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THE
LIFE & TEACHINGOF
KARL MARXBY
M. BEERAuthor of ''A History of British Socialism'
California
legional
'acility
This is a
translation of a bookwritten by M. Beer to commem-
orate the centenary of Marx's birth.
It is an adequate and reliable bio-
graphy, full of interesting personal details
and a clear and comprehensive account
of Marx's economic and historical doctrines.
A special feature of the book is the new
light thrown on Marx's attitude to the"Dictatorship of the Proletariat
"
and Bolshevist methods generally.No other work in English
gives the sameinformation.
THE NATIONAL LABOUR PRESS, LIMITED.LONDON : 8 & 9, JOHNSON'S COURT, E.G. 4.
MANCHESTER : 30, BLACKFRIARS STREET.
THREE SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE, NET.
JNlVfiRSITY OFCAt/IOftNIA
SAN CMEGOj
\
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
.UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO
LA JOLLA, CALIFORNIA
SOCIAL STUDIES SERIES
(VOLUME TWO).
THE LIFE AND TEACHING OFKARL MARX
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1921
[All rights reserved.']
THE
LIFE AND TEACHINGOF
KARL MARXBY
M. BEERAuthor of "A History of British Socialism"
TRANSLATED BY T. C. PARTINGTONAND H. J. STENNING, AND REVISED
BY THE AUTHOR
NATIONAL LABOUR PRESS, LIMITED,LONDON: 8/9, JOHNSON'S COURT, E.G. 4
MANCHESTER : 30, BLACKFRIARS STREET
-CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
INTRODUCTION :
I. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MARXII. THE WORK OF HEGEL ,
I. PARENTS AND FRIENDS :
I. MARX'S APPRENTICESHIP .... 1
II. STUDENT 3
III. BEGINNINGS OF PUBLIC LIFE 11
II. THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF MARXISM :
I. THE FRANCO-GERMAN YEAR BOOKS 15
II. FRIENDSHIP WITH FRIEDRICH ENGELS ... 19
III. CONTROVERSIES WITH BAUER AND HUGE ... 21
IV. CONTROVERSY WITH PROUDHON 26
III. YEARS OF AGITATION AND VARYING
FORTUNES :
I. THE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT OF THE FORTIES 39
II. THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 41
III. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 48
IV. DAYS OF CLOUD AND SUNSHINE IN LONDON... 51
V. THE INTERNATIONAL 54
VI. THE PARIS COMMUNE 59
VII. THE EVENING OF LIFE 60
IV. THE MARXIAN SYSTEM :
I. THE MATERIALIST CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 65
II. CLASSES, CLASS STRUGGLES AND CLASS-CONSCIOUSNESS 78
III. THE ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT ANDTHE PROLETARIAN DICTATORSHIP 84
IV. OUTLINES OF THE ECONOMIC DOCTRINES ... 93
V. CONCLUSION 125
INTRODUCTION.
I. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MARX.
KARLMARX belongs to the ranks of those
philosophical and sociological thinkers whothrow potent thought-ferment into the world,
and set in motion the masses of mankind. Theyawaken slumbering doubts and contradictions. They
proclaim new modes of thought, new social forms.
Their systems may sooner or later become obsolete,
and the ruthless march of time may finally over-
throw their intellectual edifice; meanwhile, however,
they stimulate into activity the minds of countless
men, inflame countless human hearts, imprintingon them characteristics which are transmitted to
coming generations. This is the grandest and finest
work to which any human being can be called.
Because these thinkers have lived and worked, their
contemporaries and successors think more clearly, feel
more intensely, and are richer in knowledge and self-
consciousness.
The history of philosophy and of social science is
comprised in such systems and generalisations. Theyare the index to the annals of mankind. None of
these systems is complete, none comprehends all humanmotives and capacities, none exhausts all the forces
and currents of human society. They all express only
fragmentary truths, which, however, become effective
and achieve success because they are shining lights
amidst the intellectual confusion of the generationwhich gives them birth, bringing it to a consciousness
x LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
of the questions of the time, rendering its further
development less difficult, and enabling its strongest
spirits to stand erect, with fixity of purpose, in critical
periods.
Hegel expresses himself in a similar sense where be
remarks :
" When the refutation of a philosophy is
spoken of, this is usually meant in an abstract
negative (completely destructive) sense, so that the
confuted philosophy has no longer any validity what-
ever, and is set aside and done with. If this be so,
the study of the history of philosophy must be
regarded as a thoroughly depressing business, seeing
that this study teaches that every system of philosophywhich has arisen in the course of time has found its
refutation. But if it is as good as granted that every
philosophy has been refuted, yet at the same time
it must be also asserted that no philosophy has been
refuted, nor ever can be refuted . . . for every
philosophical system is to be considered as the
presentation of a particular moment or a particular
stage in the evolutionary process of the idea. The
history of philosophy ... is not, in its totality,
a gallery of the aberrations of the human intellect, but
is rather to be compared to a pantheon of deities."
(" Hegel, Encyclopaedia," vol. 1, section 86,
note 2.)
What Hegel says here about philosophy is true also
of systems of social science, and styles and forms in
art. The displacement of one system by another
reflects the historical sequence of the various stages
of social evolution. The characteristic which is
common to all these systems is their vitality.
In spite of their defects and difficulties there surges
through them a living spirit from the influence of which
INTRODUCTION xi
contemporaries cannot escape. Opponents may putthemselves to endless trouble to contradict such
systems, and show up their shortcomings and incon-
sistencies, and yet, with all their pains, they do not
succeed in attaining their object ;their logical sapping
and mining, their passionate attacks break against the
vital spirit which the creative genius has breathed into
his work. The deep impression made on us by this
vitality is one of the main factors in the formation of
our judgments upon scientific and artistic achieve-
ments. Mere formal perfection and beauty throughwhich the life of the times does not throb can never
create this impression.
Walter Scott, who was often reproached with defects
and inconsistencies in the construction of his novels,
once made answer with the following anecdote : AFrench sculptor, who had taken up his abode in Rome,was fond of taking to the Capitol his artistically
inclined countrymen who were travelling in Italy, to
show them the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius,
on which occasions he was at pains to demonstrate that
the horse was defectively modelled, and did not meet
the requirements of anatomy. After one of these
criticisms a visitor urged him to prove his case in a
concrete form by constructing a horse on correct
artistic principles. The critic set to work, and when,
after the lapse of a year, his friends were again
visiting Rome, exhibited to them his horse. It was
anatomically perfect. Proudly he had it brought to
the Capitol, in order to compare both productions and
so celebrate his triumph. Quite absorbed in his
critical comparison, the French sculptor after a while
gave way to a burst of genuine artistic feeling, which
caused him pathetically to exclaim," Et pourtant
xii LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
eette bete-la est vivante, et la mienne est morte !"
(And yet that animal is alive, while mine is dead.)
Quite a number of Marxian critics find themselves
in the same position as the hypercritical French
sculptor. Their formal and logically completeeconomic doctrines and systems of historical phi-
losophy, provided with pedantically correct details and
definitions, remain dead and ineffective. They do not
put us into contact with the relations of the time,
whereas Marx has bequeathed both to the educated
and the uneducated, to his readers and to non-readers,
a multitude of ideas and expressions relating to social
science, which have become current throughout the
whole world.
In Petrograd and in Tokio, in Berlin and in London,in Paris and in Pittsburg, people speak of capital and
of the capitalist system, of means of production and
of the class struggle; of Reform and Revolution; of
the Proletariat and of Socialism. The extent of Marx's
influence is shown by the economic explanation of the
world-war, which is even accepted by the most decided
opponents of the materialist conception of history. Ageneration after Marx's death, the sovereignty of
Capital shrinks visibly, works' committees and shops'
stewards interfere with the productive processes,
Socialists and Labour men fill the Parliaments,
working men and their representatives rise to or take
by storm the highest position of political power in
States and Empires. Many of their triumphs would
scarcely have received Marx's approval. His theory,
white-hot with indomitable passion, demanded that
the new tables of the Law should be given to menamidst thunder and lightning. But still the essential
thing is that the proletariat is loosening its bonds, even
INTRODUCTION xiii
if it does not burst them noisily asunder. We find
ourselves in the first stages of the evolution of Socialist
society. Through whatever forms this evolutionary
process may pass in its logical development, this muchis certain, that only by active thought on the part
of Socialists and by the loyal co-operation of the
workers can it be brought to its perfection.
