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Memory Is an active information processing system that receives, encodes, stores and retrieves information.
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Outcome 2 Unit 3 Memory Memory Is an active information
processing system that receives, encodes, stores and
retrievesinformation. 3 steps in creating memories Encoding,
storage and retrieval
Encoding: changing information into something meaningful that the
brain can understand. The information we see in the environment is
in a raw form. It is encoded into electricity or chemicals the
brain can use. Better we encode the information the easier it is to
store. Levels(depth) of processing by
Ones ability to recall items depends upon the depth
processing/encoding. How info is stored in LTM Shallow -poor
encoding Medium good encoding Deep excellent encoding the deeper
levels of processing = stronger memory has been formed.
Type Level Focus Example Structural Shallow (easy to forget) The
physical characteristics of words Word begins with a capital
letter, has double letters in it, length Phonemic Moderate The
sound of the word Noticing that the word rhymes with my name,
saying the word Semantic Deep (hard to forget) The meaning attached
to the word Noticing that the word is the same as my street name
the deeper levels of processing = stronger memory has been formed.
Why semantic is the best/deepest level of processing
-More attention Relate new info to your own words Use elaborative
rehearsal Question new info Connect new and old info Generate your
own examples from own experiences Overall A deeper level of
processing involves giving attention to the meaning of information
and therefore is related to elaborative rehearsal. A memory will be
much stronger the more it is elaborated and given meaning. Q
Compare and construct structural, phonemic and semantic levels of
encoding. A The structural level of encoding focuses on the
physical attributes of a word and is the most shallow level, which
makes items easy to forget. In contrast, the phonemic level of
encoding involves retaining a stimulus word according to what it
sounds like. This is a moderate level of encoding. In comparison
the semantic level of encoding encodes by means of understanding,
or by allocating personal meaning to the items to be remembered.
This is the deepest encoding level. Questions In terms of your
knowledge of levels of processing, how can you use this to assist
you with the understanding of your Psychology notes??? Answer Link
new terms to terms you already know, so that you use semantic
encoding to process them. 2) Storage Retention (maintaining) of
information and memories over time 3) Retrieval Locating and
recovering the stored information from memory so that we are
consciously aware of it. Actual process ofremembering isapparent
Michael is completing a French listening comprehension
exercise
Michael is completing a French listening comprehension exercise.
which three processes are required for Michael to complete the
task? A. attention, encoding and storage B. attention, storage and
retrieval C. encoding, storage and retrieval D. encoding, storage
and consolidation Sam is able to retain the vocabulary he learned
in his French class long after the class has ended. The main memory
process that accounts for the fact that Sam can hold information in
his memory for extended periods of time is A. encoding. B.
retrieval. C. chunking. D. storage. Types of long term
memories
Procedural = Memory of actions and skills orhow to do something
Declarative(2 types) - Episodic Memory: holds information about
specific events or personal experiences Semantic Memory memory of
facts Retrograde amnesia can form new memories but cant remember
old memories Anterograde amnesia cant form new memories but can
remember old memories Mechanisms in Memory Formation
Memories are stored throughout the brain rather than in one
particular area. Mechanisms in Memory Formation
1) Temporal lobe and Hippocampus: - Hippocampus is found in the
medial temporal lobe. involved in consolidation essential for
establishing/forming long-term memories Language memories Memory
abilities were severely affected How
H.M., Research Had his medial temporal lobe removed (where
hippocampus is located) Memory abilities were severely affectedHow
Results in anterograde amnesia = Cant form new declarative
memories. Can still retrieve and learn procedural memories. Can
still retrieve/remember older memories prior to the damage. 2) role
of neurons: Cant directly observe memory, BUT can study the
biological changes (what happens to the neurons when memory is
formed). memory trace/circuits: biological change in the brain when
a memory is formed Structure Function More .. Axons Dendrites
Synapse Neurotransmitters
Better connection points (synapse) = Long Term Potentiation = more
than 1 firing = Better memory LTP = lasting strengthening of
connections between neurons resulting in enhanced
functioning/firing due to repeated stimulation. Presynaptic
(sending) neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules into the
synaptic cleft which crossto the receptors of the receiving neuron.
This fires the neuronto pass themessage alongto the next neuronand
the processcontinues. Things that help the signal to pass Amount of
neurotransmitters secreted Presence of other molecules Number of
receptor molecules 3) Amygdala (medial temporal lobe) learning
associated with a fear or emotional response.
