Organisation Behaviour

Definition and Meaning:• “Organisational Behaviour is concerned with the

study of the behaviour of people working in an organization. It involves the understanding, predicting and controlling of human behaviour and the factors which influence the performance of these people.”

“Fred Luthans” • “Organisation is the study of the organizational

components and their impact on human behaviour and oranisational performances. Such study can be benefited from various behavioural nad social sciences.”

“S.P.Robbins”

Features of OB-

• OB is the study of human behaviour.• Study of behaviour in an oraganisation.• Knowledge would be useful in improving

an oraganisation’s effectiveness.For exp. When we talk about caring

oranisation we actually caring about the philosophy, attitude and action of top managers.

Characteristics of OB:• Action and goal oriented discipline.• Science as well as art.• Multidisciplinary Integrated approach.• It’s a human tool for human benefits.• Three levels of analysis- Individual, group and

organization behaviour.• Wholistic concept of whole system.• Mutual interest of people and organization. Individuals

view organization as a means to achieve their goals while at the same time organization wish that individuals must work towards the achievement of organizational goal.

Essential elements of OB:

The study of OB involves consideration of interaction among the formal structure, the task to be undertaken, the technology employed and the methods of carrying out work, the behaviour of people, the process of management and the external environment.

Essential elements of OB

Ext EnvironmentPeople-individual & group

Organisation’s Structure

Technology

• People- Individual: The individual is the central theme of OB

• Group: Groups exists in organization can be small and large, official and informal. They are dynamics in nature.OB studies the groups in organization.

• Organisation Structure: Every organisation has an structure aims to establish the relation between people and organization. People play different roles in organization and they have different relation with each other.OB is the study of these relations.

• Environment: External environment affects the organization through developments, political activities, social and cultural influences and governmental actions.

• Technology: Technological changes influences the work and working conditions. It affects the behaviour of people in organization.

Scope of OB: It includes the effects of organization on human being and of human beings on

organizations. It includes three levels these are-Individual, Group and Organisation.

• Individual process-• Learning• Perception• Motivation• Personality• Group process-• Leadership• Communication• Attitude• Group Behaviour• Organisational Process-• Organizational structure• OD• Organisational theories• Rewards

Contribution of other sciences to OB:

Psychology-• Personality• Perception• Attitude• Learning• Motivation• Job Satisfaction

Sociology- • Group Dynamics• Communication• Leadership• Conflict• Power and Politics• Organisation Structure• Formal and Informal OrganizationAnthropology-• Individual Culture• Organisational Culture• Organisational Environment• Climate

IMPORTANCE OF OB:• OB helps an individual understand himself and

others better.• Helps to maintain cordial relation in the

organization. OB helps to understand the reasons of poor industrial relations and take step to improve relations.

• The job of a manager is to get things done through others. OB helps the manager to understand the basis of motivation and the step to motivate the subordinates.

• OB helps to fulfill both employees’ and organisation need.

• OB suggest the approaches to create organizational climate in totally rather than merely improving the psychological conditions. Helps to create the atmosphere of mutual trust and the sense of accomplishment.

• OB helps improving communication in organization. To achieve organizational effectiveness the communication must be effective.

• OB offers the career opportunity in the management as a profession.

• Understanding human behaviour could yield the understanding of market scenario. The understanding of consumer behaviour helps to grow the business.

Concepts of OB:• Concepts related with nature of man:

– Individual differences- OB is based on the assumption that individual differ in intelligence, aptitude,attitude,personality, skill etc. Which helps organization in selection and placement of right people for various jobs.

– Whole person- The person comes to the work place as a complete person, he has his background, emotions, sentiments which can not be separated from the skills he is used on the job. So OB studies the whole person for using his skills in best way.

– Causation of Human behaviour- human behaviour is caused by needs which can be directed and controlled in order to get the desired results from human being.

– Human Dignity- A Person has mind to think and heart to feel. He has emotions which should be respected by the organization for better achievements.

• Concepts relating to Nature of Organisation:– Social System- Organisation is a social

system which co-ordinates the activities of its members for the achievement of common goals. OB is dynamics in nature as groups are there in organization.

