Path Out Poverty

7/28/2019 Path Out Poverty

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UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION

economy env i ronment employment

Developing rural and womenentrepreneurship

a path out of poverty


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a path out of povertyDeveloping rural and women

entrepreneurship


Vienna, 2003


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The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication does not implythe expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations

Industrial Development Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, cityor area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Theopinions, figures and estimates set forth are the responsibility of the authors and should notnecessarily be considered as reflecting the views or carrying endorsement of UNIDO. The des-ignations, developed and developing economies are intended for statistical convenience anddo not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a particular country orarea in the development process. Mention of firm names or commercial products does notimply endorsement by UNIDO.

This document has not been formally edited.


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CONTENTS

Introduction 5

1. CHALLENGES 6

Poverty: No exit? 7

Millenium development goals 7

The neglect of rural development: a precarious imbalance 7

Gender inequality: impediment to growth and poverty reduction 8

Building a bottom-up growth strategy 9

2. RURAL AND WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT 11

Objective 12

Approach 12

Expected impact 12

Main services and methodologies 13

UNIDO programme principles 16

3. PROJECT EXPERIENCES 17

Mozambique: streamlining regulatory business environment in the provinces 18

Uganda: private sector assists private sector 19

Central America: linking private sector associations, NGOs and universities 21

Pacific Islands: promoting entrepreneurship to create income andemployment opportunities 23

Rwanda: strengthening the role of women entrepreneurs in apost conflict situation 24

Uganda: preparing youth for entrepreneurship curriculum development 26

Viet Nam: establishing a traditional craft village for export promotion 27

Morocco: promoting productivity improvements in rural womens businesses 28

Kenya: socio-economic empowerment of women entrepreneurs 30


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People living in rural peripheries,

especially women, shoulder the burden

of the worlds poverty.


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This brochure describes UNIDOs Rural andWomen Entrepreneurship (RWE) DevelopmentProgramme, which is managed by the Smalland Medium Enterprises Branch. As a corecontribution of UNIDO to poverty reduction,the programme supports rural people and

women in their aspirations for entrepreneurialinitiatives.

People living in the rural peripheries, and espe-cially women, shoulder the burden of the worldspoverty, particularly in the Least DevelopedCountries and sub-Saharan Africa. They havebeen deprived for too long from participatingin the opportunities and benefits of economicgrowth and globalization.

Reducing urban-rural disparities and genderinequalities is a crucial element for any poverty

reduction strategy. Mobilizing the potentialproductivity of rural people and particularly ofwomen is indispensable to achieve the resilienteconomic growth that will pull people above thepoverty line.

Therefore, the RWE Programme aims at pro-moting a conducive business environment andat building institutional and human capacitiesthat will encourage and support the entrepre-neurial initiatives of rural people and women.

Part 1 of this brochure describes the challenges

to be addressed, followed by a description of

UNIDOs approach, services and methodologies for

rural and women entrepreneurship development

in Part 2. Project experiences are presented in Part3, illustrating the results UNIDO has achieved

through its technical cooperation projects.

5

INTRODUCTION


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6

1. Challenges


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Poverty: no exit?

The widening gap between rich and poor world-wide is a major threat to global security andeconomic integration. About half of the planets

population are poor, living on less than twodollars a day. Poverty is a vicious circle, beingboth the major cause and the effect of a situa-tion, in which no opportunities seem to exist forthe poor to help themselves.

Millennium developmentgoals

Eradicating poverty is a shared objective of

the international community. The Millennium

Declaration of the United Nations stipulates

the target of halving the proportion of the

worlds people whose income is less than one

dollar a day by the year 2015. Another millen-

nium development goal is to promote gender

equality and empower women as effective ways

to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to

stimulate development that is truly sustainable.

Efforts are underway to put in place macro-economic, structural and social policies and pro-grammes to promote growth and reduce poverty.To that end, Governments in 45 countries* haveprepared or are preparing Poverty Reduction

Strategy Papers (PRSP) in a participatory processinvolving civil society and development partners.They try to understand and analyse some fun-damental questions: Who are the poor? Wheredo they live? What are the main barriers forthem to move out of poverty? The answerscan help setting priorities for policy choice.

The neglect of rural

development: a precariousimbalance

A staggering 75 per cent of the worlds poor livein rural areas. And yet, resources and policiescontinue to be biased in favour of urban devel-opment. An imbalance in development is theconsequence, with detrimental effects on bothrural and urban people.

With rural areas not able to provide enough

opportunities for people to sustain their lives,the burden of supporting the poor and ruralpopulation falls increasingly upon cities. Thegrowing number of rural poor seeking workin overcrowded cities stretch social and physicalinfrastructure and economic opportunities in theurban areas beyond their capacity.

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1.2 billion people live on less than US$ 1 per day

2.8 billion people live on less than US$ 2 per day

75 per cent of the poor live in rural areas

60 per cent of the worlds poor are women and girls

The average income in the 20 richest countries is 37 times higher than in the 20poorest countries

Higher inequality tends to retard growth in poor countries and encourage growthin richer places

Rural development and genderequality are key elements of

strategies to reduce poverty and

create income and employmentopportunities.

* As of February 2003.


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On the other hand, the migration of rural mento urban areas leaves unbalanced family struc-tures behind, with women, children and elderlyexpecting remittances.

Most of the rural population depends, directlyand indirectly, on small-scale food crop agricul-ture, fishery, pastoral animal husbandry or ruralwage labour associated with plantations andranches, and ancillary activities linked to theeconomies of the rural life and rural townships.Many rural families need to diversify theirsources of income and employment in view

of increasingly smaller parcels of land, lowagricultural productivity, volatile weather con-ditions and soil erosion.

The rural non-farm economy plays an importantrole for wealth creation and well-being acrosscountries. For example, small rural householdswith fewer than 0.5 hectares earn over half oftheir total income from non-farm sources. Thecomposition is generally one-third manufactur-ing, one-third commerce and services with min-ing and construction accounting for the rest.

Gender inequality:impediment to growthand poverty reduction

Women and girls constitute three-fifths of theworlds poor. Their poverty level is worse thanthat of men as clear gender disparities in edu-cation, employment opportunities and decision-making power exist.