Winning a grand final Divorce Phobias/post traumatic stress linked
to abnormal functioning in amygdala If damaged have problems with
the formation of implicit/procedural memories Implicit and Explicit
memories
Implicit memory : do not require conscious control. E.g brush your
teeth. Explicit memory: conscious, intentional recollection of
previous experiences and information. E.g writing an exam Tasks
requiring implicit memory
mirror tracing reading reversed text singing part of a familiar
song Tasks requiring explicit memory paired associate learning
identifying the head of state writing a term paper 4) Consolidation
Theory: idea that memory / physical changes take up to 30min to
set/consolidate and become permanent in LTM Interrupted = will not
form Gradual establishment of LTM through altering connections
between neurons in the brain during and after learning.
Consolidation theory suggests that Pina will be unable to
remember
During a netball game Pina was briefly knocked unconscious when her
head was bumped by another player. Pina suffered some memory loss.
Question 18 Consolidation theory suggests that Pina will be unable
to remember A. the person who had scored the goal before her
injury. B. the names of the members of her team. C. the position
she plays for her team. D. her mobile telephone number. Question 19
According to consolidation theory, Pinas memory loss is due to A.
her short-term memory being erased. B. the destruction of existing
memory traces. C. her memory traces for events just prior to the
incident being repressed. D. a disruption to the formation of her
memory traces for the events just prior to the incident Q How may
the consolidation of information into memory be likened to the
process of concrete setting and hardening? A Just as concrete takes
a period of time to set, harden and become permanent, so does the
setting of information into LTM. If the consolidation period is
disrupted, either by accident or interference, the memory may be
altered or completely lost. Like concrete, once the memory is
consolidated, it is relatively permanent. Consolidation takes at
least 30minutes on average. 5) Memory decline over the
lifespan:Memory loss is not a normal (doesn't necessarily occur)
consequence of ageing. Largely varied even among people of the same
age. Recall declines Recognition does not Reaction time decreases
Episodic (life events) memories decrease the most (semantic and
procedural stay the same) Old Young Reaction time decrease Reaction
time normal Recall decrease
Recall normal Recognition normal Semantic (facts) memories normal
Semantic (facts)memories normal Episodic (life events) memories
decrease Episodic (life events) memories n normal Procedural
(skills) memories normal Why? 1) Slowing of the NS. neurons firing
more slowly than they once did. Frontal lobe shrinks. 2) Negative
stereotyping of the aged. Lack the confidence they once had to
perform well in tests of memory. 3) Lack of motivation. See
learning as meaningless. Matilda is 75 years of age. She is fit and
healthy and is not suffering from brain disease or injury. Over the
last few years, Matilda has most likely A. performed more poorly on
recognition tasks than previously. B. found it difficult to learn
new material. C. found it difficult to remember procedural
memories. D. not experienced large memory losses. Harry is a
healthy 70-year-old man who has no brain disease or injury
Harry is a healthy 70-year-old man who has no brain disease or
injury. Choose the statement that most probably describes his
memory abilities. A. He has joined a book club but cannot remember
much about the weekly meetings. B. He is just as likely as a young
person to recognise newly learnt information. C. He finds it very
difficult to remember how to do activities he once enjoyed. D. He
is likely to forget factual information that he once knew well. 6)
Diseases Amnesia: some form of memory loss can be total or partial.
Anterograde Amnesia: can not form new declarative memories after
injury. STM are impacted. Retrograde Amnesia: cant retrieve
memories prior to injury. LTM are impacted. (usually temporary
older events will be recovered first) Which one of the following is
not an expected effect of ageing on memory?
A. taking longer to develop new skills B. decline in episodic
memory C. decline in procedural memory D. slowed retrieval of
information from memory Jenny had a brain injury two years
ago
Jenny had a brain injury two years ago. She now finds that although
she remembers and recognises her old friends, she cannot remember
people she has met since the injury. She is most likely suffering
from A. retrograde amnesia. B. retroactive interference. C.
proactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia. Caitlin suffered a
head injury after a bicycle accident
Caitlin suffered a head injury after a bicycle accident. Caitlins
doctor told her that she was experiencing anterograde amnesia. The
doctor may have come to this conclusion based on Caitlins A.
difficulty forming new social relationships. B. inability to
remember getting ready for work before the accident. C. ability to
recognise her family members. D. epileptic seizures following the
accident. Five years ago Samantha sustained permanent brain damage
when she was in a serious cycling accident. Samantha can remember
most aspects of her life prior to the accident. However, she cannot
recall anything about the accident and she is unable to learn and
remember new information. Samanthas inability to learn and remember
new information is known as _____________ amnesia. A. proactive B.