We are already using Hegelian expressions, and
must therefore pause here to note briefly Hegel'scontribution to the subject. Without a knowledge of
this, no one can be in a position to appreciate the
important factors in the life and influence of Marx,or even to understand his first intellectual achieve-
ments during his student years.
II. THE WORK OF HEGEL.
Until towards the end of the eighteenth century,learned and unlearned, philosophers and philistines,
had some such general notions as the following. Theworld has either been created, or it has existed from
eternity. It is either governed by a personal, super-natural god or universal spirit, or it is kept going bynature, like some delicate machine. It exists in
accordance with eternal laws, and is perfect, ordained
to fulfil some design, and constant. The things and
beings which are found in it are divided into kinds,
species and classes. All is fixed, constant and eternal.
Things and beings are contiguous in space, and
succeed one another in time, as they have done ever
since time was. It is the same with the incidents and
events of the world and of mankind. Such common
xiv LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
proverbs as" There is nothing new under the sun "
and "History repeats itself
" are but the popular
expression of this view.
Correlative to this philosophy was Logic, or the
science of the laws of thinking (Greek logos reason,
word). It taught how men should use their reason,
how they should express themselves reasonably, how
concepts arise (in what manner, for example, the
human understanding arrived at the concepts stone,
tree, animal, man, virtue, vice, etc.); further, howsuch concepts are combined into judgments (proposi-
tions), and finally, how conclusions are drawn from
these judgments. This logic exhibited the intellectual
processes of the human mind. It was founded by the
Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384 to 322 B.C.), and
remained essentially unaltered until the beginning of
the nineteenth century, in the same way as our whole
conception of the universe remained unchanged. This
science of human intellectual processes was based on
three original laws of thought, which best characterise
it. Just as an examining magistrate looks a prisoner
in the face, and identifies him, so that uncertainty and
contradiction may be avoided, so this logic began by
establishing the identity of the conceptions with which
it was to operate. Consequently, it established as the
first law of thought the Principle of Identity, which
runs as follows : A=A, i.e., each thing, each being, is
like itself ; it possesses an individuality of its own,
peculiar to itself. To put it more clearly, this prin-
ciple affirms that the earth is the earth, a state is a
state, Capital is Capital, Socialism is Socialism.
From this proceeds the second law of thought, the
Principle of Contradiction. A cannot be A and
not A. Or following our example given above, the
INTRODUCTION xv
earth cannot be the earth and a ball of fire; a State
cannot be a State and an Anarchy ; Capital cannot be
Capital and Poverty; Socialism cannot be Socialism
and Individualism. Therefore there must be no con-
tradictions, for a thing which contradicts itself is
nonsense; where, however, this occurs either in
actuality or in thought, it is only an accidental excep-tion to the rule, as it were, or a passing and irregular
phenomenon.From this law of thought follows directly the third,
viz., the Principle of the Excluded Middle. A thingis either A or non-A; there is no middle term. Or,
according to our example, the earth is either a solid
body, or, if it is not solid, it is no earth; there is no
middle term. The State is either monarchical, or, if
it is not monarchical, it is no State. Capitalism is
either oppressive, or altogether not Capitalism. Social-
ism is either revolutionary, or not Socialism at all ;
there is no middle term. (Socialism is either reformist,
or not Socialism at all; there is no middle term.)With these three intellectual laws of identity, of
contradiction, and of the excluded middle, formal
logic begins.
It is at once apparent that this logic operates with
rigid, constant, unchanging, dogmatic conceptions,
something like geometry, which deals with definitely
bounded spatial forms. Such was the rationale of the
old world-philosophy.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century a new
conception of the world had begun to make its way.The world, as we see it, or get to know it from books,was neither created, nor has it existed from time
immemorial, but has developed in the course of
uncounted thousands of years, and is still in process
xvi LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
of development. It has traversed a whole series of
changes, transformations, and catastrophes. The
earth was a gaseous mass, then a ball of fire; the
species and classes of things and beings which exist
on the earth have partly arisen by gradual transition
from one sort into another, and partly made their
appearance as a result of sudden changes. And in
human history it is the same as in nature ; the form
and significance of the family, of the State, of pro-
duction, of religion, of law, etc., are subjected to a
process of development. All things are in flux, in a
state of becoming, of arising and disappearing. There
is nothing rigid, constant, unchanging in the Cosmos.
In view of the new conception, the old formal logic
could no longer satisfy the intellect; it could not
adequately deal with things in a state of evolution.
In ever-increasing measure it became impossible for
the thinker to work with hard and fast conceptions.
From the beginning of the nineteenth century a new
logic was sought, and it was G. W. F. Hegel (1770
1831) who made a comprehensive and thoroughly
painstaking endeavour to formulate a new logic in
accordance with the universal process of evolution.
This task appeared to him to be the more urgent, as
his whole philosophy aimed at bringing thought and
being, reason and the universe, into the closest
connection and agreement, dealing with them as
inseparable from each other, regarding them as iden-
tical, and representing the universe as the gradualembodiment of Reason. " What is reasonable is real ;
what is real is reasonable.'* The task of philosophyis to comprehend what is. Every individual is the
child of his time. Even philosophy is its time graspedin thought. No individual can overleap his time.
INTRODUCTION xvii
(Pref. to Phil, of Law.) It is evident that, in his
way, Hegel was no abstract thinker, divorced from
actuality, and speculating at large. Rather he set
himself to give material content to the abstract and
purely ideal, to make it concrete, in fact. The idea
without reality, or reality without the idea, seemed
to him unthinkable. Accordingly his logic could not
deal merely with the laws of thought, but must at the
same time take account of the laws of cosmic evolu-
tion. Merely to play with the forms of thought, and
to fence with ideas, as the old logicians, especially in
the Middle Ages, were wont to do, seemed to him a
useless, abstract, unreal operation. He, therefore,
created a science of thinking, which formulated not
only the laws of thought, but also the laws of
evolution, albeit, unfortunately, in a language which
offered immense difficulties to his readers.
The essence of his logic is the dialectic.
By dialectic the old Greeks understood the art of
discourse and rejoinder, the refutation of an opponent
by the destruction of his assertions and proofs, the
bringing into relief of the contradictions and antitheses.
When examined closely, this art of discussion, in spite
of its contradictory and apparently negative (destruc-
tive) intellectual work, is seen to be very useful,
because, out of the clash of opposing opinions, it
brings forth the truth and stimulates to deeper
thought. Hegel seized hold of this expression, and
named his logical method after it. This is the dialec-
tical method, or the manner of conceiving the thingsand beings of the universe as in the process of
becoming, through the struggle of contradictoryelements and their resolution. With its aid, he bringsto judgment the three original laws of thought which
xviii LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
have already been alluded to. The principle of
identity is an abstract, incomplete truth, for it
separates a thing from the variety of other things, and
its relations to them. Everybody will see this to be
true. Let us take the proposition : the earth is the
earth. Whoever hears the first three words of this
proposition naturally expects that what is predicatedof the earth should tell him something which distin-
guishes the earth from other things. Instead of this,
he is offered an empty, hard and fast identity, the
dead husk of an idea. If the principle of identity is
at best only an incomplete truth, the principles of
contradiction and of the excluded middle are completeuntruths. Far from making a thought nonsense,
contradiction is the very thing which unfolds and
develops the thought, and hence, too, the object which
it expresses. It is precisely opposition, or antithesis,
which sets things in motion, which is the mainspringof evolution, which calls forth and develops the latent
forces and powers of being. Had the earth as a fiery,
gaseous mass remained in that state, without the
contradiction, that is, the cooling and condensation,
taking place, then no life would have appeared on it.
Had the State remained autocratic, and the contra-
dictory principle, middle-class freedom, been absent,
then the life of the State would have become rigid,
and the bloom of culture rendered impossible. Had
Capitalism remained without its proletarian contradic-
tion, then it would have reverted to an industrial
feudalism. It is the contradiction, or the antithesis,
which brings into being the whole kingdom of the
potentialities and gifts of nature and of humanity.
