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1
ORGANIZATION OF LEARNINGS
Füsun AKARSU
Istanbul 2005
2
Elements of a System
Basic Concepts in Educational Design
Development
Learning
Intervention
Change
Need
Experience
Success
Achievement
Instruction
Individualized learning
Differentiation
Teaching
Education
Measuring learning
Assessment
Evaluation
3
Learning
John Dewey:
Experience
Learning by doing
References:
Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. Publishers.
Dewey, J. (1974). John Dewey on Education. University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, J. (1981). The Philosophy of John Dewey: The Structure of Experience. Volume 2: The
Lived Experience. University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, J. (1982). Experience and Nature. Illionis: Open Court Publishing Company.
Fishman, S. M., McCarthy, L. P., Notes, M., Comments, A. (1998). John Dewey and the challenge of classroom practice.
NewYork, Urbana: Teachers College Press.
Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of reflective thought and action.
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19, 54-72.
Smith J.P. & Girod M. (2003). John Dewey & psychologizing the subject-matter: big ideas, ambitious teaching, and
teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19,295-307.
Jean Piaget:
Adaptation
Disequilibrium
Assimilation
Accommodation
Schemas
Structures
Experience
o Physical
o Mental
Four stages of intellectual development
o Sensorimotor Stage
o Pre-operational Stage
o Concrete Operational Stage
o Formal Operational Stage
References:
Inhelder, B. &Piaget, J. (1999). The early growth of logic in the child: classification and seriation. London: Routledge.
Piaget, J. (1959). Judgment and reasoning in the child. London: Routledge & K. Paul.
Piaget, J. (1978). The development of thought: equilibration of cognitive structures. Oxford: B. Blackwell.
4
Piaget, J. (1999). The Construction of Reality in the Child. London: Routledge.
Piaget, J. & Coltman, D. (1971). Science of education and the psychology of the child. Harlow]: Longman
Piaget, J. & Cook, M. (1955). The child's construction of reality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. & Cook, M. (1998). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. Madison, Conn.: International Universities Press.
Piaget, J. Gabian, M. (1977). The Moral Judgement of the Child. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Piaget, J., Piercy, M., Berlin, D. E. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge.
Lev Vygotsky:
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding
References:
Berk, L. E., Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington:
National Association for the Education of Young.
Frawley, W. (1997). Vygotsky and Cognitive Science: Language and the Unification of the Social and Computational
Mind. Harvard University Press.
Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's psychology: a biography of ideas. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Lloyd, P. & Fernyhough, C. (1999). Lev Vygotsky: critical assessments. London; New York: Routledge.
Smith, L. Dockrell, J. Tomlinson, P. (1997). Piaget, Vygotsky and beyond: future issues for developmental psychology
and education. London; New York: Routledge.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. Harvard University Press.
B. F. Skinner:
Reinforcement
References:
Skinner, B. F. (1969). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Cambridge, Mass. Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1992). Science and human behavior. New York: Classics of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences Press.
Skinner, B. F. (2003). The technology of teaching. Acton, Mass.: Copley Publish.
5
Constructivism
Mental Action
Active construction of knowledge
References:
Ertmer, P. A. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design
perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6 (4), 50.
Fosnot, C. T. (1996). Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Journal of
Educational Research, 39 (3), 5-14.
Hannafin, M. J., Hannafin, K. M., Land, S. M. and Oliver, K. (1997). Grounded practice and the design of constructivist
learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (3), 101-117. Honebein, P. C., Duffy, T. M. and Fishman, B. J. (1993). Constructivism and the design of learning environments:
context and authentic activities for learning. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, and D. H. Jonassen (Eds.) Designing
environments for constructive learning, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 87-108.
Tam, M. (2000). Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for Transforming Distance
Learning. Educational Technology & Society 3(2).
Principles for Brain Based Learning
References:
Davis, A. (2004). The Credentials of Brain-Based Learning. Journal of philosophy of education, 38, (1), 21.
