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Paleoclimate and Sea Level Changes
Global climate changes
• Glaciers and permafrost• Desertification• Evidence for change
– Long and short time scales
Graphical Representation of Climate in Geologic Time
Earth HistoryPrecambrian ???? – 540 Mio a
Paleozoic 540 – 250 Mio a
Mesozoic 250 – 65 Mio a
CenozoicTertiary 65 – 1.8 Mio aQuaternary 1.8 Mio a - today
Proxies
Measurements
Billions of years agoMajor continental shifts – earth extremely hot
Underwent cycles of glaciations
ice sheets existed at lower latitudes
Paleozoic EraInterglacial period
plants invade land
PermianMajor Glaciation
PaleoceneElevated greenhouse gases warmed up planetPalm trees in AlaskaCrocodiles in the Arctic
610 – 575 Ma
438 – 408 Ma
292 - 250 Ma
55 – 52 Ma
Antarctic ice sheets
formed
34 Ma
Pleistocene Ice Age
1 Ma
1.8 Ma –10 Kya
Holocene – cycle of glaciation and
melting of ice caps – rising sea levels
18 Kya
Last glacial period
Precambrian
beginning – 540 Mio a
Evidence of two major glaciations
„Faint Sun Paradox“
„Snowball Earth“
Paleozoic: CambrianN hemisphere (north of 30°) ocean
Increased tectonic activity
CO2 high, up to 10x of today
Warm and wet globally
Paleozoic:Ord: Ice formations 490 – 440 Mio a
Sil Dev: no glaciation 440 – 350 Mio a
Car Per: Ice ages 350 – 250 Mio a
Reason for this variation?
Carboniferous Ice age settings:
Carboniferous Ice age settings:
Continent near south pole
Maritime influence
Subfreezing T during most of year
Marine transgression – continental flooding
Reduced seasonality
Carboniferous Ice age settings:
CC driven by land – sea distribution
Reason for this variation?
CC driven by tectonics
Mesozoic Climate Variability:Trias 250 – 205 Mio a: Pangaea
Jurassic 205 – 145 Mio a: Pangaea break up
Cretaceous 145 – 65 Mio a: Continents as we know them today
Generally warm and arid periodNo evidence of glaciation
Why?
Mesozoic Climate Variability:Trias 250 – 205 Mio a: Pangaea
Pangaea characteristics:Large land mass at equator
Lower sea levels
Reduced rate of tectonics
Extreme continental climate
Extreme dry
Pangaea break - up:
Tethys seaway / transglobal equatorialseaway formed
Heating of water at equator
Heat transport to low latitudes
Mesozoic Climate Variability:Pangaea: No continent in pole position
Pangaea – too dry
Transequatorial seaway –heat redistribution
However – Model problem
Cenozoic Climate Variability:Tertiary (65 – 2 Mio a)
Quaternary (2 Mio a – today)
Relatively warm in early Cenozoic
Early Eocene (55-50 Mio a) tropicalconditions 10 – 15° further polewards
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Oligocene: 25 Mio aInitiation of AntarcticIce Shield
Miocene: 15 – 10 Mio aGrowth of AntarcticIce shield
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Hypothesis 1:
1) Transequatorial waterway blocked
2) Transpolar waterway opened throughDrake Passage – reduced heat transfer
3) Growth of ice – increase in albedo
4) Cooling
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Hypothesis 2:
1) Change in continental topography
2) Colorado / Tibetian Plateau uplift
3) Winter cooling of N-hemisphere
4) Ice formation
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Hypothesis 3:
1) Orogenic uplift (as in Hyp 2)
2) Alpine / Himalayas (20-30 Mio a ago)
3) Increase in silicate weathering
4) Removes CO2 from atmosphere
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Hypothesis 3:
5) Silicate + CO2 = Bicarbonate
6) Bicarbonate is soluble
7) Transport to oceans and deposition
Indirect effect by reduced greenhouseforcing
Cenozoic Climate Deterioration:
Summary: Combination of processes isnecessary. Land – sea distribution,
ocean heat transfer, orography changeand CO2 are all likely to cause cooling
of earth.
Right now, since 10 Mio a we are in an Ice age (both poles ice capped) with
glacial and interglacial periods
Quaternary period:
Pleistocene 1.8 Mio a – 10Ta
Changes in former examples in Mio a
Drivers needed withcyclicity of 10-100Ta
e.g. Earth orbitvariations aroundsun
Quaternary period:2 model approaches forglacial / interglacial
A) Ice volume changes are driven byorbital forcing. Linear responses at 23/41 Ta, non-linear at 100 Ta.