• Mutual Interest- Mutual interest is defined that “organizations need people and people need organizations

Motivation:It is an inner striving condition which activate or moves individual into

action and continues him in the course of action enthusiastically. Each person is uniquely different and complex entity. What motivates

one person may not motivate the other.Rensis Likert has defined motivation as the core of management.

Motivation is an important function performed by manager for actuating the people to work for the accomplishment of organizational objectives.

Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being to initiate work-related behaviour, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.

“Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated.”

Dubin Motivation is the process of attempting to influence other to do your will

through the possibility of gain or rewards.”Fllippo

Functions of motivation:• Proper utilization of HR • Willingness to work leading to greater job satisfaction.• An effective instrument.• Good human relations.• Lower turnover and absenteeism.• Better public image.• Lesser grievances • The incentives activate the motives. Incentive is the mean to motivation.Need is the starting point of motivation. An unsatisfied need creates tension that

stimulate drive within the individual.

Need------- Tension------Search-----Performance------Reward

Need Satisfaction

These motives or needs can be Primary and Secondary-Primary-These are basic need as food, water, sleep, clothing etc.Secondary- These are related to mind and spirit, rather than physiological these are

psychological needs as self-esteem, recognition, belongingness etc.

Models of Motivation or Motivation Theories

• 1. McGregor’s Participation Model.• 2. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model.• 3. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model.

McGregor’s Participation Model-Douglas Macgregor put forward 2 sets of assumptions about human being

which he thought were implied by the actions of autocratic and permissive managers. The first set of assumptions is contained in “Theory X” and second set of assumptions in “Theory Y”. These sets were not based on any research.

Theory X- It believes that autocratic managers often make the following assumption about their subordinates. According to this theory managers think that their subordinates generally have these characteristics-

• People have an inherent dislike for work and generally avoid it.• They are lazy by nature and avoid responsibility.• They prefer to be directed, have relatively little ambition and wants security

above all.• These average human being indifferent to organizational goals.According to this theory management has to offer reward and punishment to

the workers to make the productive and motivate them to do their job. This is called carrot and stick approach to motivation. It suggests the autocratic style for leadership. People who come under this theory, their physiological and security needs satisfaction are the ways to motivate them.

• Theory Y- People whose social, esteem and self actualization needs are becoming important, for them theory Y will be applicable. According to the assumptions of this theory people are in general-

• Does not inherently dislike the work. Depending upon conditions, work may be source of satisfaction or a source of punishment.

• These human beings will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.

• They learn under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to seek responsibility.

• Commitment to the objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievements.

• They have capacity to exercise high degree of imagination and creativity to solve the organizational issues.

• The basic problem of any organization is to secure the commitment from the workers to organizational goals. That is directly related to the satisfaction of their needs. This theory does not rely on the use of authority as an instrument of command and control. According to this theory employees could be motivated by delegating authority, job enlargement, empowerment.

Theory Z- It is given by William Ouchi which focuses on Japanese style of management.

• Strong bond between organization and employees.• Group participation.• Mutual interest.• Non- hierarchical organization structure.• Human resource development.Application of theory X and theory Y- Practically no man

would belong completely to either theory X or theory Y. These theories are the best tool to understand human behaviour and to design the program to motivate the employees. Theory X is more applicable on unskilled employees whose basic needs are more important for them. And theory Y is applicable on the higher level skilled employees who understand their responsibility and are self controlled. Thus management can use the amalgamation of both the theories to motivate the employees.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model

Maslow developed a theoretical framework for understanding human motivation. According to him, person’s effectiveness is a function of matching man’s opportunity with the appropriate position of hierarchy of needs. Process of motivation begins with the assumption that behaviour s directed towards the satisfaction of needs. He has given a hierarchy of needs. Hierarchy is as-

• Basic physiological needs- these are related with the survival and maintenance of human life. These needs includes such things as food, clothing, air, water and other necessaries of life which are biological in nature. These are primary needs.

• Safety and Security needs- After satisfying the physiological needs, people want the assurance of maintaining a given economics level. They want job security, personal bodily security, security of source of income, provision for old age, insurance against risks etc.

• Social needs- man is a social animal. He is therefore, interested in conversation, sociability, exchange of feelings and grievances, companionship, recognition, belongingness etc.

