Pacific NorthWest LNG Project

Public Comment March 8, 2016

This letter declares Hydrofuel Inc.’s opposition to the Pacific NorthWest LNG Project.

Natural Gas Issues It is a fact that the combustion of any hydrocarbon fuel generates CO2 emissions, which is a key

greenhouse gas. Besides contributing to global warming, increasing atmospheric CO2 levels also

contributes to ocean acidification. Although methane (main constituent of natural gas) contains

relatively less carbon than other fossil fuels, burning natural gas does not solve our carbon emission

problem.

Methane (CH4) is a much worse greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2) and the US EPA states that:

Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is more than 25

times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period.

Methane is difficult to contain and leaks occur all the way from the well head to the end consumer.

Besides the inherent leakage in natural gas piping systems, there is also an increased danger of pipeline

rupture when it runs through a seismically active area such as Southwestern British Columbia.

Better Alternative Rather than continuing the use of this potent greenhouse gas contributor – both before and after

combustion – it would be far better to manufacture anhydrous ammonia (NH3) from CH4 in Alberta.

NH3 is the 2nd most manufactured commodity in the world and is more hydrogen-dense than even

liquefied hydrogen – without the issues of handling a difficult-to-contain cryogenic liquid.

Technology is being developed in Canada by the University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT) to

convert CH4 into hydrogen gas (H2) and carbon black (C), thereby completely mitigating any impact that

CH4 could have on climate change and ocean acidification. Even with the conventional method of

manufacturing NH3 from CH4, adding urea production reduces the emissions intensity of process.

NH3 may be safely transported by pipeline to the same ports as planned for LNG and there are

thousands of km of NH3 pipelines operating world-wide. Although there have been NH3 pipeline

ruptures, these have been very infrequent and, since NH3 readily dissipates into the atmosphere (where

it breaks down by photo-dissociation), ground and water contamination effects have been minimal.

New Green Economy By converting fossil fuels (including Oil Sands Bitumen) into anhydrous ammonia, Canada can transform

its fossil fuel economy into green energy economy. Building a NH3 facility at Howe Sound instead of a

LNG facility means that it could also function as a means of transporting the energy contained in Oil

Sands Bitumen to tidewater instead of just that contained in natural gas. Alberta, BC and other

provinces with hydrocarbon resources could use NH3 manufacturing to make five to ten times as much

money from petroleum resources than it does now.

In 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recognized the huge opportunity of using

NH3 to store renewable energy and to capture and convert CO2 from hydrocarbons into valuable urea

in their Fourth Annual Assessment Report, and how doing so would be viable compared to all other CCS

technologies.

Significant reductions of CO2 emissions, below those achieved by state-of-the-art ammonia plants, could

be achieved by using low-carbon or carbon-free hydrogen, which could be obtained through the

application of Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technology, biomass gasification, or electrolysis

of water using electricity from nuclear or renewables. About half the ammonia produced for fertilizer is

reacted with CO2 to form urea (UNIDO and IFDC, 1998). However, this use of CO2 reduces the potential

for applying CCS technology.

In addition, here in Canada, we have vast renewable energy resources that are far from the areas of the

continent that need it. The generation of renewable energy does not often match electrical demand in

the grid. Very often, those energy-rich areas are within First Nations territories. Indigenous

communities in these remote locations could then benefit by participating the manufacture of green

ammonia from wind and hydroelectric power.

Green ammonia is manufactured from nitrogen from the atmosphere and hydrogen from water using

electricity ultimately from the sun. When it ammonia reacts with oxygen, it once again becomes

nitrogen and water. We believe that ammonia is the ideal carbon-free fuel because:

It is the one of the highest-manufactured chemicals in the world.

It contains more hydrogen than liquefied hydrogen per unit volume.

It is handled and transported very much like LPG.

Very small leaks are easily detectable by the human nose without the complexity of added

odorants.

Any spills dissipate into the atmosphere, where photo-dissociation breaks it down without any

greenhouse gas effect.

Summary For the reasons stated above and supported by Dr Ibrahim Dincer’s group at UOIT (comments and

MITACS report attached), Hydrofuel Inc. believes that the Pacific NorthWest LNG Project should not

proceed and that the alternative of transporting energy in the form of anhydrous ammonia should be

considered instead.