retrograde C. retroactive D. anterograde Neurodegenerative disease:
progressive decline in structure, activity and functions of brain
activity. - Dementia and Alzheimers: Dementia: - describes a
variety of symptoms (not only memory loss) poor judgement, social
skills, abnormal reactions Dementia = symptom Alzheimer's = disease
Alzheimers = incurable and degenerative disease that causes a loss
of neurons and therefore synapses in the brain. 4th largest cause
of death in Australia Appears that neurons shrink and eventually
disappear to a greater rate than normal Damage to hippocampus
memory decline (memory of skills/procedure are usually the last to
decline) Treatment to slow the process No CURE As the disease
develops
persistent and frequent memory difficulties especially of more
recent events. Episodic memory disappears first forgetfulness of
well known people and places vagueness in everyday conversation is
common. In its later stages, requires 24-hour care, and they will
eventually lose their capacity to provide speech need assistance
walking and showering What happens to the brain:
Atrophy: Brain shrinks Amyloid plaques: grow between the neurons
and turn hard preventing the neurons from communicating with each
other effectively Tangles: build up of protein form inside neurons
and prevent communication Decrease in Acetylcholine (ACTH)
Neurotransmitter Alzheimer's Disease, a serious brain disorder, in
which levels of ACTH can drop by up to 90 percent. The gradual
death of cholinergic brain cells results in a progressive and
significant loss of cognitive and behavioural function.
Acetylcholine is the primary chemical carrier of thought and
memory. This excitatory neurotransmitter is essential for both the
storage and recall of memory, and partly responsible for
concentration and focus. A deficit in acetylcholine is directly
related to memory decline and reduced cognitive capacity. Normal
Age Related memory decline
Alzheimers Disease Description Not dementia May be linked to
motivation, confidence and slowing of the NS Misconception that all
old peoples memory will decrease with age (varies with individuals)
Type of dementia Occur mainly in the old A progressive and largely
incurable disorder that impairs memory and other cognitive
functions Key Brain Structures Some reduction in size and activity
of frontal lobe Neurons in the brain decline in speed of processing
Degeneration of neurons in the brain, brain tissue shrinks and
eventually dies Plagues and tangles Lower level of neurotransmitter
involved in memory Usually begins in the hippocampus (spreads to
other areas) Memory processes Affected Some decline- episodic
memory No decline in semantic or proceduralproblem solving can take
longer Can learn new memories, though may take longer Memory loss,
forgetfulness, confusion, poor judgment can occur Loss of ability
to learn new tasks Initially impaired episodic memory Then all
other memories decline considerably Types of memory
Atkinson-Shiffrinsmulti store model of memory describes three
levels of memory. Sensory Memory Entry point
Stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original/raw
form Limited duration (.3 4 seconds) Unlimited capacity We are not
consciously aware of the majority of information that enters
sensory memory. Any stimulus that is registered in sensory memory
is available to be selected for attention and for processing in STM
There is a sensory register for each 5 of our senses (we will only
look at 2). What things are bombarding our senses? Types of sensory
memories
1) Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory, stores visual images for
around .3 of a second. 2) Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory,
stores sound in their original form for up to 3-4 seconds. (E.G ask
what did you say but you then answer it anyway) (clap hand and see
if the sound lasts) Tactile = touch Sensory memory and
attention
sensory memory needs to be attended to if it is to enter STM
Sensory memory Duration = limited (.3 3-4) Capacity = unlimited
Derek perceived Jack playing on the swing as a continuous moving
image rather than a sequence of still frames moving quickly. This
is because of Dereks A. iconic memory. B. echoic memory. C. central
executive. D. short-term memory. Sensory memory is generally
thought of as having _________ capacity and _________
duration.
A. large; short B. large; long C. small; long D. small; short
Iconic memory lasts for
A. a fraction of a second and retains only visual information. B.
about a second and retains only auditory information. C. about 34
seconds and retains only visual information. D. up to 20 seconds if
it is rehearsed. Short Term Memory (STM)
Limited capacity and duration Once information has been paid
attention to it moves to STM, where 72 items of information can be
held for approximately 30 seconds Capacity = 7+-2. (overcome by
chunking).