• Esteem and status needs- These needs include self-confidence, independence, achievements, competence, knowledge and success. These needs boost the ego of individual. They are also known as egoistic needs. They are concerned with prestige and status of the individual.

• Self-Actualization or Self- Fulfillment- The final step in this hierarchy of needs model is self- fulfillment need or the need to fulfill what a person consider to be his mission in life.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model-

A significant development in motivation was distinction between motivational and maintenance factors in job situation.

A research was conducted by Herzberg based on interview of 200 engineers and accountants who worked for eleven different companies in Pittsburgh. That helped to conclude to draw a distinction between what are called as “motivators” and “Hygiene Factors”.

Thus Hygiene factors provide no motivation to the employees, but the absence of these serves as dissatisfier.

Hygiene factors can be called maintenance factors in job because these are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among the employees.

Another set of conditions helps to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction. These conditions are motivational factors.

Herzberg has given 6 Motivational Factors and 10 Hygiene Factors

Hygiene Factors-• Company policy and administration• Technical supervision• Inter-personal relations with supervisors• Inter-personal relations with peers• Inter-personal relations with subordinates• Salary• Job security• Personal Life• Working conditions• Status.

Motivational Factors • Achievement• Recognition• Advancement• Work itself• Possibility of Growth• Responsibility Hygiene factors include such things as wages, fringe

benefits, physical conditions of work etc. On the other hand Motivational Factors are essential for increasing the productivity.

Herzberg also said that to-days’ motivational factors can be tomorrow’s Hygiene factors. It should also be noted that one’s hygiene may be motivators for others.

Morale- • Morale is a fundamental psychological concept. Its can

be defined as the attitude towards work for the accomplishment of organization goals.

• It’s a Co-operative attitude or mental health of number of people who are related to each other on some basis.

• Morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently in pursuit of a common purpose.

• Morale is a degree of enthusiasm and willingness with which the member of group pull together to achieve group goals.

• High morale needs not to be associated with high productivity. High morale may be associated with low productivity and low morale with high productivity.

Nature of Morale-• Generally morale is used to describe an overall climate

prevailing among the members of a group. It is not an absolute concept which can convey a specific meaning. It is a relative concept, we can only refer to the degrees of morale. Morale is dynamic in nature. Managers can not establish high morale once and can forget about it for months and years. Building it is a continuous effort.

• It represents the collective attitude of workers. High morale represents attitude of satisfaction with the desire to continue in the group and willingness to strive for the achievement of group goals.

• Morale is multidimensional in nature in the sense that it is a complex mixture of several elements.

Significance of moral- • Its an important part of organizational climate. It is a vital

element of success bcoz it reflects the attitude of members towards organization.

• Morale is a total satisfaction a person derives from his job, his work group, his boss, his organization and his environment.

• High morale exists when his attitude is favourable towards his job and other things. Low morale exists when attitude inhibits the willingness to attain the objectives of organization.

• A state of high morale reduces labour turnover, waste and disharmony

Morale of employee must be kept high to attain the following benefits • Willing cooperation towards the

organizational objectives.• Loyalty to the organization and its

leadership.• Good discipline.• High degree of employees’ interest in their

job.• Pride in the organization.• Reduction in rate of labour turnover.

RELATION BETWEEN MORALE AND PRODUCTIVITY

HIGH MORALE HIGH MORALELOW PRODUCTIVITY HIGH PRODUCTIVITY

LOW PRODUCTIVITY HIGH PRODUCTIVITYLOW MORALE LOW MORALE

Four combinations of morale and productivity

• high morale and high productivity• high morale and low productivity• low morale and low productivity• low morale and high productivityFirst one is the ideal state and make thebest possible use of human resources.

Suggestions to building high morale-

• two way communication • incentive system• welfare measures• social activities• training• workers’ participation

GROUP DYNAMICS • The social process by which people interact face to face in

small groups is called group dynamics.• What is group-• A group consists two or more persons who interact with each

other, consciously for the achievement of certain common objectives.

• The members of group are interdependent and are aware that they are part of a group. They influence and influenced by each other.

• Groups are social settings that offer a variety of information, expectation and opportunities that relate to individual need satisfaction.