A large number of women are mainly engaged insubsistence agriculture as well as in micro and

small-scale enterprises (MSE). In most of the

developing countries, particularly in Africa,

women constitute 70-80 per cent of the total

agricultural labour force and they account for

over 80 per cent of food production. It is not

surprising therefore to find many women engaged

in food processing, weaving, personal services,

beverage preparation, and selling of snack foods.

In the MSE sector worldwide, women make up

one-quarter to one-third of the total business

population and in manufacturing they constitute

one-third of the global labour force.

In addition to their economic and income-gener-

ating activities, women assume multi-faceted roles

in society, i.e. as breadwinner of a family, unpaid

family workers, service providers in the communi-

ties and mother/care-taker of the family.

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A poverty-reducing growth strategy

should aim at the creation of a

complex and diversified economic

structure and should include the

development of non-farm econo-

mic activities and the facilitation of

the transition of informal activities

to the formal growth sector.A rural development programme

should combine infrastructure

development, education and health

services, investment in agriculture,

and the promotion of rural non-

farm activities, in which women

and rural population can engage.

Need to diversify economic opportunitiesfor a better life


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In spite of their important contributions tosocio-economic development, women sufferfrom various constraints, which inhibit themfrom fully realizing their potential for develop-ment. Cultural values and social norms hinderthe equal participation of women in society. Oneof the major constraints women face as entre-preneurs is the unequal access to productiveresources and services, including finance andskill upgrading opportunities. Some legal provi-sions and legislative systems make it difficult forwomen to take initiatives for business develop-ment. Furthermore, their reproductive role in thefamily and the community puts women in a dis-advantaged position to engage in entrepre-neurial activities.

To respond to the needs of women to materialize

their economic potential and thereby to improve

their standard of living, it is necessary to design

programmes by applying a mainstreaming strat-

egy. This requires devising measures to integratewomen as decision-makers, participants and

beneficiaries in all relevant development activi-

ties, irrespective of the sector or type of

activity. It is also necessary to address the total-

ity of problems women face as entrepreneurs, due

to the wide spectrum of elements affecting the

equitable participation of women in development.

A plan or strategy must be designed and imple-

mented in close collaboration with various

development partners in different specialized

areas, notably: education, health, human rights aswell as environment and energy.

Building a bottom-upgrowth strategy

It is necessary to take a multi-dimensional per-spective on poverty reduction. This includes

bottom-up growth strategies to encourage thebroad-based rise of entrepreneurial initiatives.

The benefits of economic growth generated bya handful of modern industries do not neces-sarily trickle down to those business sectorswhere the largest proportion of the populationis engaged, and not at an acceptable pace.

Most Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and sub-Saharan African countries are characterized bya polarized industrial system of a handful oflarge enterprisesowned by either the state,foreign investors or a few rich local entrepre-neursand a large number of micro enterpris-es, mostly in the informal sector. Only a few ofthese businesses have the capacities to respondto the emerging opportunities from the exportsector and the changing international economicregime.

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Gender equality is a prerequisitefor poverty reduction because of

the contribution women make andthe role they play in society and

in the economic well-being ofthe family and communities.

Be it in rural or urban areas, be itin micro or medium and large

enterprises, women must be anintegral part of development,

not only as beneficiaries,

but also as decisionmakers andagents of change.

Woman on the way to a maize mill


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Poverty-reducing growth strategies need todiminish policy and regulatory obstacles that dis-

courage local entrepreneurial initiatives and to

improve the access to skill development opportu-

nities that strengthen entrepreneurial capabilities.

The bottom-up growth strategy focuses onthe transformation and diversification of micro-and small-scale enterprises to growth-orientedactivities and on increasing the productivecapacity in order to enable them to participatein the mainstream economy of the nation.

This strategy is not a welfare programme, but a

necessary condition for attaining sustainable eco-

nomic growth by unleashing under-utilized pro-

ductivity potentials. Thus, the aim of a bottom

up economic growth strategy is to help poor peo-

ple to grow out of the poverty trap. Such a strat-egy complements and supports the growth of a

modern and export-oriented sector.

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Elements of a bottom-up growth strategy to enable rural people andwomen to participate in the mainstream economy are:

The creation of an enabling business regulatory environment, in which ruraland women entrepreneurs can fulfil their own initiatives for advancement;

The strengthening of entrepreneurial capabilities; and The promotion of collective self-help efforts of small-scale entrepreneurs.

People are the asset of the future


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2. Rural and womenentrepreneurship development


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Objective

The aim of UNIDOs Rural and Women Entre-preneurship (RWE) Programme is to contribute

to poverty reduction through entrepreneurshipdevelopmentwith a focus on rural develop-ment and gender equality.

The essential elements in this Programme are tocreate a business environment that encouragesthe initiatives of rural and women entrepreneursand to enhance the human and institutionalcapacities required to foster entrepreneurialdynamism and enhance productivity.

Approach

Business opportunities are not created by exter-nal interventionthey arise from markets andentrepreneurial capabilities. The issue is toenable rural and women entrepreneurs to takeadvantage of market opportunities.

Micro- and small-scale enterprises (MSE) are

affordable and manageable by rural people. Theycreate a large number of non-farm employmentand income opportunities in relatively poorlydeveloped areas and require small capital andlittle sophisticated managerial and technicalskills. MSEs are also the seedbeds for a broaddevelopment of the private sector throughoutthe country, forming the foundation for thenational economy and social development at thegrassroots.

Individual entrepreneurs are a driving force forcompetitive MSEs as a growth base. However,the policy and institutional framework needs tobe conducive to encouraging entrepreneurial

initiatives. Human capabilities and the rightinstitutional framework are necessary conditionsfor entrepreneurship to flourish, particularly inrural areas.

The RWE Programme therefore focuses on:

Strengthening the public administration tomake the regulatory and administrative envi-ronment more conducive for rural andwomen entrepreneurs.

Human resource development for increasedcompetitive entrepreneurship, technologyabsorbing capacities and womens control

over asset management.

Development of the policy advocacy and thecollective self-help capacities of rural andwomen entrepreneurs.

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EXPECTED IMPACT

The RWE Programme aims at:

Improved business performanceof MSEs owned by rural andwomen entrepreneurs;

Increased transformation ofMSEs from the informal to theformal sector;

Increased number of start-ups.

Leading to: Increased income andemployment opportunities in ruralareas and particularly for women.