Only when the contradictory begins to reveal itself
does evolution to a higher plane of thought and
INTRODUCTION xix
existence begin. It is obvious that we are not con-
cerned here with logical contradictions, which usually
arise from unclear thinking or from confusion in the
presentation of facts; Hegel, and after him Marx,dealt rather with real contradictions, with antitheses
and conflicts, as they arise of themselves in the processof evolution of things and conditions.
The thing or the being, against which the contra-
diction operates, was called by Hegel the Positive, and
the contradiction, the antagonistic element, or the
antithesis, he called the Negation. As may be seen
from our example, this negation is not mere annihila-
tion, not a resolution into nothing, but a clearing awayand a building up at the same time; a disappearanceand a coming into existence ; a movement to a higher
stage. Hegel says in this connection :
"It has been
hitherto one of the rooted prejudices of logic and a
commonly accepted belief that the contradiction is not
so essential or so inherent a characteristic (in thoughtand existence) as the identity. Yet in comparisonwith it the identity is, in truth, but the characteristic
of what is simply and directly perceived, of lifeless
existence. The contradiction, however, is the source
of all movement and life ; only in so far as it contains
a contradiction can anything have movement, power,and effect."
The part played by the contradiction, the antithesis,
or the negation very easily escapes a superficial
observer. He sees, indeed, that the world is filled with
a variety of things, and that where anything is there
is also its opposite; e.g., existence non-existence,
cold heat, light darkness, mildness harshness,
pleasure pain, joy sorrow, riches poverty, Capital
Labour, life death, virtue vice, Idealism
xx LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Materialism, Romanticism Classicism, etc., but
superficial thought does not realise that it is faced
with a world of contradictions and antitheses ; it onlyknows that the world is full of varied and manifold
things."Only active reason," says Hegel,
" reduced
the mere multiplicity and diversity of phenomena to
antithesis. And only when pushed to this point do
the manifold phenomena become active and mutually
stimulating, producing the state of negation, which
is the very heart-beat of progress and life." Only
through their differentiation and unfolding as opposingforces and factors is further progress beyond the
antithesis to a higher positive stage made possible."Where, however," continues Hegel,
" the power to
develop the contradiction and bring it to a head is
lacking, the thing or the being is shattered on the
contradiction." (Hegel," Science of Logic," Pt. 1,
Sec. 2, pp. 66, 69, 70.)
This thought of Hegel's is of extraordinary import-ance for the understanding of Marxism. It is the
soul of the Marxian doctrine of the class-struggle, nay,of the whole Marxian system. One may say that
Marx is always on the look-out for contradictions
within the social development, for wherever the con-
tradiction (antithesis class struggle) shows itself,
there begins, according to Marx-Hegel, the progressto a higher plane.*We have now become familiar with two expressions
of the dialectical method, the positive and the nega-tion. We have seen the first two stages of the processof growth in thought and in reality. The process is
not yet complete. It still requires a third stage.
In one of the later chapters the reader will find the series ofcontradictions discovered by Marx in the evolution of capitalism.Sec. IV.,
"Outlines of the Economic Doctrine." Chapter 8,
" EconomicContradictions."
INTRODUCTION xxi
This third step Hegel called the Negation of the
Negation. With the continued operation of the
negation, a new thing or being comes into existence.
To revert to our examples : the complete cooling
and condensation of the earth's crust : the rise of the
middle-class State : the victory of the Proletariat :
these things represent the suspension or the setting
aside of the Negation; the contradiction is thus
resolved, and a new stage in the process of evolution
is reached. The expressions Positive (or affirmation),
Negation, and Negation of the Negation, are also
known as thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
In order to understand this more distinctly, and to
visualise it, let us consider an egg. It is something
positive, but it contains a germ, which, awakening to
life, gradually consumes (i.e., negatives) the contents
of the egg. This negation is, however, no mere
destruction and annihilation; on the contrary, it
results in the germ developing into a living thing.
The negation being complete, the chick breaks throughthe egg shell. This represents the negation of the
negation, whereby there has arisen something
organically higher than an egg.
This mode of procedure in human thinking and in
the operations of nature and history Hegel called the
dialectical method, or the dialectical process. It is
evident that the dialectic is at the same time a method
of investigation and a philosophy. Hegel outlines his
dialectic in the following words :
" The only thing which is required for scientific
progress, an elementary principle for the understand-
ing of which one should really strive, is the recognition
of the logical principle that the negative is just as
much a positive, or that the contradictory does not
xxii LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
resolve into nothing, into an abstract nothingness,
but actually only into the negation of a special content.
. . . In so far as the resultant, the negation, is a
definite negation, it has a content. It is a new con-
ception, but a higher and richer conception than the
preceding one; for it has been enriched by the
negation or antithesis of this ; it therefore contains it
and more than contains it, being indeed the synthetic
unity of itself and its contrary. In this way the
system of concepts has to be formed and is to be
perfected by a continual and purely intellectual
process which is independent of outside influences."
(Hegel," Science of Logic
"(German), Bk. I.,
Introduction.)
The dialectical process completes itself not only by
gradual transitions, but also by leaps. Hegelremarks :
" It has been said that there are no sudden leaps
in nature, and it is a common notion that things have
their origin through gradual increase or decrease.
But there is also such a thing as sudden transforma-
tion from quantity into quality. For example, water
does not become gradually hard on cooling, becomingfirst pulpy and ultimately attaining the rigidity of
ice, but turns hard at once. If the temperature be
lowered to a certain degree, the water is suddenly
changed into ice, i.e., the quantity the number of
degrees of temperature is transformed into quality
a change in the nature of the thing. (" Logic"
(German), Pt. 1, Sec. 1, p. 464, Ed. 1841.)
Marx handled this method with unsurpassed
mastery; with its aid he formulated the laws of the
evolution of Socialism. In his earliest works," The
Holy Family"
(1844) and the "Poverty of
INTRODUCTION xxiii
Philosophy"
(1847), written when he was formula-
ting his materialist conception of history, as also in
his "Capital," it is with the dialectic of Hegel that
he investigates these laws." Proletariat and Riches (later Marx would have
said Capital) are antitheses. As such they constitute
a whole; both are manifestations of the world of
private property. The question to be considered is
the specific position which both occupy in the anti-
thesis. To describe them as two sides of a whole is
not a sufficient explanation. Private property as
private property, as riches, is compelled to preserveits own existence, and along with it that of its anti-
thesis, the Proletariat. Private property satisfied in
itself is the positive side of the antithesis. The
Proletariat, on the other hand, is obliged, as Pro-
letariat, to abolish itself, and along with it private
property, its conditioned antithesis, which makes it
the Proletariat. It is a negative side of the antithesis,
the internal source of unrest, the disintegrated and
disintegrating Proletariat. . . . Within the anti-
thesis, therefore, the owner of private property is the
conservative, and the proletarian is the destructive
party. From the former proceeds the action of main-
taining the antithesis, from the latter the action of
destroying it. From the point of view of its national,
economic movement, private property is, of course,
continually being driven towards its own dissolution,
but only by an unconscious development which is
independent of it, and which exists against its will,
and is limited by the nature of things; only, that is,
by creating the Proletariat as proletariat, povertyconscious of its own physical and spiritual poverty,and demoralised humanity conscious of its own
xxiv LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
demoralisation and consequently striving against it.
" The Proletariat fulfils the judgment which private
property by the creation of the Proletariat suspendsover itself, just as it fulfils the judgment which wage-labour suspends over itself in creating alien riches and
its own condemnation. If the Proletariat triumphs,it does not thereby become the absolute side of society,
for it triumphs only by abolishing itself and its
opposite. In this way both the Proletariat and its
conditioned opposite, private property, are done awaywith."*
The dialectical method is again described in a few
sentences on pages 420 421 of the third volume of"
Capital"
(German), where we read :" In so far as
the labour process operates merely between man and
nature, its simple elements are common to every form
of its social development. But any given historical,
form of this process further develops its material
foundations and its social forms. When it has
attained a certain degree of maturity the givenhistorical form is cast off and makes room for a
higher one. That the moment of such a crisis
has arrived is shown as soon as there is a
deepening and widening of the contradiction and
antithesis between the conditions of distribution, and
consequently also the existing historical form of the
conditions of production corresponding to them, on
the one hand, and the forces of production, productive
capacity, and the state of evolution of its agents, on
the other. There then arises a conflict between the
material development of production and its cor-
responding social form."