• A group is a set of two or more people who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative strength.

Conditions for being a group

• people must interact with each other• psychologically aware of one another• should perceive themselves as a group• Common objective or task• Agreed values and norms

Group process

• Given by Tuckman in 1960-• Forming ---Storming---Norming--

Performing--Adjourning

Characteristics of Groups • Leadership- in a group there will be a leader

formally selected or informally emergent. • Activities- they perform certain activities. Eg.

Watching a movie together. Group must be active but not necessarily all members will be active.

• Norms- Norms are accepted standards of behaviour within a group shared by all members. there are certain norms in every group that present its culture or ethics. By these norms it has the recognition in society. These are fixed by group members

• Cohesiveness- people come together to satisfy their need. The more needs it satisfies, the more group attracts the members. This attraction called cohesiveness. Members are highly attached to each other and are attracted towards each other.

• Interaction- a very common characteristics of a group is mutual interaction between members of a group.

• Communication- Some communication must be there in a group may be oral or by gestures or by nodding the head.

• Task- people come together to achieve certain goal or to perform certain task is given to them.

• Size- group has a size which can be large or small. • Conformity- conformity is adjusting one’s behaviour

to align with norms of the group. There must be conformity between individuals and group goals

THEORIES OF GROUP FORMATION

• Propinquity theory• Homan’s theory• Balance theory• Exchange theory

Propinquity Theory-• Individuals affiliate with each other bcos of the

geographical proximity. In an organization employees who works in a same area or departments would more probably forms into groups than those who are not physically located together. This theory explain a basic factor that is proximity of people at workplace which leads to formation of groups.

• However it is not necessary that group must come up bcos of proximity of people at workplace only. There are several other reasons of group formation.

Homan’s Theory-

• According to George C. Homan “the more activities persons share, the more numerous will be there interactions and the stronger will be there shared activities and sentiments, and the more sentiments persons have for one another the more will be there shared activities and interactions.”

• Interaction Theory of Group Formation

Activities Interactions

Sentiments

Balance Theory-

• this theory is proposed by Theodare Newcomb. He says persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitude towards commonly relevant objects and goals. Once a relationship is formed, it strives to maintain a systematic balance between the attraction and the common attitude. If an imbalance occurs, attempts are made to restore the balance. If the balance can not be restored, the relationship dissolves.

• Mr. A Mr. B

CCommon attitudes

{Authority, work, lifestyle, religion, politics etc.}

Exchange Theory-

• this theory is based on reward- cost outcomes of interactions. To be attracted towards a group, a person thinks in terms of what he will get in exchange of interaction with the group members. A minimum positive level (rewards greater than cost) of an outcome must exist in order for affiliation to take place. Rewards from interaction gratify need and costs are frustration, embarrassment, or fatigue. All other theories have role in exchange theory

Types of Groups

Formal groupsInformal groupsCommand and task groups(committees)

Interest and friendship groups

Group Think-• When too much cohesiveness is dangerous.

Some time bcos of high cohesiveness the members become more concerned about maintaining positive group spirit than about making the most realistic decisions- this phenomenon known as group think. When members become fiercely loyal to each other they may ignore the potential use of information from other sources that challenges the groups’ decisions. Then group decisions can be completely uninformed, irrational or even immoral

To remove this

• Use open communication• Use sub groups• Admit short comings• Hold second chance meetings

Teams:

• Team and team work have emerged popular terms in management circles these days. The team approach to managing organizations is having a diverse and substantial impact on organisations and individuals. In IT companies teams are client or project based.

• Teams are small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

• Number should be small, if more people will be involved, there will be difficulty in interaction and influencing each other.

• A team comes together to pursue a goal, unlike groups, in which members report to the same supervisor or work in the same department.

• The team hold themselves mutually accountable for results, rather than merely meeting a manager’s demand for results.

Features-

• They are empowered to share various management and leadership functions

• They plan control and improve their own work process• They set their own goals and inspect their own work• They often create their own schedules and review their performance• They are frequently responsible for acquiring any new training they might

need• They take responsibility of quality of their product• Teams are also known as empowered teams, self directed teams and self

managed teams etc.