Duration = average of seconds. (over come by rehearsal). Chunking
(capacity) Remembering items in clusters and groups rather than
individually.Increase capacity by increasing the amount of
information in an item. Still 7-9 piece of info. 10, 100, 1000,
10000,1000, 100, 10 2, 0, 0, 1, 1, 9, 6, 7 = ?? Effects of
Rehearsal (duration)
Rehearsal = actively manipulating information so that it can be
retained in memory. 1) Maintenance Rehearsal: involves repeating
the information over and over to retain it in STM. Very fragile if
interrupted it becomes lost. Does little to encode or add meaning
to the information, therefore does not guarantee the retention of
information in to LTM. Extends duration 2) Elaborative Rehearsal:
manipulate new information to make it more meaningful and link it
with existing information in LTM (elaborating on information). E.g
= giving directions. Remember how to get somewhere you link it to
familiar places you already know. More active process than
maintenance rehearsal and helps the info to be encoded and
therefore more likely to be transferred to LTM. Part of elaborative
rehearsal
Self-referencing effect = involves mentally involving yourself. E.g
= remembering the name of a movie or who was in it you may think of
where and who you watched the movie with. Information in short-term
memory, at any given time, typically consists of
A. information from sensory memory only. B. information from
sensory memory and long-term memory. C. information from long-term
memory only. D. information from neither sensory nor long-term
memory. Which one of the following is an example of an elaborative
rehearsal that could be used to learn the names of a group of
people? A. writing a list of names B. looking at each face and
saying the name over and over C. rehearsing the names in
alphabetical order D. reading the names many times Long Term Memory
Is the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts
of information for a long period of time. 4 types of LTM Procedural
and Declarative. Declarative issplit into episodicand semantic
memories Info enters STM memory by attention
Info enters LTM memory by elaboration/processing Procedural Memory
how to do
Memory of actions and skills. how to do something. (tie shoe laces,
make pasta) Less likely to forget this memory Things that require
little conscious effort Implicit memories Declarative Memory
knowing that
Memories of events and facts that can be brought consciously to
mind and explicitly stated or declared. Split into 2 types Episodic
and Semantic 1) Episodic Memory: specific events or personal
experiences. details about the time, place and psychological and
physiological state of the person when the event occurred. E.g most
embarrassing moment, first day of school Your name is a semantic
memory (as you can not remember the moment you were named) stores
facts and information we know about the world.
2) Semantic Memory: stores facts and information we know about the
world. do not depend on a particular place or time but are simply
facts. E.G. Knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge,
rules, stories about the world There are 7 continents A year has
365 days Difference between Episodic and Semantic
Refers to oneself and personal experiences Refers to general
knowledge Is organised by time Not organised by time Events are
remembered consciously Information is known Susceptible to
forgetting Relatively permanent Knowing how to play tennis
What did you do last new years eve? What is the name of this
character? Note Our name is a fact = semantic memory
Not episodic because you can not remember when you were born Adam
is looking through his atlas for a suitable outline map of New
Zealand to trace.
His ability to recognise New Zealand is a function of his A.
geographical memory. B. procedural memory. C. semantic memory. D.
episodic memory. Serial Position Effect
Is the tendency to remember items from the beginning and end of a
list than the middle. Serial Position Effect When psychologists
have studied memory for serial lists (lists of words and numbers
are presented in a particular order and must be recalled in that
order), a constant finding has emerged. This is known as the serial
position effect. Shows evidence that STM and LTM are separate.
Research finding suggests, when using free recall items at the end,
then the beginning of a list are usually recalled better than those
in the middle of the list. Crown, ship, tulip, giraffe, tea, golf,
radio, emotion, shadow, purple, Germany, ice WHY? Primacy Effect
superior recall of items at the beginning of the list
Primacy Effect superior recall of items at the beginning of the
list. These words receive most attention and rehearsal therefore
they enter LTM. Recency Effect superior recall of items at the end
of a list. These words are the last words heard and are still being
help in STM. What would happen if there was a 30 second delay
between the last word and recalling them? Research suggests If
recall occurs immediately after the list is learned, the last few
items in a list are remembered best because they are still in STM.
The first few items in the list are remembered well because they
received more attention and rehearsal then other items and
therefore are transferred into LTM. Items in the middle of the list
are presented to late to be rehearsed and transferred into LTM and
too early to be held in STM without rehearsal, so they are more
likely to be forgotten. If there is a delay in the recall of items
from a list (30 seconds) the recency effect is not evident because
this exceeds the duration of STM . 30 second delay If there is a
delay in the recall of items from a list (30 seconds) the recency
effect is not evident because this exceeds the duration of STM .
Sinead listened to a list of 20 words
Sinead listened to a list of 20 words. She was asked to recall the
list 10 minutes later. Sinead was more likely to remember items
from A. both the beginning and end of the list. B. the middle of
the list. C. only the beginning of the list. D. only the end of the
list. Q Why do we not remember any of the middle words? A Inferior
recall of middle items occurs as they are beyond the capacity of
rehearsal and encoding from the beginning of the list and are
outside the capacity of short term memory (7 +-2) for items from
the end of the list. Q: Why would the recency effect disappear when
there was a 30 sec delay before subjects asked for recall? A: No
recency effects because last items could not be held in STM for
that long. Q: What would be the difference between serial recall
and any order recall? A: In serial recall there again would be no
recency effect. By the time you recited items to be remembered from
the beginning in the serial order, the items at the end could have
decayed from STM. Due to the very large capacity of the long-term
memory it is vital for us to have a mechanism in place to help us
find relevant information quickly and easily. Without organisation
in the long-term memory we would spend a very long time searching
through all of the information to find exactly what we were looking
for. One of the theories explaining organisation of the long-term
memory is called the semantic network theory. Semantic Network
Theory Organisation of information in LTM
Information in LTM is organised systematically in the form of
hierarchial networks of concepts that are interconnected and
interrelated by meaningful links. Each concept/node, is linked with
a number of other nodes. When we retrieve information, the
activation of one nodecauses related nodes to beactivated to.