Frank Raso

Chief Scientist

Hydrofuel®TM Inc.

Web: http://nh3fuel.com

Email: fraso@nh3fuel.com

Phone: 1 (905) 501-0010 (Trademarks Reg. in Canada, USA & EU)

References: US EPA – Overview of Greenhouse Gases

IPCC – CLIMATE CHANGE 2013, The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers

Pembina Institute – Carbon Capture and Utilization

IPCC – Climate Change 2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change

Some Comments by Dincer’s Group at UOIT

1

Pacific NorthWest LNG Project Port Edward (British Columbia)

About the Proposal Pacific NorthWest LNG Ltd. is proposing to construct and operate a liquefied natural gas (LNG) facility and marine terminal near Prince Rupert, within the District of Port Edward. The Pacific NorthWest LNG facility would be located on Lelu Island. The proposed project would convert natural gas to LNG for export to Pacific Rim markets in Asia. Comments The proposed project includes natural gas production, transmission and liquefaction. Currently, there are a few pipeline projects to transport oil sand products (bitumen, crude oil etc.) from Alberta region to the ports either in Canada or USA.

Compared to liquefied natural gas, there are more environmentally friendly fuels such as ammonia. Ammonia does not emit direct greenhouse gas emissions when utilized in the vehicles. Furthermore, production process of ammonia yields lower global warming impact compared to LNG production. Ammonia can also be produced from natural gas and hydrocarbons such as bitumen. Henceforth, in the ideal case, if Alberta oil sands bitumen can be converted into ammonia and then transported via pipelines to the ports, it would have lower total environmental impact both in the production process and utilization process. Furthermore, ammonia is liquid at higher temperatures (-33°C) than natural gas (-162°C) which implies lower energy requirement in liquefaction process.

The other option for a more environmentally friendly process can be conversion of LNG to ammonia after being produced and transported via pipelines. Natural gas can be cracked into carbon black and hydrogen using plasma disassociation technique. In this case, carbon black is also utilized as a useful output for tire, plastic etc. industry. Instead of emitting CO2 to the environment, produced carbon black is used for various sectors, and greenhouse gas emissions are lowered. Produced hydrogen can be used for ammonia synthesis and stored in the vessels for the overseas transportation. In this manner, a cleaner alternative fuel is consumed and total greenhouse gas emissions are significantly decreased. Henceforth, establishing an ammonia production plant using either tidal energy (British Columbia has significant potentials) or hydropower electricity would be more cost effective and environmentally friendly.

Key Advantages of Ammonia

Note that ammonia (NH3):

consists of one nitrogen atom from air separation and three hydrogen atoms from any conventional or renewable resources.

is the second largest synthesized industrial chemical in the world. is a significant hydrogen carrier and transportation fuel that does not contain any carbon atoms

and has a high hydrogen ratio. does not emit direct greenhouse gas emission during utilization can be used as solid and/or liquid for many purposes. can be stored and transported under relatively lower pressures. can be produced from various type of resources ranging from oil sands to renewables. is a suitable fuel to be transferred using steel pipelines with minor modifications which are

currently used for natural gas and oil.

Some Comments by Dincer’s Group at UOIT

2

can be used in all types of combustion engines, gas turbines, burners as a sustainable fuel with only small modifications and directly in fuel cells which is a very important advantage compared to other type of fuels.

brings a non-centralized power generation via fuel cells, stationary generators, furnaces/boilers and enables smart grid applications.

can be used as a refrigerant for cooling purposes in the car.

Fig. 1. Comparison of volumetric energy densities and specific energy densities of various

fuels and ammonia

Table 1. Comparison of ammonia with other fuels including natural gas

Fuel/storage P [bar]

ρ Density [kg/m3]

HHV [MJ/kg]

HHV‴ [GJ/m3]

e‴ [GJ/m3]

c [CN$/kg]

C‴ [CN$/m3]

c/HHV [CN$/GJ]

Gasoline, C8H18/liquid 1 736 46.7 34.4 34.4 1.36 1000 29.1

CNG, CH4/integrated

storage 250 188 42.5 10.4 7.8 1.2 226 28.2

LPG, C3H8/pressurized

tank 14 388 48.9 19 11.7 1.41 548 28.8

Methanol, CH3OH/liquid 1 786 14.3 11.2 9.6 0.54 421 37.5

Hydrogen, H2/metal hydrides

14 25 142 3.6 3 4 100 28.2

Ammonia, NH3/pressurized

tank 10 603 22.5 13.6 11.9 0.3 181 13.3

Ammonia, NH3/metal

amines 1 610 17.1 10.4 8.5 0.3 183 17.5

Some Comments by Dincer’s Group at UOIT

3

Table 1 and Fig. 1 show that the energy density of ammonia is higher per unit volume compared to CNG.