Benefits from teams-

• Enhanced performance- can come in many forms as • Increased productivity, improved quality and improved customer services. It enable

worker to avoid wasted effort, reduced errors, and respond better to customer.• Employees get benefited from teams as they can improve their quality of work life

and reduced stress.• It helps organization to get better quality decisions• It results in improved processes bcos of the coordination and transfer of learning

among team members.• Team work contributes to global competitiveness to the firm.• Organizational development is certain to result of teams.• Innovative and creative ideas to solve problems

Types of teams

Work teamsProblem solving teamsManagement teams

Virtual teams

Guidelines to enhance team performance

• Have a small team- of max 12 members.• Members should have at least three types of skills-

technical skills, problem solving and decision making skills, interpersonal skills.

• Let the teams have specific goals and develop commitment.

• Have proper leadership and structure for teams.• Establish appropriate performance evaluation.• Create a sense of urgency in first meeting.• Set clear rule of behaviour.• Regularly challenge the teams with new projects r

problem to solve

CONFLICTS • Conflicts occur at different levels within the

individuals, between the individuals, in a group and between groups. A manager has to experience the most uncomfortable moments when he has to deal with conflicts or differences among people or groups of people at work.

• The term conflict is used by different people to convey different meanings.

• “Conflict in mind” conveys that the individual is in a state of dilemma over a certain issue and is not able to arrive at any decision.

• The term conflicting views means differences of opinions between two or more persons.

• Conflict may broadly be viewed as a breakdown in the standard mechanism of decision making.

• In simple words conflict is the tension that is experienced one feels when one’s need or desire is or likely to be thwarted.

In management conflict has the characteristics

• Antecedent condition e.g. scarcity of resources, policy differences among people.

• Effective state of individuals involved, e.g. stress, tension, anxiety etc.

• Cognitive states of individuals, e.g. their perception of awareness of conflict situations

• Changed behaviour ranging from passive resistance to overt aggression.

Traditional view of conflicts- Harmful and must be avoided.

Human Relation view- is natural and inevitable outcomes in any group.

Internationalists’ view (modern view)- a position force in a group, absolutely necessary for performance.

• “Conflict could be defined as the appearance of differences, difference of opinions, of interest, and the fear of difference is dread of life itself”

“Follett”

Nature of conflicts

• Conflict between two individuals implies that they have conflicting perceptions, values and goals.

• Conflict arises when individuals are not able to choose among the alternative course of actions.

• Conflict is dynamic process and episodic in nature.

• Awareness of conflicts is there in parties

Conflict as a process-Five stages are there-

• Latent conflict- some conditions arise which develop conflicts as-communication barriers, role ambiguities etc. these antecedent conditions start the conflicts first stage.

• Perceived conflict- next stage is when parties start to perceive the situations. May be there is no latent condition but parties perceive that conflict is there.

• Felt conflict- they feel that there is a conflicts between two parties. They are aware about conditions also.

• Manifest conflict- it means the conflictful behaviour such as- aggression, sabotage, withdrawal etc.

• Conflict aftermath- conflict is genuinely resolved to the satisfaction of all participants. If the conflict is merely suppressed not resolved the latent conditions can be aggravated and explode in more serious form until they are rectified.

Types of Conflicts • Intra-personal or individual conflicts- within an individual himself.

Here can be 2 types of conflicts within a individual. – Role conflict- arises due to so many roles (role overload) one has to

play at a time. Or when a person is not able to satisfy others by his performance in a particular role. Or he is not aware about his duties in a particular role.

– Goal conflict- can be of 3 types-• Approach- approach conflict- when a person has to choose from

two equally attractive goals• Avoidance -avoidance conflict- when has two alternative each

with negative aspects. For example a person does not like his present job and alternatives are if he should resign from this job or search for new job both are equally unattractive for him.

• Approach- avoidance conflict- in this type an individual has a choice which has both positive and negative sides. Ex- person may be offered promotion but away from his home town.

• Inter-personal conflicts or conflicts between individuals- several factors can be there as arising some dislike or personality differences, opinions differences for task related matters etc.