Jensen, E. (1998). Brain-Based Learning: A Reality Check. Educational Leadership, 57, 76.
Jenson, E. (2000). Brain-based Learning. Revised Ed. San Diego: The Brain Store.
The brain is a parallel processor. Learning engages the entire physiology. The search for meaning is innate. The search for meaning occurs through "patterning." Emotions are critical to patterning. Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates
parts and wholes.
Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.
Learning always involves a conscious and an unconscious process.
We have two types of memory: a spatial memory system and a rote learning system.
The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded in natural spatial memory.
Learning is enhanced by challenge; inhibited by threat and fear.
Each brain is unique.
6
Lawson, J. R. (2001). Brain-based learning: The brain is the seat of all learning. Encyclopedia of Educational
Technology.
Politano, C. Paquin, J. (2000). Brain-based learning with class. Winnipeg: Portage & Main Press.
Weiss, R. P. (July, 2000). Brain-Based Learning: The Wave of Brain. Training & Development, 20-24.
Butz, T. S. (1998). Effects of brain-based learning activities in the classroom. Gratz College Organization of Learnings
Learnings
Learning Milieux Assessment
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Three Domains of Learning
There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin
Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities:
1. Cognitive Domain : Mental skills (Knowledge)
2. Affective Domain: Growth in feelings or
emotional areas (Attitude)
Affective
Domain
Cognitive
Domain
Psychomotor
Domain
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3. Psychomotor Domain: Manual or physical skills (Skills)
Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little
bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers
often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This
taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the training
process." That is, after the training session, the learner should have acquires new
skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.
The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and
affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this
oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the
college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama
department).
This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the
simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and
there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational
and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably
the most widely applied one in use today.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are
six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest
behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of
difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take
place.
I. Knowledge
II. Intellectual Skills and Abilities
8
1. Comprehension
2. Application
3. Analysis
4. Synthesis
5. Evaluation
9
Category Example and Key Words
Knowledge: Recall
data or information.
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a
customer. Knows the safety rules.
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels,
lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states, arranges, memorizes, orders,
relates, repeats.
Comprehension:
Understand the
meaning, translation,
interpolation, and
interpretation of
instructions and
problems. State a
problem in one's own
words.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain
in one’s own words the steps for performing a complex
task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes,
gives examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts,
rewrites, summarizes, translates.
Application: Use a
concept in a new
situation or
unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies
what was learned in
the classroom into
novel situations in the
work place.
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee’s vacation
time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of
a written test.
Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analysis: Separates
material or concepts
into component parts
so that its
organizational
structure may be
understood.
Distinguishes
between facts and
inferences.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using
logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in
reasoning. Gathers information from a department and
selects the required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers,
outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Synthesis: Builds a
structure or pattern
from diverse
elements. Put parts
together to form a
whole, with emphasis
on creating a new
Examples: Write a company operations or process manual.
Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates
training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises
and process to improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes,
creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies,
organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
10
References:
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Cognitive domain. Sl]: Longman.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives : the classification of educational goals / by a committee of
college and university examiners. New York : David McKay. Bloom, B. S., Hastings, J. T., Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on the formative and summative evaluation of student
learning. New York;[Maidenhead]: McGraw-Hill.
Bloom, B. S., Krathwohl, D. R., Masia, B. B. (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of
educational goals. New York: Longman.
Affective Domain
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five
major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Category Example and Key Words
Receiving Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to
hear, selected attention.
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and
remember the name of newly introduced people.
Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds,
identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects,
replies, uses.
Responding to Phenomena:
Active participation on the
part of the learners. Attends
and reacts to a particular
phenomenon. Learning
outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a
presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc.
in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules
and practices them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices,
presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
11
Valuing: The worth or value a
person attaches to a
particular object,
phenomenon, or behavior. This
ranges from simple
acceptance to the more
complex state of
commitment. Valuing is based
on the internalization of a set
of specified values, while
clues to these values are
expressed in the learner’s
overt behavior and are often
identifiable.
Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic
process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve
problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows
through with commitment. Informs management on matters
that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates,
explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies,
proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
Organization: Organizes
values into priorities by
contrasting different values,
resolving conflicts between
them, and creating an unique
value system. The emphasis
is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.
Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between
freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility
for oneís behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning
in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical
standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities,
interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet
the needs of the organization, family, and self.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes,
identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes,
prepares, relates, synthesizes.
Internalizing values
(characterization): Has a
value system that controls
their behavior. The behavior
is pervasive, consistent,
predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of
the learner. Instructional
objectives are concerned with
the student's general
Examples: Shows self-reliance when working
independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays
teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.
Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on
a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in
light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not
how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences,
listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies,
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patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional).
questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The
seven major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Category Example and Key Words
Perception: The ability to use
sensory cues to guide motor
activity. This ranges from
sensory stimulation, through
cue selection, to translation.
Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues.
Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then
moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts
heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste
of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by
comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates,
distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It
includes mental, physical, and
emotional sets. These three
sets are dispositions that
predetermine a person’s
response to different
situations (sometimes called
mindsets).
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a
manufacturing process. Recognize one’s abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process
(motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is
closely related with the "Responding to phenomena"
subdivision of the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds,
reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as
13
stages in learning a complex
skill that includes imitation and
trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by
practicing.
demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model.
Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce,
responds
Mechanism: This is the
intermediate stage in learning a
complex skill. Learned
responses have become
habitual and the movements can
be performed with some
confidence and proficiency.
Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking
faucet. Drive a car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs,
dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response: The
skillful performance of motor
acts that involve complex
movement patterns. Proficiency
is indicated by a quick,
accurate, and highly
coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of
energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation,
and automatic
performance. For example,
players are often utter sounds
of satisfaction or expletives as
soon as they hit a tennis ball or
throw a football, because they
can tell by the feel of the act
what the result will produce.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking
spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately.
Displays competence while playing the piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs,
dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but
will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the
performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well
developed and the individual
can modify movement patterns
to fit special requirements.
Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected
experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of
the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was
not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and
14
there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,
reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new
movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific
problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based
upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and
comprehensive training programming. Creates a new
gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes,
constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.
Applying Bloom’s Taxonomy
15
Knowledge
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
tell
list
describe
relate
locate
write
find
state
name
What happened after...?
How many...?
Who was it that...?
Can you name the...?
Describe what happened at...?
Who spoke to...?
Can you tell why...?
Find the meaning of...?
What is...?
Which is true or false...?
Make a list of the main events..
Make a timeline of events.
Make a facts chart.
Write a list of any pieces of
information you can remember.
List all the .... in the story.
Make a chart showing...
Make an acrostic.
Recite a poem.
Comprehension
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
explain
interpret
outline
discuss
distinguish
predict
restate
translate
compare
describe
Can you write in your own
words...?
Can you write a brief outline...?
What do you think could of
happened next...?
Who do you think...?
What was the main idea...?
Who was the key character...?
Can you distinguish between...?
What differences exist
between...?
Can you provide an example of
what you mean...?
Can you provide a definition
for...?
Cut out or draw pictures to show a
particular event.
Illustrate what you think the main
idea was.
Make a cartoon strip showing the
sequence of events.
Write and perform a play based on
the story.
Retell the story in your words.
Paint a picture of some aspect you
like.
Write a summary report of an event.
Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the
sequence of events.
Make a colouring book.
Application
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
16
solve
show
use
illustrate
construct
complete
examine
classify
Do you know another
instance where...?
Could this have happened
in...?
Can you group by
characteristics such
as...?
What factors would you
change if...?
Can you apply the
method used to some
experience of your
own...?
What questions would
you ask of...?
From the information
given, can you develop a
set of instructions
about...?
Would this information
be useful if you had a ...?
