan internationally and held back its economy. He changed some unpopular policies adopted under Karimov’s regime, and made steps to improve tense relations with the neighbour countries as the main foreign policy priority. Four Kyrgyz nationals have been released, and Uzbek police forces withdrew from a disputed border area between two countries.139 An agreement signed with Tajikistan resumed flights between two countries, which were suspended since 1992.140 And Uzbek-Kazakh Demarcation Commission gave signs of hope to reach agreement on border demarcation between two countries.141 But critics are not hopeful about the changes in Uzbekistan.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!133!Pohlmeyer!Corey,!April!2016.!Uzbekistan.!Free!Speech!And!Free!Press!Around!The!World.!https://freespeechfreepress.wordpress.com/uzbekistan/!!134!Europe!and!Eurasia!Media!Sustainability!Index!2015,!Uzbekistan.!Page!315.!https://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/pdf/media]sustainability]index]europe]eurasia]2015]uzbekistan.pdf!!135!Sarah!Kendzior.!2016!January.!Uzbekistan!Nations!in!Transition.!Freedom!House.!Page!7!136!Radio!Free!Europe/Radio!Liberty.!2014!December.!“Website!critical!of!Uzbek!government!ceases!operation”!http://www.rferl.org/a/uzbekistan]opposition]website]closes]hacked/26754316.html!!137!Reporters without Borders, 2016. Uzbekistan, strict media monopoly. https://rsf.org/en/barometer?year=2017&type_id=235#list-barometre 138!Committee!to!Protect!Journalists,!December!2016,!https://cpj.org/imprisoned/2016.php!!139!Nijmullah!Farangis,!December!2016.!“Uzbeks!vote!in!presidential!election!whose!outcome!is!largely!a!foregone!conclusion”!RFE/RL.!!http://www.rferl.org/a/uzbekistan]presidential]election]mirziyaev]karimov]successor/28154842.html!!140!“Uzbekistan,!Tajikistan!flights!to!resume!after!24]year!break”,!December!2016,!Eurasianet.!http://www.eurasianet.org/node/81521!!141!Kazakh]Uzbek!demarcation!Commission!held!meeting!in!Tashkent,!KazInform,!November!2016.!http://www.inform.kz/en/kazakh]uzbek]demarcation]commission]held]meeting]in]tashkent_a2973567!!

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According to which these changes are temporary, aimed to legitimize Mirziyoyev’s rule. And once the power is consolidated, he will use fear and coercion to secure his presidency.142

8.#Conclusion#Establishing their independence upon the dissolution of Soviet Union, Central Asian states

were grabbed by the euphoria of rapid democratization. Soon after the independence all countries reformed their political systems in compliance with the internationally accepted principles of democracy. However these democratic principles were not adhered in practice, which were de jure rather than de facto. And after more than a quarter of a century, expectations are not realised, apparently region retreated from democracy and authoritarianism is resurging. A vision of the region can be framed upon a brief look at the governances and political systems of these five states: since independence “The Stans” performed very low at democracy, fundamental human rights have not been exercised and economic liberalisation was not achieved. “Kyrgyzstan has been the primary exception in Central Asia. The democratic gains made in Kyrgyzstan … are cause for optimism”143.

The main reason why Central Asian states could not democratize is their failure to accept democracy as the primary governing principle. But there are also other factors that contributed to the insufficient practice of democratic reforms in Central Asian states. First, these countries had very short transition periods. After the dissolution of Soviet Union, Central Asian countries had not enough time to go through evolutionary and gradual transition from centralised to independent democratic governance. Second, these countries established democratic institutions on foundations that had no prior experience of democracy, private ownership or liberal social mind-set. Consequently in Central Asia democratization was developed from above. And by mid 1990s it became apparent that establishing a parliament and conducting of elections did not ensue effective democratic reforms.

As noted above Kyrgyzstan going through two revolutions within five years is an exception to the region. Whereas other Central Asian states were expected to repeat Kyrgyzstan’s practice, and the leaders of the neighbouring countries did not anticipate anything good come out of 2005 and 2010 revolutions, citizenry of these states were reluctant to go to streets. Actually people were interested in stability, no matter if it was granted under authoritarian rule, rather than chaos and instability of revolution.

Central Asia’s future can be analysed from three standpoints: national, regional and external. Major challenges to region countries are expected at national level. With the disappearance of Soviet legacy, new leaders will need new grounds to secure popular support for their rules. In the coming decades nationalism will be central to these countries’ prospects. On regional level, cooperation has always been prevented by mistrust amid the region’s leaders. And for the future further regional disintegration is expected. And at external level, in addition to already existing actors, Russia, China and US, new ones will also take interest in

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!142!Abdurasulov!Abdujalil,!December!2016.”!Uzbekistan!election:!who!will!win!and!what!does!it!mean?”!BBC!News.!http://www.bbc.com/news/world]asia]38172189!!143!Gupta!Alex,!August!2014,!“Central!Asia,!five!key!issues”.!American!Security!Project.!Page6!

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the region- India, Turkey and Europe. And among them China is presumed to be notably important in the region.144

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Political Tendencies in Governances of Central Asian Countries · Becoming a “battleground” for Great Game and New Great Game especially after the collapse of Soviet Union, Central