Marx, In "The Holy Family" (1844), reprinted by Mehring in the"Collected Works or Literary Reraaing of Marx and Engels," TO!. II.,
p. 182.
INTRODUCTION xxv
But the Hegelian dialectic appears most strikingly in
the famous twenty-fourth chapter (sec. 7) of the first
volume of"
Capital"
(German), where the evolution
of capitalism from small middle-class ownership
through all phases up to the Socialist revolution is
comprehensively outlined in bold strokes :" The
capitalist method of appropriation, which springs from
the capitalist method of production, and therefore
capitalist private property, is the first negation of
individual private property based on one's own labour.
But capitalist production begets with the inevitable-
ness of a natural process its own negation. It is the
negation of the negation." Here we have the three
stages : the thesis private property; the antithesis
capitalism; the synthesis common ownership.Of critical social writers outside Germany it was
Proudhon, in particular, who, in his works " What is
Property?" and " Economic Contradictions, or the
Philosophy of Poverty"
(1840, 1846), attempted to
use the Hegelian dialectic. The fact that he gave his
chief book the title" Economic Contradictions "
shows that Proudhon was largely preoccupied with
Hegel. Nevertheless, he did not get below the
surface ; he used the Hegelian formulae quite
mechanically, and lacked the conception of an
immanent process of development (the forward-
impelling force within the social organism).If we look at the dialectical method as here pre-
sented, Hegel might be taken for a materialist thinker.
Such a notion would be erroneous. For Hegel is an
idealist : the origin and essence of the process of
growth is to be sought, according to him, not in
material forces, but in the logical idea, reason, the
universal spirit, the absolute, or in its religious
xxvi LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
expression God. Before He created the world Heis to be regarded as an Idea, containing within itself
all forms of being, which it develops dialectically.
The idea creates for itself a material embodiment; it
first expresses itself in the objects of inorganic nature ;
then in plants, organisms wherein life awakens ; then
in animals, in which the Idea attains to the twilight
of reason; finally, in men, where reason rises into
mind and achieves self-consciousness and freedom.
As self-conscious mind it expresses itself in the history
of peoples, in religion, art and philosophy, in human
institutions, in the family and in law, until it realises
itself in the State as its latest and highest object.
According to Hegel, then, the universal Idea
develops into Godhead in proportion as the material
world rises from the inorganic to the organic, and,
finally, to man. In the mental part of man, the Idea
arrives at self-consciousness and freedom and becomes
God. In his cosmology, Hegel is a direct descendant
of the German mystics, Sebastion Franck and Jacob
Boehme. He was in a much higher degree Germanthan any of the German philosophers since Leibnitz.
The strangest thing, however, is that Germanism,
Protestantism, and the Prussian State appeared to
Hegel as the highest expression of the universal
mind. Particularly the Prussian State as it existed
before March, 1848, with its repudiation of all middle-
class reforms and liberalism (of any kind), and its
basis of strong governmental force.
There is little purpose in trying to acquire a logical
conception of Hegelian cosmology. It is not only
idealist, but, as we said, mystical; it is as in-
conceivable to human reason as the biblical;
it is irrational, and lies beyond the sphere of
INTRODUCTION xxvii
reason. Making the universe arise out of pure reason,
out of the logical idea, developing through the dialec-
tical process with a consciousness of freedom, it yetconcludes in unreason and an obstinate determinism.
In Liberalism Hegel saw only a simple negation, a
purely destructive factor, which disintegrates the
State and resolves it into individuals, thus deprivingit of all cohesion and organising strength. He blamed
Parliamentarism for demanding" that everything
should take place through their (the individuals)
expressed power and consent. The will of the manyoverturns the Ministry, and what was the Oppositionnow takes control, but, so far as it is the Government,the latter finds the many against it. Thus agitation
and unrest continue. This collision, this knot, this
problem, is what confronts history, a problem which
it must resolve at some future time." One would
have thought that it was precisely Parliamentarism,
with its unrest and agitation, its antitheses and
antagonisms, which would have had a special attrac-
tion for Hegel, but nevertheless he turned aside from
it. How is this to be explained ?
Hegel's relation to the Prussian State is to be
accounted for by his strong patriotic sentiments. His
disposition inclined him strongly to nationalism in
politics. In his early manhood he witnessed the
complete dissolution of the German Empire, and
deeply bewailed the wretchedness of German condi-
tions. He wrote :
"Germany is no longer a State ;
even the wars which Germany waged have not ended
in a particularly honourable manner for her. Bur-
gundy, Alsace, Lorraine have been torn away. The
Peace of Westphalia has often been alluded to as
Germany's Palladium, although by it the complete
xxviii LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
dismemberment of Germany has only been established
more thoroughly than before. The Germans have
been grateful to Richelieu, who destroyed their
power." On the other hand, the achievements of
Prussia in the Seven Years' War, and in the War of
Liberation against the French, awoke in him the hopethat it was this State which could save Germany.To this thought he gave eloquent and enthusiastic
expression in his address at the opening of his Berlin
lectures in October, 1818, and also in his lecture on
Frederick the Great. Hegel therefore rejected every-
thing which seemed to him to spell a weakening of
the Prussia State power. The dialectician was over-
come by national feelings.
However, Hegel's place in the history of thought
rests, not on his explanations of the creation of the
world, nor on his German nationalist politics, but uponthe dialectical method. In exploring, by means of
this method, the wide expanse of human knowledge,he scattered an astonishing abundance of materialistic
and strictly scientific observations and suggestions,
and inspired his pupils and readers with a living con-
ception of history, of the development of mankind to
self-consciousness and freedom, thus rendering them
capable of pushing their studies further, and eman-
cipating themselves from all mysticism. As an
example of the materialist tendency of his philosophy,the following references will serve. His "
Philosophyof History
" contains a whole chapter upon the
geographical foundations of universal history. In this
chapter he expresses himself quite contrary to his
deification of the State as follows :
" A real State
and a real central government only arise when the
distinction of classes is already given, when Riches
and Poverty have become very great, and such con-
INTRODUCTION xxix
ditions have arisen that a great multitude can no
longer satisfy their needs in the way to which theyhave been accustomed." Or take his explanation of
the founding of colonies by the Greeks." This projecting of colonies, particularly in the
period after the Trojan War until Cyrus, is here a
peculiar phenomenon, which may thus be explained :
in the individual towns the people had the governing
power in their hands, in that they decided the affairs
of State in the last resort. In consequence of the long
peace, population and development greatly increased,
and quickly brought about the accumulation of
great riches, which is always accompanied by the
phenomenon of great distress and poverty. Industry,in our sense, did not exist at that time, and the land
was speedily monopolised. Nevertheless, a section of
the poorer classes would not allow themselves to be
depressed to the poverty line, for each man felt himself
to be a free citizen. The sole resource, therefore, was
colonisation."
Or even the following passage, which conceives the
philosophical system merely as the result and reflec-
tion of the accomplished facts of existence, and
therefore rejects all painting of Utopias :
*'Besides,
philosophy comes always too late to say a word as
to how the world ought to be. As an idea of the
universe, it only arises in the period after reality has
completed its formative process and attained its final
shape. What this conception teaches is necessarily
demonstrated by history, namely, that the ideal
appears over against the real only after the consum-
mation of reality, that the ideal reconstructs the same
world, comprehended in the substance of reality, in
the form of an intellectual realm. A form of life has
become old when philosophy paints its grey on grey,
xxx LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
and with grey on grey it cannot be rejuvenated but
only recognised. The owl of Minerva begins its flight
only with the falling twilight." Preface to the"Philosophy of Law."No materialist could have said this better : the owl
the symbol of wisdom only begins her flight in the
evening, after the busy activities of the world are over.
Thus we have first the universe, and then thought;first existence, and then consciousness.
Hegel himself was therefore an example of his own
teaching that contradictory elements are to be found
side by side. His mind contained both idealism and
realism, but he did not bring them by a process of
reasoning to the point of acute contradiction in order
to reach a higher plane of thought. And as he regardedit as the task of philosophy to recognise the principle
of things, and to follow it out systematically and
logically throughout the whole vast domain of reality,
and as further, owing to his mystical bent, he asserted
the idea to be the ultimate reality, he remained a
consistent Idealist.