Construct a model to demonstrate
how it will work.
Make a diorama to illustrate an
important event.
Make a scrapbook about the areas
of study.
Make a paper-mache map to include
relevant information about an event.
Take a collection of photographs to
demonstrate a particular point.
Make up a puzzle game suing the
ideas from the study area.
Make a clay model of an item in the
material.
Design a market strategy for your
product using a known strategy as a
model.
Dress a doll in national costume.
Paint a mural using the same
materials.
Write a textbook about... for
others.
Analysis
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
17
analyse
distinguish
examine
compare
contrast
investigate
categorise
identify
explain
separate
advertise
Which events could have
happened...?
I ... happened, what might
the ending have been?
How was this similar to...?
What was the underlying
theme of...?
What do you see as other
possible outcomes?
Why did ... changes occur?
Can you compare your ...
with that presented in...?
Can you explain what must
have happened when...?
How is ... similar to ...?
What are some of the
problems of...?
Can you distinguish
between...?
What were some of the
motives behind...?
What was the turning
point in the game?
What was the problem
with...?
Design a questionnaire to gather
information.
Write a commercial to sell a new
product.
Conduct an investigation to produce
information to support a view.
Make a flow chart to show the
critical stages.
Construct a graph to illustrate
selected information.
Make a jigsaw puzzle.
Make a family tree showing
relationships.
Put on a play about the study area.
Write a biography of the study
person.
Prepare a report about the area of
study.
Arrange a party. Make all the
arrangements and record the steps
needed.
Review a work of art in terms of
form, colour and texture.
Synthesis
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
create
invent
compose
Can you design a ... to ...?
Why not compose a song about...?
Can you see a possible solution
Invent a machine to do a specific task.
Design a building to house your study.
Create a new product. Give it a name
18
predict
plan
construct
design
imagine
propose
devise
formulate
to...?
If you had access to all resources
how would you deal with...?
Why don't you devise your own
way to deal with...?
What would happen if...?
How many ways can you...?
Can you create new and unusual
uses for...?
Can you write a new recipe for a
tasty dish?
can you develop a proposal which
would...
and plan a marketing campaign.
Write about your feelings in relation
to...
Write a TV show, play, puppet show,
role play, song or pantomime about...?
Design a record, book, or magazine
cover for...?
Make up a new language code and write
material suing it.
Sell an idea.
Devise a way to...
Compose a rhythm or put new words to
a known melody.
Evaluation
Useful Verbs Sample Question Stems Potential activities and products
judge
select
choose
decide
justify
debate
verify
argue
recommend
assess
discuss
rate
prioritise
determine
Is there a better solution to...
Judge the value of...
Can you defend your position
about...?
Do you think ... is a good or a bad
thing?
How would you have handled...?
What changes to ... would you
recommend?
Do you believe?
Are you a ... person?
How would you feel if...?
How effective are...?
What do you think about...?
Prepare a list of criteria to judge a ...
show. Indicate priority and ratings.
Conduct a debate about an issue of
special interest.
Make a booklet about 5 rules you see as
important. Convince others.
Form a panel to discuss views, eg
"Learning at School."
Write a letter to ... advising on changes
needed at...
Write a half yearly report.
Prepare a case to present your view
about...
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY:
Sample Questions
Knowledge
o remembering;
o memorizing;
19
o recognizing;
o recalling identification and
o recall of information
Who, what, when, where, how ...?
Describe
vh Comprehension
o interpreting;
o translating from one medium to another;
o describing in one's own words;
o organization and selection of facts and ideas
Retell...
kj Application
o problem solving;
o applying information to produce some result;
o use of facts, rules and principles
How is...an example of...?
How is...related to...?
Why is...significant?
hjg Analysis
o subdividing something to show how it is put together;
o finding the underlying structure of a communication;
o identifying motives;
o separation of a whole into component parts
What are the parts or features of...?
Classify...according to...
Outline/diagram...
How does...compare/contrast with...?