Longer links between concepts = a weaker association and will take
longer to activate (and therefore retrieve) the information that is
further away. The shorter the links between concepts = the stronger
the association. This will activate other relevant memories. Notes
The retrieval of information from LTM begins with someone searching
a particular region of memory and then tracing associations for
links among concepts in that region, rather than randomly searching
the vast information stored in LTM. A theory that attempts to
describe and explain how information is arranged in long-term
memory is called the A. spreading activation theory. B. semantic
network theory. C. consolidation theory. D. serial position effect.
Which one of the following statements about semantic network theory
is not true?
A. Grouping of information in long-term memory is based on meaning.
B. Concepts with strong relationships have strong links. C.
Retrieval of a memory may trigger retrieval of other linked
memories. D. Only meaningful material can be stored in long-term
memory. Multi-store model has 1 criticism.
They explained short-term memory as being simply a passive holding
space for information. Working Memory Model was introduced by
Baddeley and Graham Working Memory (second model of memory)
Baddeley and Hitch
Is a mental workbench that allows us to manipulate (not just store
it)info from sensory and LTM. working memory is more active and
complex model for the short-term memory. Consists of Central
executive - Visuo-spatial sketchpad (sub system) Phonological loop
(sub system) Episodic buffers 1. Central Executive Uses info from
other parts of working memory. Uses info from LTM Makes decisions
(most important). Active in what we attend to or what we ignore. 2.
visuo-spatial sketchpad
Slave system Temporarily stores and manipulates information of a
visual and spatial nature from sensory memory or LTM (when trying
to produce a memory of an image) Examples: remembering shapes and
colours, location of speed of objects in space, planning of spatial
movements. 3. phonological loop Slave system
Stores and manipulates information of an auditory nature (read,
listen, speak). Consists of 2 sub-systems phonological store:
stores info articulatory control system/loop: enables you to repeat
info 4. Episodic Buffer Newest slave system Can hold info from all
parts
It will retrieve info from LTM that is necessary to perform tasks
(central executive) How all systems work together
You hear a familiar sounds (phonological loop) and as you turn your
head towards the sound you recognise it is your name is being
called out(central executive). Looking out in the distance you see
a person waving at you (visuo-spatial sketchpad), so you try to
recognise their face by selecting certain features to focus on
(central executive hair height) and placing them in the context of
being near the year 12 lockers. So the central executive accesses
LTM and retrieves their name to call out. In 2000 Baddeley added a
fourth component to the model, called the 'episodic buffer'. This
component is a third slave system, dedicated to linking information
across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and
verbal information with time sequencing (or chronological
ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene. The
episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory
and semantic meaning Brodie was playing a game while talking to his
friend
Brodie was playing a game while talking to his friend. Explain in
terms of working memory why Brodie could do both tasks. The visuo
spatial sketchpad is used for playing the game and the Phonological
loop was used when listening and The central executive was able to
coordinate the information from both stores at the same time as
they are involved in different functions. Shelley was using mental
arithmetic to calculate the cost of six bread rolls at the bakery.
Which subsystems of her working memory was Shelley using? A. the
visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the calculation, the
phonological loop to mentally say the times tables and the central
executive to integrate her knowledge of multiplication B. the
central executive to integrate her knowledge of multiplication, the
visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the calculation and echoic
memory to mentally say the times tables C. the visuo-spatial
sketchpad to visualise the calculation, the phonological loop to
integrate her knowledge of multiplication and the central executive
to mentally say the answer The visual-spatial sketchpad is
A. activated by verbal command. B. part of long-term memory. C.
part of working memory. D. part of iconic memory. Working memory
refers to
A. the temporary storage and processing of information that can be
used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands, or
achieve goals. B. memory for facts, images, thoughts, feelings,
skills and experiences that may last as long as a lifetime. C.
memory specifically dedicated to working only with semantic
memories. D. memory that is expressed in behaviour, and acquired
through conditioned learning and association Ethan is deciding
whether to catch the bus or walk to school
Ethan is deciding whether to catch the bus or walk to school.