The Conservatism of Hegel, who was the philoso-
phical representative of the Prussian State, was,
however, sadly incompatible with the awakeningconsciousness of the German middle class, which, hi
spite of its economic weakness, aspired to a freer State
constitution, and greater liberty of action. These
aspirations were already somewhat more strongly
developed in the larger towns and industrial centres
of Prussia and the other German States. The YoungHegelians* championed this middle-class awakening in
* After the death of Hegel differences of opinion arose among his
disciples, chiefly with respect to his doctrines of the Deity, immortalityand the personality of Christ. One section, the so-called
"Right Wing,"
inclined to orthodoxy on these questions. In opposition to them stoodthe ''Young Hegelians," the progressive "Left Wing." To this section
belonged Arnold Ruge, Bruno Bauer, Feuerbach, and Strauss, author of
the"Life of Jesu8.'
r
INTRODUCTION xxxi
the philosophical sphere, just as"Young Germany
"
(Heine, Boerne, etc.) did in the province of literature.
Just at the time when Marx was still at the
university the Young Hegelians took up the fight
against the conservative section of Hegel's disciples and
the Christian Romanticism of Prussia. The antagon-ism between the old and the new school made itself
felt both in religious philosophy and political litera-
ture, but both tendencies were seldom combined in
the same persons. David Strauss subjected the
Gospels to a candid criticism ; Feuerbach investigated
the nature of Christianity and of religion generally,
and in this department inverted Hegel's Idealism to
Materialism ; Bruno Bauer trained his heavy historical
and philosophical artillery on the traditional dogmas
concerning the rise of Christianity. Politically, how-
ever, they remained at the stage of the freedom of
the individual : that is, they were merely moderate
Liberals. Nevertheless, there were also less prominent
Young Hegelians who were at that time in the Liberal
left wing as regards their political opinions, such as
Arnold Ruge.None of the Young Hegelians had, however, used
the dialectical method to develop still further the
teaching of the Master. Karl Marx, the youngest of
the Hegelians, first brought it to a higher stage in
social science. He was no longer known to Hegel, who
might otherwise have died with a more contented or
perhaps even still more perturbed mind. Heinrich
Heine, who belonged to the Hegelians in the thirties
and forties, relates the following anecdote, which if
not true yet excellently illustrates the extraordinary
difficulties of the Master's doctrines :
As Hegel lay dying, his disciples, who had gathered
xxxii LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
round him, seeing the furrows deepen on the Master's
care-worn countenance, inquired the cause of his
grief, and tried to comfort him by reminding him of
the large number of admiring disciples and followers
he would leave behind. Breathing with difficulty, he
replied :
" None of my disciples has understood me;
only Michelet has understood me, and," he added with
a sigh," even he has misunderstood me."
The Life and Teaching of Karl Marx
i.
PARENTS AND FRIENDS.
I. MARX'S APPRENTICESHIP.
Karl Heinrich Marx first saw the light of day in
Treves on May 5, 1818. His father, an enlightened,fine feeling, and philanthropic Jew, was a Jurist whohad slowly risen from the humble circumstances of a
German Rabbi family and acquired a respectable
practice, but who never learnt the art of making
money. His mother was a Dutchwoman, and cameof a Rabbi family called Pressburg, which, as the
name indicates, had emigrated from Pressburg, in
Hungary, to Holland, in the seventeenth century.She spoke German very imperfectly. Marx has
handed on to us one of her sayings,"
If Karl madea lot of Capital, instead of writing a lot about Capital,
it would have been much better." The Marxes had
several children, of whom Karl alone showed special
mental gifts.
In the year 1824 the family embraced Christianity.
The baptism of Jews was at that time no longer a
rarity. The enlightenment of the last half of the
eighteenth century had undermined the dogmatic
2 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
beliefs of many cultured Jews, and the succeeding
period of German Christian Romanticism brought a
strengthening and idealising of Christianity and of
national feeling, from which, for practical just as muchas for spiritual reasons, the Jews who had renounced
their own religion could not escape. They were
completely assimilated, felt and thought like the
rest of their Christian and German fellow-citizens.
Marx's father felt himself to be a good Prussian,
and once recommended his son to compose an
ode, in the grand style, on Napoleon's downfall
and Prussia's victory. Karl did not, in truth, follow
his father's advice, but from that time of Christian
enthusiasm and German patriotic sentiment until his
life's end, there remained with him an anti-Jewish
prejudice; the Jew was generally to him either a
usurer or a cadger.
Karl was sent to the grammar school in his native
town, leaving with a highly creditable record. The
school was, however, not the only place where he
developed his mind. During his school years he used
to frequent the house of the Government Privy
Councillor, L. von Westphalen, a highly cultured
Prussian official, whose favourite poets were Homerand Shakespeare, and who followed attentively the
intellectual tendencies of his time. Although he had
already reached advanced age, he liked to converse
with the precocious youth, and to influence his mental
growth. Marx honoured him as a fatherly friend" who welcomes every progressive movement with the
enthusiasm and sober judgment of a lover of truth,
and who is a living proof that Idealism is no
imagination, but the truth." (Dedication of Marx's
doctor thesis.)
STUDENT 8
After quitting the public school, Marx went
to the University of Bonn, in order to study juris-
prudence, according to his father's wishes. After a
year of the merry life of a student, he removed in the
autumn of 1836 to Berlin University, the centre of
culture and truth, as Hegel had called it in his
Inaugural Lecture (1818). Before his departure for
Berlin, he had become secretly engaged to Jenny Von
Westphalen, the daughter of his fatherly friend, a
woman distinguished alike for beauty, culture, and
strength of character.
II. STUDENT.
In Berlin, Marx threw himself into the study of
Philosophy, Jurisprudence, History, Geography,
Literature, the History of Art, etc. He had a Faust-
like thirst for truth, and his appetite for work was
insatiable; in these matters only superlatives can be
used to describe Marx. In one of his poems datingfrom this period, he says of himself :
" Ne'er can I perform in calmness
What has seized my soul with might,But must strive and struggle onward
In a ceaseless, restless flight.
All divine, enhancing gracesWould I make of life a part;
Penetrate the realms of science,
Grasp the joys of Song and Art."
4 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Giving up all social intercourse, he worked nightand day, making abstracts of what he read, translating
from Greek and Latin, working at philosophical
systems, setting down a considerable number of his
own thoughts, and drafting outlines of philosophy or
jurisprudence, as well as writing three volumes of
poems. The year 1837 marks one of the critical
periods of Marx's intellectual development; it was a
time of vacillation and ferment and of internal
struggle, at the end of which he found refuge in the
Hegelian dialectics. In so doing he turned his back
on the abstract idealism of Kant and Fichte, and madethe first step towards reality ; and indeed at that time
Marx firmly believed that Hegel actually stood for
reality. In a somewhat lengthy letter dated November
10, 1837, a truly human document, Marx gives his
father an account of Ms intense activity during that
remarkable period, comprising his first two terms at
the University of Berlin, when he was still so very
young :
" DEAR FATHER," There are times which are landmarks in our
lives ; and they not only mark off a phase that has
passed, but, at the same time, point out clearly our
new direction. At such turning points we feel
impelled to make a critical survey of the past and
the present, so as to attain to a clear knowledgeof our actual position. Nay, mankind itself, as all
history shows, loves to indulge in this retrospection
and contemplation, and thereby often appears to be
going backward or standing still, when after all it
has only thrown itself back in its armchair, the
better to apprehend itself, to grasp its own doings,
and to penetrate into the workings of the spirit.
STUDENT 5
" The individual, however, becomes lyrical at
such times; for every metamorphosis is in part an
elegy on the past and in part the prologue of a great
new poem that is striving for permanent expressionin a chaos of resplendent but fleeting colours. Bethat as it may, we would fain set up a monumentto our past experiences that they may regain in
memory the significance which they have lost in
the active affairs of life : and what more fitting waycan we find of doing that than by bringing them
and laying them before the hearts of our parents !