Fig. 2. Driving costs of various fuels in comparisons with ammonia

Methods of Ammonia Production from Natural Gas

Ammonia can be produced from any hydrogen including hydrocarbons using cracking of hydrocarbons into hydrogen and carbon. Methane is a favored option for hydrogen production from a hydrocarbon because of its high H to C ratio, availability and low cost. Microwave disassociation of methane is a promising option for cleaner ammonia production.

Methane is separated into carbon black and hydrogen. The carbon produced can be sold as a co-product into the carbon black market which could be utilized in inks, paints, tires, batteries, etc. or sequestered, stored, and used as a clean fuel for electricity production. The sequestering or storing of solid carbon requires much less development than sequestering gaseous CO2.

Ammonia can also be produced from steam reforming of methane which is a little more energy intensive method. Steam methane reforming is the conversion of methane and water vapor into hydrogen and carbon monoxide which is an endothermic reaction. The heat can be supplied from the combustion of the methane feed gas. The process temperature and pressure values are generally 700 to 850°C and pressures of 3 to 25 bar, respectively.

Bitumen which can be obtained from oil sands in Alberta can also be a possible source of hydrocarbons for ammonia production. In addition, renewable resources such as hydropower and tidal energy based power plants can be utilized for electricity requirements of ammonia production plants where there is a high potential in British Columbia

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Ammonia

Hydrogen

Methanol

Compressed Natural Gas

LPG

Gasoline

Driving Cost (C$/km)

1  

REPORT

GREEN TRANSPORTATION FUEL: AMMONIA

University of Ontario Institute of Technology

Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Dincer

Yusuf Bicer

Hydrofuel Inc.

Greg Vezina

Frank Raso

2  

Summary

In this brief report, some critical facts about ammonia and its utilization are discussed. The benefits of ammonia utilization compared to other conventional fuels are comparatively presented. The cost and driving range considerations for ammonia fueled vehicles are considered for comparisons. In addition, environmental impacts of various fuel driven vehicles are comparatively assessed including some energy and exergy efficiency calculations. Furthermore, the ammonia production technologies being developed by Dincer’s group at University of Ontario Institute of Technology are presented for further understanding of clean energy utilization opportunities.

1. Key Facts About Ammonia

Note that ammonia (NH3):

consists of one nitrogen atom from air separation and three hydrogen atoms from any conventional or renewable resources.

is the second largest synthesized industrial chemical in the world. is a significant hydrogen carrier and transportation fuel that does not contain any carbon atoms

and has a high hydrogen ratio. does not emit direct greenhouse gas emission during utilization can be produced from various type of resources ranging from oil sands to renewables. is a suitable fuel to be transferred using steel pipelines with minor modifications which are

currently used for natural gas and oil. can be used in all types of combustion engines, gas turbines, burners as a sustainable fuel with

only small modifications and directly in fuel cells which is a very important advantage compared to other type of fuels.

brings a non-centralized power generation via fuel cells, stationary generators, furnaces/boilers and enables smart grid applications.

can be used as a refrigerant for cooling purposes in the car.

Fig.1. Sources of global ammonia production based on feedstock use (data from IEA, 2012).

Natural gas72%

Coal22%

Fuel oil4%

Naphta1% Others

1%

Natural gas Coal Fuel oil Naphta Others

3  

Figure 1 shows a pie-chart of major sources of ammonia production based on various feedstocks world-wide. It is clearly seen that natural gas is the main source of ammonia production, accounting for 72%, respectively.

2. Ammonia as Low Cost Fuel

Fig. 2. Comparison of various vehicle fuels in terms of energy cost per gigajoule

Ammonia is a cost effective fuel per unit energy stored onboard compared to methanol, CNG, hydrogen, gasoline and LPG as shown in Fig. 2.