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Main services andmethodologies

Business and regulatory environmentfor women and rural entrepreneurs

Compliance with complex regulatory require-ments and dealing with bureaucratic websare relatively more expensive for rural entre-preneurs than for urban and larger enterprises.Cumbersome and centralized bureaucraciesoften lead to lengthy licensing processes andcostly operations of rural businesses. They maythus discourage entrepreneurial activity.

The public administration in rural areas hasrelatively weak capacities to implement policiesand to maintain conducive framework condi-tions for entrepreneurial initiatives. The actionof local authorities is often based on a vagueunderstanding of what to regulate and how toregulate. It can result in arbitrary exercise ofregulations.

Rural and women entrepreneurs understandingof regulations as well as their capacity to iden-tify unjustified application of the regulations areweak. Institutions and agents to arbitrate dis-

putes are scarce in rural areas.

For women entrepreneurs, the constraints areoften exacerbated by laws and regulations thatexplicitly discriminate against them. Further-more, the gender-sensitivity of many officials inrural areas tends to be more heavily influencedby the local tradition than in urban areas.

The RWE Programme supports strongly commit-ted national and local leaders that want to

address the above issues of the regulatory busi-ness environment. Depending on the analysis ofthe constraints emanating from the regulatoryand administrative framework, there are typi-cally two main issues to be addressed:

The need to improve legal texts;

The need to improve the implementation ofexisting regulations.

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METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS

For the diagnostic study of the regulatory and administrative constraints,UNIDO projects carry out surveys among the business community and conduct studiesto analyse the impact of regulations and their implementation on MSEs in areas suchas business licensing, allocation of business land, taxation, inspections or traderegulations.

The findings result in a participatory process to develop remedial action plans bythe national and local partners to address the identified issues. They may for exampleinclude proposals for streamlining procedures, establishing one-stop-shops to reducethe number of institutions to be contacted by entrepreneurs seeking business licenses,the development of databases that facilitate and speed up licensing processes, institu-tionalized dissemination of information on regulations, etc. To facilitate the imple-mentation of the proposed measures, UNIDO provides technical advice, customizedmethodologies and training programmes for public administrators.

To complement these measures, the RWE Programme includes entrepreneurialawareness programmes for rural and women entrepreneurs on their rights andobligations by using information seminars, leaflets, radio programmes, etc.


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Business development services for ruraland women entrepreneurs

Specialized business development institutions

are often not available or their services are notaffordable for rural entrepreneurs. For womenentrepreneurs, specialized support institutionshardly exist to cater to their specific needs.Thus, entrepreneurial and technical training,advisory and information programmes oftenhave to be carried out within a non-conven-tional set-up.

As a guiding principle, the RWE Programmeseeks to work with existing organizations on

the basis of an assessment of their absorptivecapacities and initiatives. Through training oftrainers, advisors and managerial staff as wellas the development of practical and effectivemethodologies and tools, projects strengthenthe technical and managerial capabilities of thepartner institutions to deliver specialized serv-ices to women and rural entrepreneurs.

The programmes for entrepreneurship training,

small industry advisory services, women entre-preneurship development and technical skills

upgrading are developed by carefully tailoring

UNIDOs methodologies to fit to the needs and

the absorption capacity of the entrepreneurs

and the support institutions. These services will

help entrepreneurs to improve their production

processes and management techniques and

support their initiatives to start up new

enterprises.

The capacity building also addresses institutio-nal management improvements to help the part-ner institutions in the continuous developmentof appropriate service programmes, their deliv-ery and financial strategies to sustain the serv-ices, e.g. by charging fees or reducing costs ofservice delivery. Operations manuals and insti-tutional business plans are developed jointlywith the partner institutions. Building networks

of cooperating institutions is an importantstrategy for developing service institutions inrural settings.

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Forentrepreneurship training, exist-ing UNIDO methodologies and materi-

alssuch as trainers guides, handoutsfor participants or software pro-grammesare adapted to the specific

project conditions. Topics can includemarketing surveys, production processmanagement, business plans, costingand pricing strategies or organizinghandicraft production for exportmarkets. Methods range from businessopportunity seminars to full entrepre-neurship training courses. Entrepreneur-

ship development curricula in

secondary and vocational schools arealso used.

Specific methodologies andmanualsfor women entrepreneurshipdevelopment (WED) have been pre-pared such as a training programmefor women entrepreneurs in food pro-cessing, training modules on team-work, negotiating or the monitoringand evaluation of WED projects.Women entrepreneurship training pro-grammes also emphasize confidencebuilding for managing own assets.

Small industry advisory servicesare developed through capacity build-ing on such subjects as industrialextension methods, organizing collec-tive self-help groups or community-based projects, village outsourcing orthe development of entrepreneur-to-entrepreneur advisory services.Technical skills upgrading modules inspecific subsectors are applied in co-

operation with UNIDOs subsector andenvironmental specialists and addresstopics such as food and fish process-ing, textile and wood industries orwaste management.


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Collective self-help capacities andadvocacy roles

Supporting the initiatives of groups, private sector

associations and communities to develop their self-help programmes is important in view of scarce

service institutions in rural areas and weak advo-

cacy capacity of rural and women entrepreneurs.

Self-help groups empower micro- and smallentrepreneurs to identify their needs, plan andimplement their own projects, share the bene-fits of their collective efforts and evaluate theirprogrammes and projects.

Rural and women entrepreneurs can establishcommon projects such as:

Collective marketing;

Bulk purchasing;

Common facilities, e.g. to share machineryand equipment, a warehouse or a vehicle oroffice facilities;

Group-owned enterprises;

Group lending;

Training programmes.

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UNIDO has developed a series of capacity building programmes to promoteadvocacy roles and collective self-help initiatives, which have been implementedin a number of countries.

A training programme on the methodologies for organizing, facilitating andassisting self-help entrepreneurial groups helps business advisers, MSI develop-ment workers and staff of associations to promote and implement this approach.

The training programme consists of a Trainers Guide and reference materials inthree modules: (a) organizing self-help entrepreneurial groups, (b) developing groupprojects and (c) motivating and strengthening entrepreneurial groups. For associa-tions, these materials are complemented by a specific training programme onmanaging an association.

In many village settings, reducing both time and energy use for staple-food pro-cessing is of high concern to the rural women. UNIDO has developed together withIFAD and UNDP the concept of a Multipurpose Village Workshop (MVW), whichconnects a multiple set of equipment for milling, dehulling, oil pressing, etc., toone motor in order to optimize the use of available equipment and energy. It ismanaged by a self-help community group and local small business circles. The MVW

thus helps women to increase and diversify their food production as well as toimprove the quality of their products and their productivity.