What evidence can you list for...?
df Synthesis
o creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be
a physical object;
o combination of ideas to form a new whole
What would you predict/infer from...?
What ideas can you add to...?
How would you create/design a new...?
20
What might happen if you combined...?
What solutions would you suggest for...?
jh Evaluation
o making value decisions about issues;
o resolving controversies or differences of opinion;
o development of opinions, judgements or decisions
Do you agree...?
What do you think about...?
What is the most important...?
Place the following in order of priority...
How would you decide about...?
What criteria would you use to assess...?
References:
Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (Eds.) (2001). A taxonomy for Learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
Learning Milieux
21
Table II. Evaluation of Organization of Learnings
Table I. Organization of Learnings
Name of the Group:
Learnings Activities Materials Measurement Instruments Place Time (mnts)
22
The name of the group that is being evaluated:
Strongly
Agree
Strongly Disagree
CONTENT 5 4 3 2 1
1 Prior learnings have been considered.
2 Learnings/objectives are clearly specified.
3 Learnings are related to the curriculum content.
4 Learnings are related to each other.
5 Activities are in line with the objectives.
6 Activities are well organized.
7 Transitions between activities and objectives and between other activities are well planned.
8 The material chosen are in line with the activities.
9 The measurement instruments measure the objectives.
10 The physical milieux are appropriate for learning.
11 Time to actualize learning is adequate.
12 The lesson has an effective ending.
13 Feedback is recevived.
Strongly
Agree
Strongly Disagree
APPLICATION 5 4 3 2 1
1 Advance organizers are effective
2 Well planned
3 Interesting
4 Participation of the group members are well balanced
5 Well integrated, coherent
6 Dynamic/active
7 Clear and easy to understand
8 Runs smoothly
9 Appropriate for the target group
10 Fun
Table III. Instructional Techniques
23
Teaching Oriented
Learning Oriented
Traditional
Lecture
Demonstration Class
Discussion
Role Playing Projects Independent
Study
Story Telling Video
Presentation
Peer
Learning
Library
Search
Learning
Centers
Programmed
Tutoring
Simulation Excursions Inquiry Individualized
Learning
Drill and
Practice
Cooperative
Learning
Discovery
Drama Problem-
based
Learning
Games and
Play
References:
http://www.meb.gov.tr
Johanna, K. L. (2002). Curriculum and instructional methods for the elementary and middle school. Upper Saddle River,
N.J. : Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). The differentiated classroom : responding to the needs of all learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ :
Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Schneider, E. (2000). Dynamic assessment and instructional strategies for learners who struggle to learn a foreign
language. Dyslexia, 6(1), 72.
Tate, M. L. (2003). Worksheets don’t grow dendrites: 20 instructional syrategies that engage the brain. California:
Corwin Press, Inc.
Alvarado, A. E. (2003). Inquiry-based learning using everyday objects: Hands on instructional strategies that promote
active learning in grade 3-8. California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Assessment
Measurement
Measures /Scales
24
o Validity
o Reliability
Measuring Learnings
Process: Portfolio
Product: Proficiency
References:
Airasian, P. W. (2000). The theory and practice of portfolio and performance assessment. Journal of Teacher Education,
51, 398.
Losardo, A. (2001). Alternative approaches to assessing young children. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co. Earl, L. M. (2003). Assessment as learning : using classroom assessment to maximize student learning. Thousand
Oaks, Calif. : Corwin Press.
Purpura, J. E. (2004). Assessing grammar. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, U.K. : Cambridge University Press. O'Malley, J. M. & Pierce, L. V. (1996). Authentic assessment for English language learners : Practical approaches for
teachers. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Taylor, C. T. & Nolen, S. B. (2005). Classroom assessment : supporting teaching and learning in real classrooms. Upper
Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION:
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51, 398.
Alvarado, A. E. (2003). Inquiry-based learning using everyday objects: Hands on instructional strategies that promote
active learning in grade 3-8. California: Corwin Press, Inc.
25
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