Table.1 Fuel costs comparison supplied to compression ignition engine

40% Ammonia/

60% diesel 40% Ammonia/

60% Dimethyl ether Ammonia Diesel fuel

LHV (MJ/kg) 32.6 24.5 18.6 42

Fuel rate (kg/kWh) 0.316 0.42 0.554 0.245

Fuel price (US$/kg) $0.95 $0.70 $0.61 $1.18

Fuel energy cost (US$/kWh)

$0.30 $0.30 $0.34 $0.29

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Cost in

 Energy

(C$/G

J)

4  

Ammonia can be used as a mixture fuel in the vehicles. Ammonia has lower cost per unit mass (kg) compared to conventional fuels. Table 1 presents the fuel energy costs for ammonia and diesel fuels including mixtures.

Fig. 3. On-board storage tank costs for various fueled vehicles

Fig. 3 shows that on-board storage tank for ammonia is in the same price level with compressed natural gas and gasoline vehicles.

Fig. 4. Driving cost of various fuels

$10,000 

$4,000 

$3,000 

$300 

$300 

$100 

 $‐  $2,000  $4,000  $6,000  $8,000  $10,000

Electricity: batteries

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (70 bar)

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (70 bar)

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Ammonia (20 bar)

Gasoline, diesel

Cost (US$) / storage tank

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

Ammonia Hydrogen Methanol CompressedNatural Gas

LPG Gasoline

Driving Cost (C$/km)

5  

Ammonia yields the lowest cost per unit km traveled in comparison with other fuels as illustrated in Fig. 4. 3. Ammonia as the Least Expensive Fuel for Vehicles

As comparatively illustrated in Fig. 5, ammonia driven vehicle can travel 500 km with a fuel cost of 15 C$.

540 km

930 km

330 km

180 km

100 km

75 km

500 km

Gasoline

Hybrid

LPG

Methanol

CNG

Hydrogen

Ammonia

C$ 44

C$ 43.7

C$ 13

C$ 20

C$ 4

C$ 4.2

C$ 15

Fig. 5. Comparison of various fueled vehicles in terms of driving range per 40 L fuel

One can note the following key results: Ammonia is the least expensive fuel per 100 km driving range.

6  

There is an advantage of by-product refrigeration which reduces the costs and maintenance. Some additional advantages of ammonia are commercial availability and viability, global

distribution network and easy handling experience. 4. Environmental Impact of Ammonia Driven Vehicles

Ammonia is still green if produced from fossil fuel based methods. The following results show the life cycle environmental impact of various fueled vehicles from raw material extraction to consumption in the vehicle per traveled km where ammonia is produced from nitrogen from air and hydrogen from hydrocarbon cracking.

Fig. 6. Life cycle comparison of global warming results for various vehicles

Ammonia is most environmentally benign fuel in terms of greenhouse gas emissions in the

vehicles as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 7 compares the global warming potential of ammonia driven vehicle where ammonia is either produced from solar energy or hydrocarbon cracking.

Note that global warming potential of ammonia driven vehicle is similar for solar energy and fossil hydrocarbon based options.

One should of course point out that ammonia is less toxic compared to electric and hybrid electric vehicles as illustrated in Fig 8.

0.15

0.16

0.17

0.18

0.19

0.2

0.21

0.22

0.23

0.24

0.25

0.26

0.27

Gasoline Vehicle Hybrid ElectricVehicle

LPG Vehicle Diesel Vehicle CNG Vehicle Ammonia Vehicle

Global warming 500a (kg CO2eq

/km)

7  

Fig. 7 Comparison of life cycle environmental impact of ammonia fueled vehicle from hydrocarbons and solar photovoltaics.

Fig. 8. Life cycle comparison of human toxicity results for various vehicles

5. Environmental Impact of Various Fuel Productions

Fig. 9 shows the comparison of ozone layer depletion values for various transportation fuels. Ammonia has lowest ozone layer depletion even if it is produced from steam methane reforming and partial oxidation of heavy oil.

Note that production of fuel ammonia yields lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to petrol and propane production as shown in Fig. 10.