Community-Production Centres (CPCs) are a combination of an organizedapprenticeship scheme and a small-scale industrial village workshop. The basic meritis to share production facilities such as premises, equipment, storage room, tools,power, communication, management, etc. A CPC could combine the productionwith a service function whereby the CPC would organize the procurement of rawmaterial and the collective sale of the products. An important element for thesustaining success of CPCs is a strong traditional and local leadership, supported bythe community members.


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By organizing themselves in groups and asso-ciations, rural and women entrepreneurs caneffectively voice their specific concerns andadvocate changes through formal policy mak-

ing processes. This is important since theircapacity to participate in local and national pol-icy making is often limited, and their interestsare often insufficiently represented by urbanand male dominated lobbying groups.

Getting started as a group or an association,planning and implementing common projectsand keeping the motivation going are the crit-ical issues for building capacities of the entre-

preneurial groups and their advisors.

In communities with a strong traditional leadership

and organization, collective projects can be under-

taken by community structures and organizations.

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UNIDO PROGRAMME PRINCIPLES

Strategic focus: The focus is on LDCs, sub-Saharan Africa and countries with specialneeds, such as post-crisis zones or countries with high inequality leading to pockets of

poverty.

People-centred: The approach is people-centred and therefore starts with the characteri-zation of the disadvantaged target population groups: women, rural population, youth,ethnic groups and refugees and displaced people. The factors impeding their inclusion intoeconomic mainstream and growth activities are analysed with participatory approaches toidentify the entry points of the technical assistance.

Root-cause analysis: A comprehensive analysis of the specific root causes of poverty,inequality and conflicts forms the basis for developing technical cooperation projects in

support of bottom-up growth strategies.

Gender sensitive: A specific analysis is required to understand the causes of genderinequalities and possible discriminatory effects. The programme uses both a targeting aswell as a mainstreaming approach, depending on the analysis.

Locally specific: It needs to be understood that no blueprint design for rural and womenentrepreneurship development projects is possible. Existing methodologies have to be care-

fully selected and adjusted according to local conditions and complexities.Asset-based: Rather than pursuing a needs-based approach, the programme tries to buildon existing assets, abilities and initiatives of the poor and aims to strengthen them.

Analysis of absorptive capacities: Projects are designed on the basis of the capacity ofpartner institutions to absorb the technical assistance. Factors to be assessed include:visions of the leadership on development objectives and their commitment to self-improve-ment, track record of management, technical capabilities of the staff, financial sources andfund raising capabilities for recurrent expenditures and capital investment, existing facili-ties, track record of client satisfaction.

Sustainability: The technical assistance aims at building up lasting capabilities of theinstitutions to operate sustainable service delivery on their own after the project assistanceis over. Dimensions of sustainability are of financial, technical and managerial nature.

Open architecture: Strategic alliances for project formulation and implementation arebeing sought in order to integrate the projects with Government programmes as well asother operators of similar projects at the local level, and to create synergies for greaterimpact.

Impact measurement: Performance and impact are analysed periodically with the stake-holders and, to the extent possible, quantitative impact indicators are applied.

Learning lessons: The continuous monitoring of experiences of UNIDO and others andthe feeding back of lessons learned into the project design and implementation in thefield of rural and women entrepreneurship development is being undertaken to ensurehigh quality of the technical assistance projects and to contribute to global forumdebates.


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3. Project experiences


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Issue

Administrative barriers to investment and to thelegalization of enterprises have significantadverse effects on business growth by discour-aging the initiatives of entrepreneurs. Micro-and small enterprises are disproportionatelyaffected.

In Mozambique, obstacles include bureaucratic

procedures, lack of accurate information, costlyand time-consuming customs procedures. Delays

and unnecessary financial requirements in obtain-

ing business licences arise from inefficient inter-

departmental coordination among the different

government bodies. On average, it takes the six

or more public institutions involved in the process

four months to legalize economic activities.

Strategy

As a measure to overcome the administrativeobstacles to investors and entrepreneurs, theProvincial Government of Zambzia, in cooper-ation with UNIDO, created the Balco nico(one-stop shop) in Qulimane. Balco nico (BU)facilitates correct and efficient applications of

rules and regulations in order to stimulate pri-vate sector-led growth. BU ensures coordinationamong different provincial departments onlicensing new businesses.

BU aims to speed up review and approvalprocedures for licensing and to disseminateinformation on regulatory requirements andincentive programmes. BU enables the entrepre-neur to treat all paperwork at one location

instead of visiting several government officesand to make only officially required fee pay-ments in a transparent manner. A continuousmonitoring and accompanying process followsuntil the decision is made and the licence ishanded over to the entrepreneur. Thus, while theactual processing of applications is not done byBU itself, it guarantees the proper and trans-parent application of existing legal frameworks.

This is achieved by accepting payments only by

way of bank deposits and by offering relevantinformation on fees and clients rights and obli-gations. BU ensures an efficient monitoring ofthe process by using routing slips to register theadministrative time needed and by means of itsdatabase. The database provides statistical infor-mation necessary for the planning of develop-ment policies by the public authorities.

The Office of the Provincial Governor adminis-

ters the BU and the provincial governmentbudget covers all the operational costs.

Results

Balco nico (BU) has been successful in itsactivities so far and has been praised bothby the business community and by theprovincial government.

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MOZAMBIQUE:

Streamlining regulatory businessenvironment in the provinces

Staff of the Balco Unico explaining their

work to visitors


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UGANDA:

Private sector assists private sector

Issue

Entrepreneurs in rural areas suffer from a lack

of training and advisory services that wouldallow them to upgrade their managerial andtechnical skills and solve immediate productionproblems, thus improving productivity andincreasing profitability.

The government often does not have a sufficientbudget to finance the costs of training andadvisory institutions. The technicians of publicinstitutions may not have the necessary private-sector orientation and business spirit to providepractical advice to entrepreneurs.

In Uganda, where more than 70 per cent ofenterprises employ less than 20 people, micro-and small enterprises play an important rolein the economic and social life of the majorityof citizens. However, the growth and thecompetitiveness of this sector are hamperedby a lack of managerial and technical skills,

weak infrastructure, difficulties in accessingloans, and complicated company registrationprocesses.