" And so now, when I take stock of the yearwhich I have just spent here, and in so doing answer
your very welcome letter from Ems, let me consider
my position, in the same way as I look on life
altogether, as the embodiment of a spiritual force
that seeks expression in every direction : in science,
in art, and in one's own personality. . . . On
my arrival in Berlin I broke off all my former con-
nections, paid visits rarely and unwillingly, and
sought to bury myself in science and art. . . In
accordance with my ideas at the time, poetry must
of necessity be my first concern, or at least the most
agreeable of my pursuits, and the one for which I
most cared; but, as might be expected from my
disposition and the whole trend of my development,it was purely idealistic. Next I had to study juris-
prudence, and above all I felt a strong impulse to
grapple with philosophy. Both studies, however,were so interwoven that on the one hand I worked
through the Jurist's Heineccius and Thibaut and
the Sources docilely and quite uncritically, transla-
ting, for instance, the first two books of the
Pandects of Justinian, while on the other hand I
6 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
attempted to evolve a philosophy of law in the
sphere of jurisprudence. By way of introduction I
laid down a few metaphysical principles, and
carried this unfortunate work as far as Public
Rights, in all about 300 sheets." In this, however, more than in anything else,
the conflict between what is and what ought to be,
which is peculiar to Idealism, made itself disagree-
ably prominent. In the first place there was what
I had so graciously christened the Metaphysics of
Law, i.e., first principles, reflections, definitions,
standing aloof from all established jurisprudence and
from every actual form of legal practice. Then the
unscientific form of mathematical dogmatism in
which there is so much beating about the bush, so
much diffuse argumentation without any fruitful
development or vital creation, hindered me from the
outset from arriving at the Truth. A triangle maybe constructed and reasoned about by the mathe-
matician ; it is a mere spatial concept and does not
of itself undergo any further evolution; it must be
brought in conjunction with something else, whenit requires other properties, and thus by placingthe same thing in various relationships we are
enabled to deduce new relationships and new truths.
Whereas in the concrete expression of the mental
life as we have it in Law, in the State, in Nature,
and in the whole of philosophy, the object of our
study must be considered in its development. . .
The individual's reason must proceed with its self-
contradiction until it discovers its own unity."
In this we perceive the first trace of the Hegeliandialectic in Marx. We see rigid geometrical forms
STUDENT 7
contrasted with the continually evolving organism,with social forms and human institutions. Marx had
put up a stout resistance against the influence of the
Hegelian philosophy; nay, he had even hated it and
had made mighty efforts to cling faithfully to his
idealism, but in the end he, too, must fall under the
spell of the idea of evolution, in the form which it
then assumed in Hegelian speculation in Germany.Marx then goes on to speak of his legal studies as
well as of his poems, and thus continues :
" As a result of these various activities I passed
many sleepless nights during my first term, engagedin many battles, and had to endure much mental
and physical excitement; and at the end of it all
I found myself not very much better off, having in
the meanwhile neglected nature, art and society,
and spurned pleasure : such, indeed, was the com-
ment which my body seemed to make. My doctor
advised me to try the country, and so, having for
the first time passed through the whole length of
the city, I found myself before the gate on the
Stralau Road. . . . From the idealism which I
had cherished so long I fell to seeking the ideal in
reality itself. Whereas before the gods had dwelt
above the earth, they had now become its verycentre.
*'I had read fragments of Hegel's philosophy,
the strange, rugged melody of which had not pleased
me. Once again I wished to dive into the depthsof the sea, this time with the resolute intention
of finding a spiritual nature just as essential,
concrete, and perfect as the physical, and instead
of indulging in intellectual gymnastics, bringing uppure pearls into the sunlight.
8 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
" I wrote about 24 sheets of a dialogue entitled' Cleantes or on the Source and Inevitable Develop-ment of Philosophy.* In this, art and science, which
had hitherto been kept asunder, were to some extent
blended, and bold adventurer that I was, I even set
about the task of evolving a philosophical, dialec-
tical exposition of the nature of the Deity as it is
manifested in a pure concept, in religion, in nature,
and in history. My last thesis was the beginningof the Hegelian system ; and this work, in course of
which I had to make some acquaintance with science,
Schelling and history, and which had occasioned mean infinite amount of hard thinking, delivers me like
a faithless siren into the hands of the enemy. . . .
"Upset by Jenny's illness and by the fruitless-
ness and utter failure of my intellectual labours, and
torn with vexation at having to make into my idol
a view which I had hated, I fell ill, as I have
already told you in a previous letter. On myrecovery I burnt all my poems and material for
projected short stories in the vain belief that I could
give all that up ; and, to be sure, so far I have not
given cause to gainsay it.
"During my illness I had made acquaintance with
Hegel from beginning to end, as also with most of
his disciples. Through frequent meetings with
friends in Stralau I got an introduction into a
Graduates' Club, in which were a number of pro-
fessors and Dr. Rutenberg, the closest of my Berlin
friends. In the discussions that took place manyconflicting views were put forward, and more and
more securely did I get involved in the meshes of
the new philosophy which I had sought to escape;but everything articulate in me was put to silence,
STUDENT 9
a veritable ironical rage fell upon me, as well it mightafter so much negation." (" Neue Zeit," 16th
year, Vol. I., No. 1.)
His father was anything but pleased with this letter.
He reproached Karl with the aimless and discursive
way in which he worked. He had expected that these
Berlin studies would lead to something more than
breeding monstrosities and destroying them again.He believed that Karl would, before everything else,
have considered his future career, that he would have
devoted all his attention to the lectures in his course,
that he would have cultivated the acquaintance of
people in authority, that he would have been econo-
mical, and that he would have avoided all philoso-
phical extravagances. He refers him to the exampleof his fellow students who attend their lectures regu-
larly and have an eye to their future :
" Indeed these young men sleep quite peacefully
except when they now and then devote the whole
or part of a night to pleasure, whereas my clever
and gifted son Karl passes wretched sleepless nights,
wearying body and mind with cheerless study,
forbearing all pleasures with the sole object of
applying himself to abstruse studies : but what he
builds to-day he destroys again to-morrow, and in
the end he finds that he has destroyed what he
already had, without having gained anything from
other people. At last the body begins to ail and
the mind gets confused, whilst these ordinary folks
steal along in easy marches, and attain their goalif not better at least more comfortably than those
who contemn youthful pleasures and undermine
their health in order to snatch at the ghost of erudi-
10 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
tion, which they could probably have exorcised more
successfully in an hour spent in the society of
competent men with social enjoyment into the
bargain !
"
In spite of his unbounded love for his father, Marxcould not deviate from the path which he had chosen.
Those deeper natures who, after having lost their
religious beliefs, have the good fortune to attain to a
philosophical or scientific conception of the universe,
do not easily shrink from a conflict between filial
affection and loyalty to new convictions. Nor was
Marx allured by the prospects of a distinguished
official career. Indeed his fighting temperament would
never have admitted of that. He wrote the lines :
Therefore let us, all things daring,
Never from our task recede ;
Never sink iu sullen silence,
Paralysed in will and deed.
Let us not in base subjection
Brood away our fearful life,
When with deed and aspiration
We might enter in the strife.
His stay in Stralau had the most beneficial effects
on his health. He worked strenuously at his newly-
acquired philosophical convictions, and for this his
relations with the members of the Graduates' Club
stood him in good stead, more especially his acquaint-
ance with Bruno Bauer, a lecturer in theology, and
Friedrich Koppen, a master in a grammar school, whoin spite of difference of age and position treated him
as an equal. Marx gave up all thought of an official
career, and looked forward to obtaining a lectureship
BEGINNINGS OF PUBLIC LIFE 11
in some university or other. His father reconciled
himself to the new studies and strivings of his son;
he was, however, not destined to rejoice at Karl's
subsequent achievements. After a short illness he died
in May, 1838, at the age of fifty-six.
Marx then gave up altogether the study of juris-
prudence, and worked all the more assiduously at the
perfecting of his philosophical knowledge, preparinghimself for his degree examination in order at the
instigation of Bruno Bauer co get himself admitted
as quickly as possible as lecturer in philosophy at the
University of Bonn. Bauer himself expected to be
made Professor of Theology in Bonn after havingserved as lecturer in Berlin from 1831 to 1889 and in
Bonn during the year 1840. Marx wrote a thesis on
the Natural Philosophies of Democritus and Epicurus,and in 1841 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy was
conferred on him at Jena. He then went over to his
friend Bauer in Bonn, where he thought to begin his
career as lecturer. Meanwhile his hopes had dis-
appeared. Prussian universities were at that time no
places for free inquirers. It was not even possible for
Bauer to obtain a professorship ; still less could Marx,who was much more violent in the expression of his
opinions, reckon on an academic career. His only wayout of this blind alley was free-lance journalism, and
for this an opportunity soon presented itself.