According to Baddeleys theory of working memory, the subsystem
mainly responsible for Ethans decision making is A. the
phonological loop. B. the visuospatial sketchpad. C. the central
executive. D. the articulatory control system. Forgetting The
inability to retrieve previously stored information when it is
required. 2 categories of explanations
Cue dependent explanations= memory loss = failure to access the
necessary cues (retrieval failure) Trace dependent explanations =
memory loss = result of physical alterations to memory traces
located in the brain (interference, decay, motivated) Theories of
Forgetting Cue Dependent
1) Retrieval Failure Theory/cue dependent forgetting is an
inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues.
suggests that memories stored in LTM are not forgotten, but are
temporarily unavailable because of the lack of cues. retrieval cue
= prompt or a hinteg, photo, question, song Ads Research: results
improved from 38% (recall) to 96% when asked to recognise. Info is
organised in logical ways Dis: - Why do we forget some memories and
not others TOT phenomenon is the feeling of knowing something but
not being able toretrieve the informationat that point of time.
supports the retrievalfailure theory Indicated memory is stored in
a number ofplaces Why? Inadequate encoding: info may have been
encoded with inadequate retrieval cues Interference from similar
things: blocked by interference from similar sounding material
Trace Dependent Theories: loss occurs as a result of physical
alterations to memory traces
1) Interference Theory: forgetting occurs because other memories
interfere with the retrieval of what we are trying to recall more
similar the info = more likely it is that interference will occur
stronger the initial encoding weaker the interference 2 types A)
Proactive Interference: old info can interfere with our ability to
recall new information. E.g continue to type in your old password
PON= proactive: old interfering with new B) Retroactive
Interference: new information interferes with the ability to
retrieve old information. E.g cant remember old teachers name Tests
Proactive Interference Learn List A Password for computer
Learn List B Learn a new password Test List B Trying to remember
your new password (List B) PON = OLD (list A) interfering with new
(list B) Tests Retroactive Interference
Learn List A (witness an accident at school) Learn List B (hearing
other people talk about the accident) Test List A (attempt to
recall your own details that you remember) List A Retrograde = New
(list B ) interfering with old (list A) NOTE: In both the above
types of interference, the one factor that makes interference more
marked is the similarity of the material. Interference is greatest
when information is similar to the test material. Based on Freud
and his defence mechanisms
2) Motivated Forgetting: forgetting that arises from a strong
motive/desire to forget, usually because the experience is too
upsetting to remember. Based on Freud and his defence mechanisms 2
types Repression an unconscious process, which an individual blocks
a memory from entering conscious awareness. Freud - Block bc it is
too psychological painful or unpleasant to remember the specific
information. Seen as a survival mechanism. Suppression: being
motivated to forget by making a deliberate, conscious effort to
keep it out of C awareness. remains aware but actively choose not
to think about it. Weakness of motivated forgetting
Strong emotions result in vivid memories not forgetting Maybe false
memories Some unpleasant memories, such as car accidents or victims
of assault, may be lost due to interruption to consolidation rather
than repression 3) Decay Theory: forgetting occurs because a memory
trace fades through disuse as time passes.
synaptic connections in the neurons decreases This theory is most
relevant to explain memory loss in STM. However the idea of decay
in LTM is not as widely accepted. Weaknesses of decay theory:
Doesn't explain why some elderly people still have vivid memories
that occurred in early childhood even if they do not use them
Suggests memories are not permanent Also over time memories can be
found therefore other factors rather than decay of memory
tracesover time may be responsible for memory loss. Other reasons
we forget
Organic causes of forgetting = Brain damage in the memory area due
to physiological causes. Damage can be from: disease, stroke, head
injury, long term alcoholism, severe malnutrition, brain surgery or
aging. Korsakoffs syndrome - is a neurological disorder caused by a
lack of thiamine in the brain. Linked to chronic alcohol abuse or
severe malnutrition. Which theory explains that forgetting is a
result of a fading memory trace?
A. decay theory B. consolidation theory C. levels of processing
theory D. motivated forgetting theory When phoning her sister at
work Olivia asks the receptionist for her sister by her original
surname, rather than her married surname, which Olivias sister now
uses. According to the interference theory of forgetting this is an
example of A. proactive interference. B. retrograde interference.
C. retroactive interference. D. anterograde interference. According
to the decay theory of forgetting
A. early memories are lost because of competition from the many
subsequent memories formed. B. the right cues for retrieval are
lost over time. C. the rate of forgetting increases with age. D. a
memory is lost because its physical trace fades. Proactive
interference is the term used when
A. previously learnt information makes it difficult to remember new
information. B. new information makes it difficult to remember
previously learnt information. C. a head injury makes it difficult
to remember information learnt after the injury. D. a head injury
causes information known before the injury to be forgotten. Fred
suffered a stroke. The forgetting caused by Freds stroke is an
example of A. an organic cause of forgetting. B. motivated
forgetting. C. decay theory. D. old age. Jenny had a brain injury
two years ago
Jenny had a brain injury two years ago. She now finds that although
she remembers and recognises her old friends, she cannot remember
people she has met since the injury. She is most likely suffering
from A. retrograde amnesia. B. retroactive interference. C.
proactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia Marika carries out
an experiment on memory
Marika carries out an experiment on memory. She performs a test of
significance and finds that p < 0.05. This means that A. there
is a less than 5% chance that the results are due to chance. B.
there is a greater than 5% chance that the results are due to
chance. C. less than 5% of the results are due to chance. D. more
than 5% of the results are due to chance. A psychologist tests
memory recall under two different conditions.