Strategy

One of UNIDOs activities focuses on improvingthe access of small entrepreneurs in rural dis-tricts to advisory services and training. The pro-

ject has introduced the concept of a MasterCraftsmen Programme (MCP) in six districts ofUganda. It is a self-sustaining, demand-drivenand private sector-led system of assistance toentrepreneurs, coordinated by the UgandaSmall-Scale Industries Association (USSIA).

About 100 small-industry entrepreneurs havebeen selected and trained to provide fee-basedservices to other micro and small-scaleindustrial entrepreneurs in their districts. Thesix districts are Masaka, Mbarara, Kabarole,Mubende, Mbale and Lira.

From its inauguration in June 2001 untilAugust 2002, BU handled 143 applicationsfrom enterprises, out of which 79 receivedlicences. An estimated 35 of them were oper-

ational by August 2002, representing a newsource of tax revenue for the public sector.The processing time has been reduced to 25days on average.

Entrepreneurs find that BU has improvedprocessing time, increased transparency, effi-ciency and professionalism of the licensingprocess, uniform and consistent interpreta-

tion and application of regulations, reliableinformation on procedures and consistentcharges of fees as determined by law.

The overall effect on employment willonly be noticeable in the long run, as aderivative of the improvement of entre-preneurs and investors perception of theprovinces regulatory environment as wellas other factors affecting the businessclimate. Nevertheless, an estimated 200 jobshave so far been created in the formalsector.

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Essential in this strategy are the dynamics ofcommunal obligations as the driving force,which work in a way that business people in thesame business community help each other.However, clients were not used to paying feesfor training and advisory services, sometimesaffected by heavily donor-subsidized services.The UNIDO project has not given any financialincentives or subsidies to the MCP, but helpedin the conceptual development, preparation ofmethodologies and manuals, training of advisors

and campaigning for the fee-based services.

The MCP services focus on metalworking, electri-

cal and electronics engineering, food processing,

textile, leather and woodworking. The major func-

tions are industrial advisory services, training in

business and technical skills upgrading, encourag-

ing the formation of entrepreneurial self-help

groups, and secretarial services at the associationsdistrict offices.

Results

A total of 100 entrepreneurs and skilledtechnicians have been trained as MCP advi-sors and are operating in six districts.

Over 750 entrepreneurs in the six districtsimproved their managerial and technical skills.

Training manuals and operational manualsfor the MCP are being used.

Neighbouring districts have requested theservices of the MCP advisors.

USSIA district officers have been trained inthe management of the association and thecoordination between the national and the

district offices has improved.

A network of NGOs cooperating with MCPhas been expanding.

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MCP advisor in a metal workshop

Hussein B. has a maize milling business in the Western Ugandan town of Fort Portal. He started

it after his farm and transport business collapsed when his property was looted during the war

in 1985. Hussein has 15 years of experience in milling and he supplies the flour to schools and

government institutions. However, all along he had not seen his business grow as hoped and

had been thinking that his workers may have been cheating him on his business. Electricity costs

were taking all his earnings. One of the MCP advisors, Ozunga, invited him to attend a skillsupgrading training in milling techniques and maintenance, but Hussein was hesitant and asked

what new things he could learn. However, he decided to give it a try and paid 64,000 shillings.

Hussein offered to use his mill as a venue for the practical training. At the end of the training

programme, Hussein realised that his mill was loosing 8 kg of flour for every 100 kg: the whole

factory was full of flour on the walls, ceiling and floor. He usually milled 30 bags a day, which

meant a loss of 192,000 shillings per day. Hussein made the necessary modifications in his maize

mill, which he had learnt from the MCP training. Today, the lost flour at his mill has been

reduced to only 1 kg for every 100 kg. In four months he managed to save enough money to

buy a rice huller to add to his business.


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Issue

Promoting womens participation in the produc-tive sector is a major challenge in CentralAmerican communities. In particular, womenwith a low level of training and education, andthose being alone at the head of the family needto organize themselves for productivity gains toincrease their income. There is a pressing needfor them to be able to improve their marketaccess and grow their businesses competitively.

For young persons, a major challenge is the

development of an entrepreneurial culture forenterprise and job creation, while up-gradingtheir technical skills at the same time.

The main issue was to find effective waysthrough the establishment and networking ofbusiness support programmes to bring womenand young entrepreneurs into the mainstream ofentrepreneurial ventures and private sectordevelopment.

CENTRAL AMERICA:

Linking private sector associations, NGOsand universities

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A woman MCP advisor in a carpentry shop

Adolf H. is a young and dynamic businessman in his twenties. He owns a carpentry workshop

in Mubende, 200 kilometres west of Kampala. His equipment mostly consists of hand tools andone bench. Adolf used to complain about not having enough customers, and consequently lowsales. When he attended a MCP workshop on carpentry he realized that his problem was notthe lack of customers but the quality of his work. He approached Mzee, one of the MCPadvisors in the district. Mzee reviewed the work of Adolf and, during two weeks at Adolf's ownworkshop, gave him hands-on advice to improve the product design, material selection, surfacepreparation, joints etc. Before the training, Adolf used to sell his Johnny set at 120,000 to150,000 shillings. The set they worked on during the training was sold for 450,000 shillings.Adolf paid for the training fee of 35,000 shillings at the USSIA office. All his other productsare now fetching about 20-30 per cent more than before. He has managed to attract ordersfrom a coffee factory that used to buy furniture from Kampala. His average sales have multipliedfive-fold. He has now asked Mzee to give him more training.


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Strategy

The project has been assisting private sectorinstitutions, universities and NGOs in Guatemala,

Honduras and Nicaragua to build their organi-zational capacities for improved delivery of spe-cialized business support services for womenfrom the poorer segments of society who man-age small food-processing enterprises and theiremployees.

The institutional capacities of counterpart agen-cies and their local collaborating agencies arestrengthened through training, developing andadapting methodologies and technical advice to

address the demand for managerial and techni-cal services required by women entrepreneurs.The women targeted are those that have somebasic experience in agro-food businesses andproduction, and that need assistance in businessdevelopment and growth. Women entrepreneursare guided to develop commercial attitudes anda strong production orientation, as this is oftena major constraint that has been observed inthese projects.