III. BEGINNINGS OF PUBLIC LIFE.
Marx made his entry into public life with a thorough
philosophical training and with an irrestrainable im-
12 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
pulse to enter into the struggle for the spiritual
freedom of Germany. By spiritual freedom he under-
stood first and foremost freedom in religion and
liberalism in politics. He was, too, perfectly clear as
to the instrument to be used : it was criticism. The
positive and rigid having become ineffectual and un-
reasonable, is to fall before the weapon of criticism and
so make room for a living stream of thought and
being, or as Marx himself expressed it in 1844," to
make the petrified conditions dance by singing to them
their own tune." Their own tune is, of course, the
dialectic. Criticism, generally speaking, was the
weapon of the Young Hegelians. Criticism is nega-
tion, sweeping away existing conditions and prevailing
dogmas to make a clear path for life. Not the setting
up of new principles or new dogmas, but the clearing
away of the old dogmas is the task of the YoungHegelians. For if dialectic be rightly understood,
criticism or negation is the best positive work.
Criticism finds expression, above all, in polemics, in
the literal meaning of waging war ruthless war
against the unreal for the purpose of shaking up one's
contemporaries.After Marx had given up all hope of an academic
career, the only field of labour that remained open to
him was, as we have already said, that of journalism.
His material circumstances compelled him, moreover,to consider the question of an independent livelihood.
Just about this time the Liberals in the Rhine
provinces took up a scheme for the foundation of a
newspaper, the object of which was to prepare the wayfor conditions of greater freedom. The necessary
money was soon procured. Significantly enough,
Young Hegelians were kept in view for editors and
BEGINNINGS OF PUBLIC LIFE 13
contributors. On the first of January, 1842, the first
number of the Rheinische Zeitung was published at
Cologne. The editor was Dr. Rutenberg, who had
formed an intimate friendship with Marx at the time
the latter was attending the University of Berlin; and
so Marx, then in Bonn, was also invited to contribute.
He accepted the invitation, and his essays brought him
to the notice of Arnold Ruge, who likewise invited
him to take part in his literary undertakings in con-
junction with Feuerbach, Bauer, Moses Hess, and
others. Marx's essays were greatly appreciated, too,
by the readers of the Rheinische Zeitung, so that in
October, 1842, on the retirement of Rutenberg, he
was called to the editorial chair of that journal. In
his new position he had to deal with a series of
economic and political questions which, no doubt, with
a less conscientious editor would have occasioned little
hard thinking, but which for Marx showed the need of
a thorough study of political economy and Socialism.
In October, 1842, a congress of French and Germanintellectuals was held in Strasburg, and amongst other
things French Socialist theories were discussed. Like-
wise in the Rhine provinces arose questions concerninglanded property and taxes, which had to be dealt with
from the editorial chair, questions which were not lo
be answered by a purely philosophical knowledge.
Besides, the censorship made the way hard for a paperconducted with such critical acumen, and did not allow
the editor to fulfil his real mission. In the preface to" The Critique of Political Economy
"(1859) Marx
gives a short sketch of his editorial life :
" As editor of the Rheinische Zeitung, in 1842 and
1843 I came up, for the first time, against the difficulty
of having to take part in the controversy over so-called
14 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
material interests. The proceedings of the Diet
of the Rhine provinces with regard to wood stealing
and parcelling out of landed property, and their action
towards the farmers of the Moselle districts, and lastly
debates on Free Trade and Protection, gave the first
stimulus to my investigation of economic questions.
On the other hand, an echo of French Socialism and
Communism, feebly philosophical in tone, had at that
time made itself heard in the columns of the Rheinische
Zeitung. I declared myself against superficiality, con-
fessing, however, at the same time that the studies I
had made so far did not allow me to venture any
judgment of my own on the significance of the French
tendencies. I readily took advantage of the illusion
cherished by the directors of the Rheinische Zeitung,
who believed they could reverse the death sentence
passed on that journal as a result of weak manage-
ment, in order to withdraw from the public platforminto my study."And so the intellectual need which he felt of studying
economics and Socialism, as well as his thirst for free,
unfettered activity, resulted in Marx's retirement from
his post as editor, although he was about to enter
upon married life and had to make provision for his
own household. But he was from the beginning deter-
mined to subordinate his material existence to his
spiritual aspirations.
II.
THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF MARXISM.
I. THE FRANCO-GERMAN YEAR BOOKS.
BETWEENthe years 1843 and 1844 we have the
second and probably the most importantcritical period in the intellectual development
of Marx. In 1837 he had become a disciple of Hegel,into whose philosophy he penetrated deeper and
deeper during the two years which ensued. Between
1843 and 1844 he became a Socialist, and in the follow-
ing two years he laid the foundations of those social
and historical doctrines associated with his name. Of
the way he came to be a Socialist and by what studies
he was led to Socialism, we know nothing. All that
can be said is that in the summer of 1843 he must have
pursued the reading of French Socialist literature just
as assidiiously as he did the study of Hegel in 1837.
In his letters to Arnold Ruge, written about 1843, and
printed in the Franco-German Year Books, we find a
few passages which bear witness to his sudden turn-
over. In a letter from Cologne (May, 1843) he
remarks :" This system of acquisition and commer-
cialism, of possession and of the exploitation of man-
kind, is leading even more swiftly than the increase
of population to a breach within the present society,
which the old system cannot heal, because indeed it
has not the power either to heal or create, but onlyto exist and enjoy."That is still in the sentimental vein, and anything
but dialectical criticism. In the following few months,
15
16 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
however, he made surprisingly rapid progress
towards the fundamental ideas of that conception of
history and society, which later on came to be known
as Marxism, and which he almost built up into a
complete system during those restless years of
exuberant creative activity, 1845 46. In a letter
from Kreuznach, dated September, 1843, he shows
already an acquaintance with Fourier, Proudhon,
Cabet, Weitling, etc., and sees his task not in the
setting up of Utopias but in the criticism of political
and social conditions," in interpreting the struggles
and aspirations of the age." And by the winter of
1843 he has already advanced so much as to be able
to write the introduction to the criticism of Hegel's"
Philosophy of Law," which is one of the boldest
and most brilliant of his essays. He deals with the
question of a German revolution, and asks which is
the class that could bring about the liberation of
Germany. His answer is that the positive conditions
for the German revolution and liberation are to be
sought" in the formation of a class in chains, a class
which finds itself in bourgeois society, but which is not
of it, of an order which shall break up all orders. The
product of this dissolution of society reduced to a
special order is the proletariat. The proletariat arises
in Germany only with the beginning of the industrial
movement ; for it is not poverty resulting from natural
circumstances but poverty artificially created, not the
masses who are held down by the weight of the social
system but the multitude arising from the acute break-
up of society especially of the middle class which
gives rise to the proletariat. When the proletariat
proclaims the dissolution of the existing order of
things, it is merely announcing the secret of its own
THE FRANCO-GERMAN YEAR BOOKS 17
existence, for it is in itself the virtual dissolution of
this order of things. When the proletariat desires the
negation of private property, it is merely elevating to
a general principle of society what it already involun-
tarily embodies in itself as the negative product of
society."
Marx wrote this in Paris, whither he had removed
with his young wife in October, 1848, in order to take
up the editorship of the Franco-German Year Books
founded by Arnold Ruge. In a letter addressed to
Ruge from Kreu/naeh in September, 1843, Marxsummed up the program of this periodical as follows :
"If the shaping of the future and its final reconstruc-
tion is not our business, yet it is all the more evident
what we have to accomplish with our joint efforts, I
mean the fearless criticism of all existing institutions
fearless in the sense that it does not flinch either from
its logical consequences or from the conflict with the
powers that be. I am therefore not with those whowould have us set up the standard of dogmatism ; far
from it; we should rather try to give what help wecan to those who are involved in dogma, so that they
may realise the implications of their own principles.