A test of significance finds that p > 0.05. This means that
there is a A. less than 5 in 100 chance that the results are due to
chance. B. greater than 5 in 100 chance that the results are due to
chance. C. less than 5% difference between the results of the two
conditions tested. D. greater than 5% difference between the
results of the two conditions tested. Manipulation and Improvement
of Memory The FORGETTING CURVE Ebbinghaus and his forgetting curve:
Used nonsense syllables to investigate the rate and amount of
forgetting over time. Nonsense syllables (3 letters consisting of a
vowel in between) eg. BOF Why: meaningless, didnt form associations
with already-learnt words in memory, difficult to encode. The
Forgetting Curve More than half the memory loss occurs within the
first hour of learning Graph shows that forgetting is rapid soon
after the original learning, then the rate of memory loss gradually
declines, followed by stability in the memories that remain. 22
minutes = 42% lost 1 hour = 55% lost First 8 hours = 65% lost The
forgetting curve applies regardless of how long the material is
studied
However The forgetting curve for meaningless information is steeper
than for meaningful material. Note: when nonsense syllablewords
were not used , the rate of forgetting followed a path similar to
the curve, but was not as fast Limitation does not tell us the
cause of forgetting. Ebbinghaus is known for his work on the
features of the forgetting curve. When Ebbinghaus tested subjects
on their ability to recall nonsense syllables he found that the
rate of forgetting was A. steady for the first two days followed by
little decline after that. B. slow for the first 8 hours followed
by a rapid decline for two days. C. slow for the first 20 minutes
followed by a rapid decline for two days. D. rapid for the first 30
minutes, then slowing with little decline after two days. Measures
of RETENTION 3 types
methods used to find out how much information has been retained. 1)
Recall: requires a person to recover stored information using
minimal amount of cues to assist retrieval (also 3 types of
recall). Types of recall A) Free Recall: recalling information in
no particular order with little cues (a list of grocery items,
short answer questions) least sensitive B) Serial Recall: recalling
information in the order it was presented ( list of places you are
visiting for an overseas journey in correct order, what you have
eaten all day in order, words from a list) C) Cued Recall: where
various prompts (cues) are used to assist the retrieval of
information (this surname is short and begins with D! this place is
hot, is a tourist destination and a bomb went of their in 2002!) 2)
Recognition involves identifying the correct information from
incorrect alternatives. E.G multi choice questions, recognising a
killer from a range of pictures) E.G if you were asked to remember
the names of the people in your English class last year how many
would you remember with no cues?? compared to if you were asked to
remember the people in your English class from a lost of 50 names??
3) Relearning method of savings
learning information again (another occasion) that has been
previously learnt. Measure the amount of information saved from
previous learning. Most sensitive = most detected. E.G, toddler
takes 5 min to do up shoe lace the first time, then 3 min to do it
the next time. Toddler has actually saved 2 minutes, thus providing
an estimate of retention Note: If a person learns something more
quickly the second time, then we can assume that they have
remembered something from the first time it was learnt. Saving
Score Way to measure the saving from each learning.
Saving score (ebbinghaus) = a way of measuring the amount of
information saved from previous learning. NOTE: Time can be
replaced with number of trial (5 3) / 5 X 100 = 40 (40% has been
retained) Relative sensitivity of measures of retention
Effort required to access the memory Recall = least sensitive (most
effort) Recognition = less sensitive than relearning but more
sensitive than recall Relearning = most sensitive (least effort)
Note The most sensitive measure of retention is not necessarily the
one that produces the greatest amount of retrieved information.
Relearning = try to remember original information you are not going
to remember as much as if you are able to recognise the
information. Therefore recognition results in the most information
remembered Which of the following statements is the most
accurate?
A. Relearning is a less sensitive measure of retention than
recognition. B. Recall is a more sensitive measure of retention
than recognition. C. The most sensitive measure of retention is
recognition. D. The most sensitive measure of retention is
relearning. A. recognition; relearning B. recognition; recall
Michael began a job as a salesman for a pharmaceutical company. He
had to learn the names and uses of the companys 30 products before
he was allowed to begin selling. To test his knowledge, he was
asked to state the names and uses of the 30 products (Task 1).
Michael did not do well on Task 1 so he was given a list of 40
products and their uses, including the 30 he had studied, and was
asked to identify the original 30 products (Task 2). Task 1 is a
test of _____________ and Task 2 is a test of _____________ . A.
recognition; relearning B. recognition; recall C. recall;
recognition D. recall; relearning When Jane was 19 she completed
the first two units of a German language course. Ten years later,
she began the course again and found that she learned the material
in the fist two units 25% more quickly than she did originally.