For youth entrepreneurship development, theproject has taken a catalytic approach to addressthe issue of unemployment of school leavers andgraduates with a technical background in thefood-processing sector. The project facilitatedtheir access to technical knowledge, credit link-

ages and practical business experiences to helpthem shape their ideas for enterprise develop-ment. While focusing on skill training to deve-lop the potential of young entrepreneurs in the

agro-food sector, it was found to be essentialthat this should be complemented by preparingbusiness plans to facilitate credit requests andapproval.

A basis for success of the project are the stronglinkages established between the private sectorassociations, local training institutions and uni-versities in the three countries. They all cooper-ate to offer the integrated service package forthe young potential entrepreneurs.

The programmes are developing synergies withother UNIDO programmes currently being exe-cuted in the three countries, as well as withentrepreneurship related programmes imple-mented by other development cooperationagencies. There are also a number of positivesynergies and benefits developed between thetwo programmes in Central America, i.e. inorganizing internships, marketing surveys andbusiness ventures.

Results

More than 460 women entrepreneurstrained, with approximately 80 employees.

Some 22 groups of women entrepreneursassisted to set up production facilities.

A total of 138 facilitators trained, out ofwhich 31 are actively working with womenentrepreneurs and groups.

Agreements of six NGOs obtained to act ascredit facilitators.

Some 75 rural and urban young entrepre-neurs trained, with approximately 40 percent setting up an enterprise.

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Food processing as a business opportunity


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Issue

In some countries, entrepreneurial spirit and ini-tiatives are very weakly developed due to a lackof relevant skills and knowledge, little exposureto the outside as well as for historic and cul-tural reasons.

In several Pacific island countries, this isparticularly true in the context of economies,

which are characterized by agricultural subsis-tence activities or a preponderant public sector.Furthermore, traditional values emphasize com-munal approaches rather than individualisticentrepreneurship. Policy and institutional set-tings are not conducive to entrepreneurial ini-tiatives. The result of all these factors is aweakly developed private sector and acuteshortages of income and employment opportu-nities.

Strategy

UNIDO advised and managed projects in theFederated States of Micronesia and in SolomonIslands, having as a common element the aimto promote a stronger private entrepreneurialbase. The focus was on developing entrepre-neurship through a more favourable policy andadministrative framework, strengthening support

service capacities and fostering collective self-help initiatives of groups of entrepreneurs andcommunities.

With the establishment of MicronesianEntrepreneur Development Centres (MEDC) infour states (Pohnpei, Chuuk, Kosrae and Yap), theproject built a network of institutions offeringtraining programmes, business and technicaladvisory services and business information to the

island entrepreneurs. It also contributed toimprove legislation to be more conducive forenterprises to start, grow and diversify. UNIDOprepared entrepreneurship development method-ologies and training manuals, which were later

also successfully adapted in other countries, andtrained about 80 trainers, business advisors andother staff of the cooperating institutions. Morethan 1,600 potential and existing entrepreneursbenefited from MEDC assistance.

In the Solomon Islands, the project contributedto address the acute shortage of job opportuni-ties in rural areas where people derive theirincome mostly from a mix of subsistence andcommercial activities and subsequent migration

from the provinces to the capital. It promotedthe development of small-scale and cottageindustries in rural communities in Malaita,Makira, Isabel and the Western Provinces as wellas in Guadalcanal and Honiara.

For training activities, the project staff adaptedand developed UNIDO training materials forentrepreneurship development and technicalskills training. Ninety staff of various institutions

PACIFIC ISLANDS:

Promoting entrepreneurship to create incomeand employment opportunities

23

Federated States of Micronesia: this tailorshop

in Kosrae State opened with MEDC assistance


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were trained to carry out the services for theentrepreneurs. More than 1,200 entrepreneursreceived training or other assistance.

Issues such as traditional land tenure practice and

administrative barriers, weak access to credit and

information were also addressed. A web site and

online-business information service are operating.

In view of prevailing communal approaches and

land tenure, the project also advised communities

in the establishment of cooperative business pro-

jects for resource-based processing. For better

coordination and implementation of measures to

promote small-scale entrepreneurship, consulta-tive committees were established in the provinces,

consisting of the local authorities and private sec-

tor representatives.

Results

In five provinces of Solomon Islands, morethan 1,000 new employment opportunitieswere created during three years through

the start-up of almost 200 new businessesand the expansion of about 185 existingbusinesses.

In the Federated States of Micronesia, morethan 650 enterprises started or expandedwith the MEDC assistance, creating almost1,500 new jobs and an estimated investmentof US$ 13.5 million.

24

Issue

Womens burden is particularly compounded in

post-conflict situations. Frequently, they are thesole breadwinner of the family as their male fam-

ily members have been either lost or separated in

the war, fled or jailed. Their immediate needs for

sustaining the family mount tremendously when

the supply of goods and services ceases and tra-

ditional community help schemes collapse due to

the restricted mobility and security.

In war torn areas of Rwanda, it becomes a criti-

cal issue to provide women and widows with

means to reassure their proactive role in com-

munity development and to support their fami-lies well-being. Due to the devastating situation

after 1994, their need for improved and sustain-

able business operation has become even more

critical as a long-term solution to sustainable

livelihood. It was necessary to restore womens

self-help initiatives and increase their business

potential, especially in small food processing.

Solomon Islands: A community-based

business venture

RWANDA:

Strengthening the role of women entrepreneursin a post conflict situation


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Strategy

A careful analysis was conducted on the socio-

economic environment of the villages where

women run a business. Cultural, religious and eth-nic composition of the community were analysed

together with the physical and social infrastruc-

ture, market access and gender division of labour.

Existence of any groups of displaced people as

well as returning soldiers in the community was

reviewed in order to avoid an imbalanced distri-

bution of benefits and power structure.

The project targeted women already engaged insome form of processing activities, such as dairy,

fruit and vegetable products in view of theimportance of this sector for improved foodsecurity in the communities. Trainers wereselected from the group of specialists workingin the business. Bank officers and field exten-sion officers were invited to run a series of mockconsultation sessions with the women to discusstheir business plans.

By getting to know each other and sharing theirbusiness experiences and problems in ethnicallymixed groups, women became aware of the needto reconcile efforts to strengthen their self-helpinitiatives and networks in the communities.

Results

Some 40 women entrepreneurs were trainedin dairy products and fruit and vegetable

processing in Byumba and Kigali RuralPrefectures. Ten of them obtained credit fromlocal development banks for expanding theirbusiness and two of them successfully mar-keted their products into the urban marketin Kigali.