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

Ammonia Vehicle(Source from Hydrocarbon Cracking)

Ammonia Vehicle(Source from Solar Photovoltaic)

Global W

arming Potential (kg CO2eq

/km)

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

Ammonia Vehicle Hybrid Electric Vehicle Electric Vehicle

Human

 toxicity 500a (kg 1,4‐DB eq/km)

8  

Fig. 9. Ozone layer depletion during productions of various fuels

Fig. 10. Greenhouse gas emissions during production of various fuels

6. Environmental Impact of Ammonia Production

There are multiple pathways for ammonia production. Ammonia is cleaner when produced from renewable resources. Fig. 11 compares the environmental impacts of various ammonia production pathways.

Ammonia from renewable resources has the least environmental impact. Ammonia from hydrocarbon cracking and underground coal gasification is most

environmentally benign option among conventional methods.

0.00E+00

5.00E‐08

1.00E‐07

1.50E‐07

2.00E‐07

2.50E‐07

3.00E‐07

3.50E‐07

4.00E‐07

4.50E‐07

Propane/butane, atrefinery

Petrol,unleaded, atrefinery

Diesel, low‐sulphur, atrefinery

Ammonia,steam

reforming,liquid, at plant

Ammonia,partial

oxidation,liquid, at plant

Ammonia,hydrocarboncracking, at

plant

Ammonia,wind energy,

at plant

Ozone layer dep

letion (kg CFC

‐11 eq/kg fuel)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

P E T R O L ,   UN L E A D E D ,   A T   R E F I N E R Y

P R O P A N E / B U T A N E ,   A T   R E F I N E R Y

AMMON I A ,   F R OM  W I N D   E N E R G Y ,   A T   P L A N T  

D I E S E L ,   L OW ‐ S U L P H U R ,   A T   R E F I N E R Y

Gloabal warming potential (kg CO2 eq/kg fuel)

9  

Fig. 11. Global warming values of all ammonia production methods

7. Ammonia Production by Various Methods

Here, comparative illustration of energy and exergy efficiencies for various ammonia production options are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.

Fig. 12. Comparison of energy efficiency values for various ammonia production methods

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Coal ElectrolysisHeavy Oil Electrolysis

Natural Gas ElectrolysisNuclear 3 Step Cu‐Cl Cycle

Coal GasificationPartial Oxidation of Heavy OilSteam Methane Reforming

Photovoltaic ElectrolysisNuclear High Temperature Electrolysis

Underground Coal Gasification with Carbon CaptureNaphta CrackingWind Electrolysis

Hydropower (River) ElectrolysisBiomass Gasification

Geothermal ElectrolysisMunicipal Waste Electrolysis

Tidal&Wave Electrolysis

Global warming potential (kg CO2 eq/kg ammonia)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

HydropowerUnderground coal gasification

Tidal & Waves

Hydropower (on river) electrolysisUCG with CCS

Heavy oil partial oxidation

Nuclear 3 step CuCl cycleBiomass Gasification

Steam methane reforming

Nuclear high temperature electrolysisCoal gasification

Heavy oil based electrolysis

Coal fired based electrolysisWind

GeothermalMunicipal waste based electrolysis

Solar PV

ENERGY EFFICIENCY  (%)  

10  

Note that hydropower and underground coal gasification based ammonia production has the highest energy and exergy efficiencies.

Fig. 13. Comparison of exergy efficiency values for various ammonia production methods

8. Research, Development and Innovation at University of Ontario Institute of Technology

8.1 Ammonia from Hydrocarbons

Ammonia can be produced from any hydrogen including hydrocarbons using cracking of hydrocarbons into hydrogen and carbon. Methane is a favored option for hydrogen production from a hydrocarbon because of its high H to C ratio, availability and low cost. Furthermore, the carbon produced can be sold as a co-product into the carbon black market which could be utilized in inks, paints, tires, batteries, etc. or sequestered, stored, and used as a clean fuel for electricity production. The sequestering or storing of solid carbon requires much less development than sequestering gaseous CO2. Bitumen which can be obtained from oil sands in Alberta can also be a possible source of hydrocarbons for ammonia production. UOIT is in the progress of developing new methods for hydrocarbon cracking using microwaves and thermal plasma disassociation technique as shown in Fig. 14.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Solar

Geothermal

Municipal waste based electrolysis

Nuclear 3 step CuCl cycle

Wind

Coal fired based electrolysis

Nuclear high temperature electrolysis

Steam methane reforming

Coal gasification

Biomass Gasification

Heavy oil partial oxidation

UCG with CCS

Tidal & Waves

Hydropower (on river) electrolysis

Underground coal gasification

Hydropower

Exergy efficiency (%)