• Important factors for interpersonal conflicts- • Difference in perceptions• Information differences• Difference in status• Difference in resources • Divergent roles or goals

• Inter- groups conflicts or organizational conflicts- conflicts between groups or task groups as union Vs management groups, union Vs other union, one functional area Vs other functional area etc. such conflicts arise when-

• Joint decision making• Difference in goals• Competition for limited resources• Organization reward system• Introduction to change• Nature of communication etc.

Positive aspects of conflict( constructive conflicts)

The conflicting parties should think conflict as a problem solving term rather than a ‘win- lose’ term.

Modern writers feel that minimum level of conflict is necessary for keeping members alert and creative. Conflicts are supposed to serve the following functions-

• Release of tension• Creativity• Stimulation of change• Identification of weaknesses• Group cohesiveness• Challenges

Distractive conflicts or dysfunctional conflicts

• The negative consequences of conflicts are not uncommon. Just as conflict in individual can destroy his ability to function, similarly conflict within organization may result in some sort of blocks in decision making.

• The undesirable consequences are-

• Resignation of key personnel- some time conflict can compel to resign some dynamic personnel. Then the organization will be the sufferer in the long run by the loss of key personnel.

• Tensions- may create high tension among individuals and groups. Which can create the feeling of anxiety, uncertainty, frustration among them.

• Discontentment- can be a source of dissatisfaction. As result the productivity will suffer.

• Creation of distrust- if one party loses the settlement process it can create the distrust in their mind for organization and create a negative approach.

• Goal displacement- Conflict may distract the attention of the members from the organizational goals. They may waste their time and energy in finding the ways to be winner of the conflicts.

• Weakening of organization- conflicts may weaken the organization as a whole if the management is not able to resolve them properly. Further, resignation of important personnel due to conflict also weaken the organization.

Methods for handling conflicts- (Conflict Management)

• avoidance or repression of conflict• defusion of conflict• containments of conflicts• confrontation• problem solving• conflict stimulation

PERSONALITY • It is derived from Latin word persona which means to

‘speak through’. Persona denotes to the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece.

• Personality of an individual is unique, personal and major determinants of his behaviour.

• Personality defines as what an individual really is, as an internal something that guides and direct all human activities.

• “Personality means how a person affects other and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits, and the person situation interaction.”

Fred Luthans

• Personality represents whole person concept.

• It includes perception, learning, motivation and more.

Determinants of Personality • Biological Factors-

– Heredity– Brain– Physical features

• Family and Social factors• Situational factors• Personal factors-

TemperamentInterestCharacterSchemaMotive

Personality theories • Freud’s Psychoanalytical theory- this theory is based

on that man is forced more by unseen forces than by conscious or rational thoughts. He has given three aspects of human behaviour those are-

– The Id- this is the source of psychic energy and seeks the immediate gratification for biological needs. As the person matures, he learns to control the Id. But even then it’s a driving force throughout life and important source of thinking and behaving.

– The Ego- the ego is a conscious or logical part of human personality and associated with reality principle. Ego is aware about the real world and external environment. The ego keeps the id in control through reasons.

– The Super- Ego- The super-ego represents the social and personal norms and serves as ethical constraints on behaviour. Super ego provides norms to ego to determine what is wrong or right.

• Psychosocial theory of Erikson- Erikson identified 8 stages of life which are-

• Infancy- during first year of life child resolves the basic crisis of trust or mistrust. If child is cared with love, learns trust others and if there is lack of love, results into mistrust.

• Early Childhood- in second and third year of life, child begins to assert the independence. In this stage if the child gets continuous disapproval from parents it develops lack of self confidence in him.

• Play Age- during four to six years the initiatives plays an important role in development of personality. The creativity and imaginative abilities develop in this stage.

• School Age- from age 6 to 12 child learns many skills and social abilities. If a child experiences a real progress in this stage, it will develop his sense of enterprise. The reverse situation will create sense of inferiority.

• Adolescence- this is the stage of 13 to 19 when child gains the sense of identity. This is the stage when there will be rapid biological changes and teenagers try to establish themselves separate from patents. This is the stage to prepare them for adulthood crises.

• Young Adulthood- at this stage they face the crises of intimacy or isolation. This stage allows the young adult to develop deep and lasting relationships.