Trained women entrepreneurs started playingthe role of a local adviser to fellow entre-preneurs at their own settingsa networkwas thus established among women entre-preneurs to share information, resources andequipment to produce food products.

Some 26 trainers were trained in the organ-ization of skill training for women entrepre-neurs and 23 of them went through refreshertraining courses. More than half of thembelong to local NGOs and institutions.

25

Rwandan entrepreneurs work together

in dairy production


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Issue

Whereas most students look for jobs afterleaving secondary schools, some go further onto a vocational school in order to acquire spe-cific technical skills. Once these young peopleare in the labour market, they learn about busi-ness on-the-job and there are few opportuni-ties to systematically learn about business.In an environment where almost half of the

population is under 15 years old and most ofthem have to find jobs in the private sector,knowing the basics of business at an early ageis an advantage. It stimulates the students ofsecondary schools to associate academic sub-

jects in concrete terms and is useful forstudents in vocational schools in order to asso-ciate their technical skills with overall businessconcepts.

A large number of entrepreneurs build upsavings while they work as employees in orderto start their own business. Therefore, it isimportant that the young people develop a

notion of the private sector and entrepre-neurship before entering the job market. TheEducation White Paper (1992) of the Govern-ment of Uganda aims at putting in place aneducation system to produce manpower, whichwill help create employment opportunities,support modernization of agriculture, startindustries and contribute to rapid economicgrowth and transformation.

Strategy

The UNIDO Project has introduced entrepre-neurship curricula to secondary schools and toa vocational training centre.

For secondary schools, the curriculum was devel-

oped for the classes of 13-18 year old students,

and the Ministry of Education approved it to

become an official course. UNIDO assisted theNational Curriculum Development Commission

(NCDC) in developing the textbooks and trained

the instructors. The curriculum has been intro-

duced in 10 schools with 5,000 students for a

pilot operation since July 2002. So far, school-

masters, instructors, students and parents are

happy with the pilot phase.

The Nakawa Vocational Training Institute (NVTI)located in Kampala thought it was useful

to combine the vocational training with entre-preneurship training. NVTI hoped that somestudents would become interested in startingtheir own business after some years ofemployment by using the vocational skillsobtained. UNIDO developed the entrepreneur-ship training curriculum for NVTI targeting thestudents of 19-22 years old and trained theinstructors.

26

UGANDA:

Preparing youth for entrepreneurshipcurriculumdevelopment

Secondary school students in Kampala taking

an entrepreneurship development course


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Issue

Promoting artisan craft development for export

markets can create job and income opportunities

in rural areas. However, the preservation of tradi-

tional culture is often neglected in this under-

taking. This in turn affects the livelihoods of the

artisans and their families and ignores export

potential based on a strong cultural reference.

Craftspeople are often unaware of the possibil-ities to export, mostly due to a lack of contacts.In addition, artisans are frequently not organ-ized well enough to realize their potentialcapacity of production and the quality of prod-ucts is often not sufficiently high to meet for-eign market needs.

The Government of Viet Nam has recognized the

need to reconcile the preservation of traditionalartisan crafts and cultural heritage with effective

marketing efforts to enter into export markets.

Strategy

UNIDO has conducted various types of technical

cooperation projects in the field of artisan crafts

development. The project in Viet Nam prepared

policies and guidelines for artisan craft sector devel-

opment and provided a wide range of assistance to

preserve and promote Vietnamese artisan crafts.

One of the crucial issues in the promotion of the

artisan craft sector is improving the technologies

and marketability of products through craft qual-

ity and design upgrading, research and training as

well as the collection and dissemination of infor-

mation. The project therefore included advisoryservices for the establishment of an integrated

centre (the so-called traditional craft village).

The village will act as a tourist attraction while

containing training and research and development

facilities as well as an exhibition hall.

A training component was included in the pro-ject during which on-the-job training was pro-vided to artisans in order to improve the qualityof selected crafts.

Furthermore, the project carried out a state-of-the-art survey on minority tribes artisan craftsin the context of rural and mountainous villagedevelopment. The survey put forward a strongneed to elaborate the future developmentvisions for mountainous tribes traditionalcraft promotion. Experiences were disseminatedthrough seminars and workshops.

Results

The Ministry of Education has approved theentrepreneurship curriculum materials for

secondary schools as an official curriculum.Over 5,000 students at secondary schoolsstarted to take the entrepreneurship curricu-lum during the first pilot year.

NVTI has approved the entrepreneurshipcurriculum and has established a specializeddepartment for the entrepreneurship-train-ing programme. Some 270 students are

also taking the entrepreneurship course atNVTI. It is expected that the averageannual enrolment in future will be on asimilar level.

27

VIET NAM:

Establishing a traditional craft village

for export promotion


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Results

Policy recommendations for promotion oftraditional crafts were adopted by theGovernment of Viet Nam and reflected in thePrime Ministers decision on the promotionof rural industrial development in November2000.

The project provided the conceptual founda-

tion for the traditional craft village centre.

The land with 7.2 ha has been secured for theestablishment of the proposed village includ-

ing a training centre and exhibition hall.

The specific requirements for qualityimprovement for export promotion have beenclearly recognized by policy makers and arti-sans. The Government has placed a highdevelopment priority on training of nationaldesigners and craft development coordina-tors. Training programmes have been con-ducted to improve the quality of products tomeet foreign market needs.

A master plan on artisan craft development

for rural development is being carried out toformulate the long-term detailed develop-ment strategies.

28

Issue

Women entrepreneurs in Morocco are oftenfaced with a lack of operational and manageri-al skills resulting in low productivity andcompetitiveness. Cultural constraints are anadditional obstacle that inhibit the efficientconduct of business for women. The resultingloss of productivity not only has adverse effectson their income but also on economic growth.

Some of the most promising sectors for theMoroccan economy and those in which womenare the most numerous can be found in thenorth of Morocco, in one of the most disad-vantaged regions of the country. However, inef-ficient production mechanisms and a lack ofmanagerial skills have resulted in a loss of pro-ductivity and income for women entrepreneurs.This is particularly true for traditional weaving,olive oil production as well as industrial

The image of the Traditional Craft Village

MOROCCO:Promoting productivity improvementsin rural womens businesses


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processing of figs, prunes, medicinal and aro-matic plants. In the past, traditional weaversexclusively used artificial fibres, thus attainingonly low prices for their products. Almost 20 per

cent of olive oil was lost due to inefficient pro-duction methods and the high acidity in the oilwas hazardous to the health of the consumers.No processing of figs and prunes took place. Thefruits thus had to be sold on local markets atlow margins or perished quickly.