11  

Haber‐BoschwithNoMainCompressor

AmmoniaSynthesis

LowCostHydropower

Electricity

HydroelectricPowerPlant

LiquidNaturalGas(LNG)

Ammonia(NH3)

Evaporator

Excessheat

MicrowavePlasmaDisassociation

HighPressureNaturalGas Carbon

HighPressureHydrogen

Evaporator

Liquidnitrogen(N2)

HighPressureNitrogen

Excessheat

Power

Electricity

Electricity

Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of hydrocarbon cracking based ammonia production being

developed at UOIT

8.2 Ammonia from Solar Energy

Solar energy based hydrogen and ammonia production arises as one of the most sustainable solutions of today’s critical energy, environmental and sustainability issues. Since solar energy cannot be directly stored or continuously supplied, it is required to convert solar energy to a storable type of energy. Ammonia is a significant candidate as a sustainable energy carrier. The main objective of studies at UOIT is to develop novel solar based ammonia production systems. In one of the proposed technique as shown in Fig. , the hybrid system maximizes the utilized solar spectrum by combining photochemical and electrochemical hydrogen production in a photo-electrochemical system and by integrating generated hydrogen as a reactant in the electrolytic ammonia synthesis processes such as molten salt based systems. Current studies in molten salt based electrochemical processes have made some novel developments. Using hydrogen and atmospheric air, combining them into a molten salt of NaOH-KOH with nano-Fe2O3 as the catalyst to produce ammonia is the developing technology at the moment.

12  

Molten salt reactor

N2H2

NH3+H2

Ammonia (NH3)

Heat

Heat Exchanger

Ele

ctri

city

Was

te h

eat

Condenser

NH3+H2

Unreacted H2

Photoelectrochemical Reactor

Solar irradiation Electricity

Water

O2

UnreactedN2

Unreacted H2

Photovoltaic

Air Separation

O2

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of solar energy based ammonia production being developed at UOIT

9. Closing Remarks

In this brief report, it is concluded that ammonia, as a clean and sustainable transportation fuel, emerges as the most environmentally benign option compared to commonly used traditional fuels. The life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from production of ammonia is much lower than the emissions coming out of other fuels during their lice cycles. Furthermore, ammonia does not emit direct greenhouse gas emissions during utilization in the vehicles because of the fact that it is a carbon-free fuel. The driving range of ammonia driven vehicles is higher, and the cost per unit km traveled becomes much less. Furthermore, ammonia usage in the transportation sector can significantly decrease the amounts of greenhouse gas emissions in the world. Dr. Dincer’s group at the University of Ontario Institute of Technology is developing various innovative ammonia production technologies using traditional and renewable sources.

13  

Further Sources

1. Bicer Y, Dincer I, Zamfirescu C, Vezina G, Raso F. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Various Ammonia Production Methods. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2016 (Under Review)

2. Bicer Y, Dincer I. Development of a multigeneration system with underground coal gasification integrated to bitumen extraction applications for oil sands. Energy Conversion and Management. 2015;106:235-48.

3. Bicer Y, Dincer I. Life Cycle Assessment of Nuclear Based Ammonia Production Options: A Comparative Study. 8th International Exergy, Energy and Environment Symposium (IEEES-8), May 1-4, 2016, Antalya, Turkey.

4. Dincer I, Zamfirescu C. Methods and apparatus for using ammonia as sustainable fuel, refrigerant and nox reduction agent. Google Patents; 2009.

5. Zamfirescu C, Dincer I. Ammonia as a green fuel and hydrogen source for vehicular applications. Fuel Processing Technology. 2009;90(5):729-37.

6. Zamfirescu C, Dincer I. Hydrogen Production from Ammonia as an Environmentally Benign Solution for Vehicles. In: Dincer I, Hepbasli A, Midilli A, Karakoc HT, editors. Global Warming: Engineering Solutions. Boston, MA: Springer US; 2010. p. 109-27.

7. Zamfirescu C, Dincer I. Using ammonia as a sustainable fuel. Journal of Power Sources. 2008;185(1):459-65.

8. Zamfirescu C, Dincer I. Utilization of hydrogen produced from urea on board to improve performance of vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2011;36(17):11425-32.