• Adulthood- this is the stage which develop the general activity or self- absorption. Self- absorbed person never develop the ability to look beyond himself. General people see the world as bigger perspective.

• Mature Adulthood- this stage develops the sense of wisdom and perspective that can really guide the younger generation.

• Chris Argyris’s Immaturity and maturity theory- he has given the seven characteristics to define the immaturity and maturity in personalities. These are-

Immaturity Characteristics-• Passivity• Dependence• Few ways of behaviour• Shallow interests• Short time perspective• Subordinate position• Lack of self awareness

• Maturity Characteristics- • Activity• Independence• Diverse behaviour• Deep interests• Long time perspective• Super ordinate position• Self awareness and control• He explained that these seven dimensions

represent only one aspect of the total personality. Mush also depends on individual perception, self concepts and adaptation etc.

Personality Traits influencing OB

• Locus of Control- this can be of two types- internal locus of control and external locus of control. Person who always says that his activities are determined by other is a person of external locus of control. And who can guide his activities himself is a person with internal locus of control. People who are with internal locus of control can be good leaders.

• Authoritarianism- high authoritarian people believe in holding authorities and have negative views about people and intellectually rigid. They are more rules and regulation oriented. They will use autocratic or directive leadership styles.

• Machiavellianism- it has given by Machiavelli. He said people with high Machiavellianism manipulate more, win more and persuaded less.

• Introvert and Extrovert- extroversion suggested as a managerial trait for leaders. Extroverts are social people and introverts are shy, quiet and retiring people.

• Type A and Type B- people who are highly competitive and impatient and aggressive are type A personality and people who are easy going and non competitive are type B personalities. People who are aggressive can not be good team players.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

• TA is a technique used to help people better understand their own and others behaviour, especially in interpersonal relationship.

• TA is given as training to managers to help them to develop their interpersonal relation and effectiveness.

• Dr. Eric Berne is credited to develop this TA technique.

Ego States

• TA believes that personality of everyone is made up of three ego states. An ego state is a pattern of behaviour that a person develops as he or she grows up, based on his accumulated network of feelings and experience.

• There are three ego states-

• Parent- state of a person comprises the judgmental, value laden, rule making and moralizing component of personality.

• Adult- this state is authentic, direct and reality based, it is rational, fact seeking and problem solving.

• Child- this state is emotional, creative and impulsive component of personality.

• Three things about ego states are worth nothing that the conversations often are the mixture of reactions from all three states parent, adult and child. And such ego states have both positive and negative features. And we can find out the ego states by observing the tone and postures of the people when they talk.

Transactions

• Transaction is the basic unit of social interaction. It consists of an exchange of words and behaviour between two persons.

• There can be of two types of transactions-

• Complementary transaction- when the communication has the same ego states of sender and receiver the transaction will be complementary. Here the line of transaction will be parallel.

• P P P P• A A A A• C C C C

COMPLEMENTARY TRANSACTION

• Non-Complementary transaction- it can be said crossed transaction also. The response lines here are not parallel but crossed. For example the manager wants to deal with the executive as Adult to Adult basis but the executive responds on the basis of child to parent. Cross transaction should be avoided as far as possible.

• P P P P• A A A A• C C C C

CROSSED TRANSACTION

LIFE POSITIONS-• in the process of growing up people make basic assumption about

their own self and about others in their environment. These are called life positions.

• Four life positions are there- • I am OK- You are OK- when people tend to feel positive about

themself and about others also. This is the best position of life. We can say this is the ideal life position.

• I am OK- You are not OK- people tend to watch other closely as they think that no is trust worthy as they are.

• I am not OK- you are OK- they feel that others are more competent than they are.

• I am not OK- you are not OK- people tend to feel bad about themselves and feel the whole world miserable. They don’t trust others and have no confidence on themselves.

Utility of Transactional Analysis • Its major benefit is to improve interpersonal

communication.• By understanding ego states and life positions

we can understand the different styles used by people.

• Most supervisors use the parental ego state to handle the employee as we all see our parents as first people who control our behaviour.

• This helps to lead a self development.• It is also important technique of executive

development. TA can not guarantee to disappear the human problems in organization but it will help to improve the relations.