Strategy

UNIDOs project aimed to enhance the competi-tiveness of enterprises managed by women. Asa first step, the project attempted to makewomen aware of how they can improve theirproduction and thus their income. They are thentrained in both business management and pro-duction techniques. The trainers are either mem-bers of womens groups or of existing public andprivate support institutions, which have beenassisted by UNIDO in improving their capacityto provide services to women entrepreneurs.

Two types of training are currently offeredby the project: (a) training of trainers withthe simultaneous creation of a network of peo-ple skilled in areas such as economic activityidentification, information provision, businessmanagement and marketing, who will be ableto follow up on the women they train and(b) direct training of women. Trainers are inregular contact with womens groups to iden-tify the exact needs of these women and toadapt the courses accordingly. A third type oftraining in formation of associations and inthe administration of cooperatives is beingintroduced.

A fundamental element of the training is theimprovement of production techniques. At a pilottraining unit, the project provides training onnew methods using locally available equipment.

In the traditional weaving component of theproject, women learn how to diversify theirproducts, how to work on subcontract and touse natural fibres in order to increase the exportpotential of their products.

The olive oil component has been assistingwomens cooperatives and groups to improveproduction methods and the quality of the oil.Course participants have learned how to use amobile unit that increases production efficien-

cy, techniques that reduce the acid content ofthe oil as well as waste management. Thewomen have also received training in classifica-tion of the produced oil, in quality control andmarketing. Several trainers have already repli-cated the training in different rural areas.

The project component, concentrating on the pro-

cessing of figs, prunes, medicinal and aromatic

plants, focuses on drying of the products, packag-

ing and marketing. The equipment was developed

by UNIDO in collaboration with the University of

Vienna and is also being used in other projects.

Results

The project has so far provided comprehen-sive training, including coaching in produc-tion, business management and marketing,

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High quality for competitive products


31/34

to 339 women (traditional weaving:60 women, olive oil production: 156 women,processing of figs and prunes: 123 women).

The training in the weaving component ofthe project resulted in the participationof some of the participants in trade fairs.As a result, one cooperative has doubled itsincome.

About a dozen new weaving businesseshave so far been started as a result of thetraining.

As a part of the coaching programme of the

olive oil component of the project, a pilot asso-

ciation has received assistance in quality con-

trol, in business and financial management, in

the preparation of a label, in registering theirtrademark, in promoting the products and in

the procurement of packaging material.

The project is creating a critical mass oftrainers (both technical and managerial) whoare staff of local support institutions as wellas a network among these institutions, localNGOs and credit institutions.

30

Issue

Women entrepreneurs see the establishment ofa productive business as a means to improvetheir status in society as well as their familys

standard of living and to serve their communityby creating employment opportunities. However,due to a lack of technical skills, confidence,strong individual involvement and the willing-ness to take risks, women are often unable toestablish and sustain successful businesses.

In Kenya, women are the main food producers

and small farmers of the country, yet their poten-

tials remain largely untapped due to unequal

access to resources and the lack of support serv-

ices for womens economic activities. Women

operating in food processing in Muranga and

Kilifi districts, where large proportions of the pop-

ulation live in absolute poverty, face several major

constraints. These include their inability to judge

the profitability of their operations due to a lack

of basic accounting skills, insufficient technical

and business management skills as well as socio-

cultural constraints.

Strategy

The project aimed at the socio-economicempowerment of women in the food processingsector in Muranga and Kilifi districts by assist-

ing them in their active search for businessopportunities. New technical skills, basic com-puter literacy, business start-up assistance,improved financial and business management aswell as the establishment of wider marketingnetworks are among the services offered. In con-trast to projects focusing solely on technicalskills upgrading, this project assists women instrengthening their role in society and their con-tribution to the community. This is achievedthrough self-confidence building, informationprovision on HIV/AIDS and, if required, throughfunctional literacy programmes. Training in con-ducting self-assessment enhances women entre-preneurs competitive thinking.

By facilitating womens access to tools and skillsto improve, monitor and evaluate their progressas entrepreneurs, the project enables them toset goals for themselves and to achieve their

KENYA:

Socio-economic empowerment of women entrepreneurs


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business objectives, both individually and byworking in groups.

Women entrepreneurs are encouraged to organ-

ize themselves in a business association. Thus,they can get into touch with like-mindedwomen, exchange ideas and take part in policypreparation processes that determine the futureof micro and small-scale enterprises.

Results

A total of 170 women have been integrated

into the project so far. Feedback received from

participants indicates high satisfaction rates.

In general, interest in business has increasedin the course of the training and womendeveloped awareness of the essential role ofpersonal initiatives and self-confidence tosucceed in business.

Most of the participants would like to start

their own business or improve already existing

ones. Women felt that their self-confidence asbusinesswomen has been enhanced. So far,

approximately 70 women have started their

business with the help of the programme and

have, on average, generated employment pos-

sibilities for two to three persons.

Several of the women entrepreneurs employyoungsters to market and distribute their

products by bicycle, thereby adding to

employment creation.

Women entrepreneurs participating in theproject have understood the importance ofpricing and quality standards of raw mate-rials, thus enhancing their bargaining powerwhen dealing with middlemen or largerenterprises.

Women entrepreneurs in one region felt so con-

fident after their training that they successfully

negotiated a market-sharing arrangement withthe commercial village bakery.

Women envisage using the skills acquired toimprove the diet of their families and to con-tribute to food hygiene in the country. Theyconsider serving the community by helpingtrain other women in food processing andpreservation.

31

Empower Women!


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For information on the UNIDO Programme Rural and Women Entrepreneurship Development,please contact:

Director

Small and Medium Enterprises Branch

A-1400 Vienna, Austria

Tel: (+43-1) - 26026-4820/4821

Fax (+43-1) 26026-6842Email: [email protected]

Web site: www.unido.org

Photography: UNIDO; Z. Kiruthu, E. Nanyonjo, H. Uesugi, T. Zirngibl

Printed on environmentally friendly paper.

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Path Out Poverty