This is probably because A. relearning is the most sensitive
measure of memory. B. the savings score could be calculated. C. the
material in the first two units was the easiest. D. she was older
and therefore her memory worked better. Which of the following is
the least sensitive measure of memory retention?
A. free recall B. recognition C. relearning D. cued recall Context
and State Dependent cues
1) Context dependent cues: environmental cues where memories were
formed that act as a retrieval cue. E.G : sounds, smells,
temperature, sights. Example = preparing for exams use similar
timings, location and structure of the exam then given a recall
test either in the same or different conditions.
Eg. criminal cases, where people are taken back to the context in
order to prompt their memory of the crime. It reminds us of the
power of context dependent cues as far as our memory is concerned.
Research: Participants were initially asked to learn a list of
words on land or 20 feet underwater then given a recall test either
in the same or different conditions. Those who learnt on land
recalled much more on land while those who learnt underwater did
better when tested underwater. 2) State-dependent cues: internal
physiological and psychological cues that act as retrieval cues at
the time the memory was formed. Research: Two groups of
participants in two stages
Research:Two groups of participants in two stages. First, the
experimental group learn information while in a special state
(alcohol or marijuana) while the control group learns in no special
state at all. In the second stage of the study, participants are
tested for recall in the same state in which they learnt or in a
different state. Results show that participants do better when in
the same state as they learnt compared to a different state. The
police took Derek back to the park so that he might be able to
remember more detail about the woman he had seen. The police did
this because they hoped that _____________ would help Derek to
remember. A. method of loci B. narrative chaining C.
state-dependent cues D. context-dependent cues Mnemonic devices Are
techniques used for enhancing or improving memory
How Encoding info more efficiently imagery and rehearsal Linking
with info already in LTM 1) Acronyms: Words which are formed from
the initial letters of other words.
EG: Roy G Biv for red orange yellow green blue indigo violet ANZAC
= Australian and NewZealand Army Corps EFTPOS = electronic funds
transfer at the point of sale created using a version of chunking
Examples news - North, east, west, south
Laser Light Amplified by the stimulated emission of radiationWHO =
world health organisation AAMI = Australian Associated Motor
Insurers 2) Acrostics: phrases or poems where the first letter of
each word functions as a cue to help memory
Remembering the planets: my very energetic mother just sits up near
pop (mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune,
pluto) Musical notes = every good boy deserves fruit. E,G,B,D,F
Does sue ever paint declarative, semantic, episodic, procedural
Acronyms use initials to form a name/word,Acrostics take initials
from each concept to form a sentence 3) Narrative Chaining:
involves linking otherwise unrelated items to one another to form a
meaningful sequence or story (narrative) Put these words into a
story Soup, head, goal, dance, shirt, stream, ice-cream The man
with the bowl of soup on his head kicked a goal and then danced all
night. When he awoke the next day, his shirt was filthy so he
washed it in the stream and then ran to get an ice-cream.
Advantages and Limitations
Ads: - encoding information through elaborative rehearsal. -
linking it with information already in long-term memory. -
Retrieval of a part of the information assists retrieval of the
rest (image). Dis: - more effective for information that can be put
in word list form (not complex material) used for smaller units of
information Eyewitness testimony effects of leading questions
Eyewitness testimonies: identifying the perpetrator of illegal
behaviour. The research of Elizabeth Loftus: found the type of
question(s) presented can have a major impact on peoples memory.
First experiment: Aim: to investigate the effect of leading
questions on the accuracy of speed estimates in a perceived car
crash. Showed a film of a car accident, then asked questions
Leading questions = suggests to the witness what answer is desired
by including false information. Research questions: about how fast
were the cars going when they contacted each other?
The verb contacted was varied (as the IV) with hit, bumped,
collided or smashed being used. All together 5 different groups/5
conditions. The participants estimates of speed (the DV) were
plotted against the verb. Results Results suggest ppl can integrate
new and false information from leading questions making memory
wrong. A week later Loftus also asked same participants
Q = did you see any broken glass? Results = people who had been
asked with the smash = 32% compared to those who had been asked
with hit = 14% Second Experiment 1) Did you see the broken
headlight? Or 2) did you see a broken headlight? IV = wording of
the question DV = if they saw or didn't see a broken head light
knowing that there had been none. Results Witness thinks they have
missed it so they add it into their memory. Conclusion: memory of
an event is not always accurate but a reconstruction due to leading
questions which contain false information. Memory is more likely to
be accurate if leading questions aren't used. Leading questions can
mislead eyewitnesses and cause them to incorrectly believe
information.