B) Ice volume changes happen, quasi period fluctuations which then aremodulated by orbital forcing
Quaternary period:
Important: Orbital forcing alone is notenough. Orbital forcing must interact
with internal climate variations
Quaternary period:
C02 feedbacks: C-cycle impacts on matching time-scales
e.g. Oceans: millenium time scale
However, existing ice core records do not allow resolution of the phaserelationship between CO2 and T
Cause – effect still unclear
Quaternary period:Pleistocene – Holocene boundary10-11 Ta
Glacial maximum at 18 Ta
Holocene thermal maximum at 6 Ta
Rapid climate changes
• When were the Ice Ages?– Periodicity
• Extent of glaciation• Climate characteristics• Possible forcing for climate change
– Astronomical– Tectonic– Climate dynamics
History of Ice Ages• Indications from geologic record
– First glaciation occurred in the Pre-Cambrian Era– Periods of glaciation occur about every 200 million
years
• Pleistocene ice ages are the most well known– Height of Ice Age between 150,000 and 10,000 years
BP– Although, episodes of advance/retreat have occurred
every 100,000 years since 900,000 years BP
Closer Look at Pleistocene Glaciation
• Several periods of warm interglacials and cold glacials– 130 ky BP – Emian interglacial
• Climate similar to what we have today• However, very unstable (Will we see this?)
– 110 ky BP – Rapid cooling, leading to glacial advances
• Much drier climate due to increase in continental ice at expense of marine ice and moisture
Pleistocene Glaciation (cont…)– 60 ky BP – large amplitude oscillations
between warm and cold– 30 ky BP – More rapid cooling ends with Last
Glacial Maximum (18 ky BP)• Very arid climate globally• Expansive desertification and reduction in forest
land– Interstadials – frequent and brief warm
periods– Heinrich events – very cold periods
Extent of Last Glacial Maximum
Transition to the Holocene– 14 ky BP – Major climate swings ending with the
Younger Dryas (Glacial surge)• Forests begin to rebound and ice begins to recede
– 10 ky BP – warming and beginning of the Holocene Epoch
• Rapid warming (actually warmer, wetter than today)– Especially Sahara (very little desertification)
• 1500-year oscillation of warm-cold cycles, outburst floods (stochastic resonance?)
• Lesson learned – LARGE CLIMATE SWINGS ARE NORMAL!!!!
Theories for the Onset of Glaciation
• Astronomical– Milankovitch cycles– Changes in solar parameter
• Tectonic– Continental drift– Orogenesis
• Climate dynamics– Increased planetary albedo– Interruption of Gulf Stream by termination of sinking of
hypersaline water in North Atlantic– Water vapor fluxes
Milankovitch Cycles
• Eccentricity – changes in shape of earth’s revolution about the sun (100 ky cycle)– Significant effect on insolation
• Obliquity – changes in axial tilt (41 kycycle)– Most significant effect on albedo
• Precessionary – reversal of equinoxes (19 and 23 ky)
Changes in Insolation
Implications of Milankovitch Cycles
• High correlation with solar and climate cycles
• Work of Saltzman and other show large oscillations in climate every 100 ky(Eccentricity)
• Climate oscillations to lesser extent on 20 ky (Precession) and 40 ky (Obliquity) cycles
Causes of glaciation/climate change
• Atmospheric gases and dust– Greenhouse gases->warming– Dust (volcanoes)->cooling
• Positions of the continents– Ice sheet nucleation with continents in polar
positions– Changes in ocean circulation
• Orbital factors
Milankovich cycles are cycles in the Earth's orbit that influence the amount of solar radiation striking different parts of the Earth at different times of year. They are named after a Serbian mathematician, Milutin Milankovitch, who explained how these orbital cycles cause the advance and retreat of the polar ice caps.
http://deschutes.gso.uri.edu/~rutherfo/milankovitch.html
The phase difference between two paleoclimatic time series is used to interpret processes that link Milankovitch-cycle-driven insolation changes with Earth's climate.
What is phase?
The figure shows three examples of the phase between two time series. In the top figure, two time series have different amplitudes but are exactly in phase (Phase=0). In the middle diagram, two time series are exactly out of phase (Phase=180). The bottom diagram shows the general case where one time series leads or lags a second time series. The magnitude of the lead or lag is the phase angle and can be positive or negative. http://deschutes.gso.uri.edu/~rutherfo/milankovitch.html
The influence of these cycles on insolation (INcident SOLar radiATION) at different latitudes is shown for 65 degrees north latitude from the present to 1 million years ago. In the Northern Hemisphere, peak summer insolation occurred about 9,000 years ago when the last of the large ice sheets melted. Since that time Northern Hemisphere summers have seen less solar radiation. http://deschutes.gso.uri.edu/~rutherfo/milankovitch.html
Annual energy flow to earth from sun
The Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gases such as CO2 absorb energy and stop it from radiating away (Keller, 2002)
Concentration of
Atmospheric CO2 over time (Keller, 2002)
Global temperature changes
Maximum extent of glacial ice sheets during the Pleistocene glaciation (Keller, 2002)
Global temperature changes
Arid lands and desertification
National Geographic map of the world
Terrestrial Ecosystems are an…• Integral part of global carbon system• Plants take in and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis• Below ground microbes decompose organic matter and release organic carbon back into the
atmosphere
Cycle shows how nature’s sources of CO2 are self regulating – that which is released will be used again – Anthropogenic carbon not part of natures cycle – is in excess
www.bom.gov.au/.../ change/gallery/9.shtml