So, for example, Communism as taught by Cabet,
Dezamy, Weitling, and others is a dogmatic abstrac-
tion. . . . Moreover, we want to work upon our
contemporaries, and particularly on our German con-
temporaries. The question is : How is that to be
done? Two factors cannot be ignored. In the first
place religion, in the second place politics, are the two
things which claim most attention in the Germany of
to-day. ... As far as everyday life is concerned,
the political State, even where it has not been con-
sciously perfected through Socialist demands, exactly
18 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
fulfils, in all its modern forms, the demands of reason.
Nor does it stop there. It presupposes reason every-where as having been realised. But in so doing it
lands itself everywhere in the contradiction between
its ideal purpose and its real achievements. Out of
this conflict, therefore, of the political State with itself
social truth is evolved."
Without a doubt, the Hegelian conception of the
State as the embodiment of reason and morality did
not accord well with the constitution and the workingof the actual State. And Marx goes on to remark
that in its history the political State is the expressionof the struggles, the needs, and the realities of society.
It is not true, then, as the French and English
Utopians have thought, that the treatment of political
questions is beneath the dignity of Socialists. Rather
is it work of this kind which leads into party conflict
and away from the abstract theory." We do not
then proclaim to the world in doctrinaire fashion anynew principle :
* This is the truth, bow down before
it !J We do not say :
' Refrain from strife, it is
foolishness !
' We only make clear to men for what
they are really struggling, and to the consciousness of
this they must come whether they will or not.*'
That is conceived in a thoroughly dialectical vein.
The thinker propounds no fresh problems, brings
forward no abstract dogmas, but awakens an under-
standing for the growth of the future out of the past,
inspiring the political and social warriors with the
consciousness of their own action.
FRIENDSHIP WITH ENGELS 19
II. FRIENDSHIP WITH FRIEDRICH ENGELS.
Of the Franco-German Year Books only one number
appeared (Spring, ]844), Alongside Marx's contribu-
tions (an Introduction to the criticism of Hegel's"
Philosophy of Jurisprudence and a review of Bauer's
book on the Jewish Question) the volume contains a
comprehensive treatise." Outlines for a Criticism of
Political Economy," from the pen of Friedrich Engels
(born in Barmen, 1820; died in London, 1895), whowas then living in Manchester. In September, 1844,
Engels went to visit Marx in Paris. This visit was
the beginning of the lifelong intimate friendship
between the two men, who without a close collabora-
tion would not have achieved what they did.
Marx was a highly-gifted theorist, a master in the
realm of thought, but he was quite unpractical in the
affairs of everyday life. Had he enjoyed a regular
income throughout life, he would probably have
attained his end even without the help of Engels. Onthe other hand, Engels was an exceedingly able,
energetic, and highly-cultured man, eminently prac-tical and successful in everything he undertook, but
not endowed with that speculative temperament which
surmounts intellectual crises and opens out newhorizons. But for his intellectual association with
Marx he would, in all probability, have remained little
more than a Moses Hess. Marx was never a Utopian ;
the complete saturation of his mind with Hegeliandialectics made him immune to all eternal truths and
final social forms. On the contrary, up to 1844 Engelswas a Utopian until Marx explained to him the
meaning of political and social conflicts, the basis and
the motive force, the statics and dynamics of the
20 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
history of civilised mankind. Engels'*'
Criticism of
Political Economy"
is a very noteworthy performancefor a youth of twenty-three engaged in commerce, but
it does not rise above the level of the writings of Owen,Fourier, and Proudhon. Engels' contributions to
Owen's " New Moral World "(1843 44) are indeed
more philosophical than the other articles by Owenites,but as far as matter goes, there is no perceptibledifference between them. " The System of Economic
Contradictions," on which Proudhon was workingwhen Engels published his
"Outlines," is couched,
as far as the critical side is concerned, in the same
strain of thought as we find in Engels. Both soughtto expose the contradictions of the middle-class
economic system, not in order to discover in them the
source of the progress of society, but to condemn them
in the name of justice. Whereas the Owenites con-
sidered their system as perfect, Proudhon and Engels
had, independently of one another, striven to free
themselves from the Socialist Utopias. Proudhon
became a peaceful Anarchist and found salvation in the
scheme of autonomous economic groups, which should
carry on an exchange of labour equivalents with one
another. Engels, on the other hand, found a solution
of his difficulties in Marx, whom he rewarded with a
lifelong friendship and devotion, which proved to be
Marx's salvation. Without Engels' literary and
financial help, Marx, with his unpractical, helpless,
and, at the same time, proud and uncompromising
disposition, would most probably have perished in
exile.
CONTROVERSIES BAUER AND RUGE 21
III. CONTROVERSIES WITH BAUER AND RUGE.
After the Franco-German Year Books had been
discontinued, Marx, recognising the importance of
economics, studied English and French systems of
political economy with still greater zeal than before,
and continued his studies in Socialism and history with
remarkable steadiness of purpose. No longer now did
he show signs of hesitation or wavering ; he knew
exactly what he wanted. He had left behind him that
period of ideological speculation when he was still a
disciple of Hegel, and he was impelled, as in the
autumn of 1837, to envisage, from his new standpoint,
the past and the future. He takes such a survey in" The Holy Family," which had its genesis in the
autumn of 1844, and to which Engels also furnished
a slight contribution. It is a settling of accounts with
his former friend and master, Bruno Bauer, and his
brother Edgar, who had not been able to break awayfrom Hegel. The aim of the book was to force the
Young Hegelians into the path of social criticism, to
urge them forward and prevent them from falling into
stereotyped and abstract ways of thinking. It is not
easy reading. In it Marx has compressed the know-
ledge he then had of philosophy, history, economics,
and Socialism in concentrated and sharply-cut form.
Besides the excellent sketch of English and French
materialism, which among other things discloses in a
few short but pregnant sentences the connection
between this and English and French Socialism," The
Holy Family" contains the germs of the materialistic
conception of history as well as the first attempt to
give a social revolutionary interpretation to the class
struggle between Capital and Labour. In the Intro-
22 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
duction to the present book a quotation from " The
Holy Family" has been given. Speaking against
Bauer's conception of history, Marx says : "Orcan he believe that he has arrived even at the
beginning of a knowledge of historical reality so longas he excludes science and industry from the historical
movements ? Or does he really think that he can
understand any period without having studied, for
example, the industries of that period, the immediate
means of production of life itself? ... In the
same way as he separated thought from the senses,
the soul from the body, and himself from the world,
so he separates history from science and industry, and
he does not see the birthplace of history in coarse,
material production upon earth but in the nebulous
constructions in the heavens." (" Posthumous
Works," Vol. II., pp. 259-60.)
Bruno Bauer, who believed in the world-swaying
might of the idea, but would not concede that the
masses had any power whatever, wrote :
" All the
great movements of history up to this time were
therefore doomed to failure and could not have lasting
success, because the masses had taken an interest in
them and inspired them or they must come to a
lamentable conclusion because the underlying idea
was of such a nature that a superficial apprehensionof it must suffice, that is to say, it must reckon on
the approval of the masses."
Marx's answer to this was that " the great historical
movements had been always determined by mass
interests, and only in so far as they represented these
interests could the ideas prevail in these movements ;
otherwise the ideas might indeed stir up enthusiasm,
but they could not achieve any results. The idea
CONTROVERSIES BAUER AND RUGE 23
always fell into disrepute in so far as it differed from
the interest. On the other hand, it is easy to under-
stand that, when it makes its first appearance on the
world-stage, every mass interest working itself out in
history far exceeds, as an idea or in its presentation,
its actual limits and identifies itself purely and simplywith the interest of humanity. Thus the idea of the
French Revolution not only took hold of the middle
classes, in whose interest it manifested itself in great
movements, but it also aroused enthusiasm in the
labouring masses, for whose conditions of existence it
could do nothing. As history has shown, then, ideas
have only had effective results in so far as they cor-
responded to class interests. The enthusiasm, to which
such ideas gave birth, arose from the illusion that
these ideas signified the liberation of mankind in
general. (" Posthumous Works," Vol. II., pp. 181-3.)
In August, 1844, Marx published under the title
'*Marginal Notes "
in the Paris Vorwarts a lengthy
polemic against Ruge, which is a defence of Socialism
and revolution and takes the part of the German
proletariat against Ruge." As regards the stage of
culture or the capacity for culture of the German
workers, let me refer to Weitling's clever writings,
which in their theoretical aspect often surpass those
of Proudhon, however much they may fall behind
them in execution. Where would the middle classes,
their scholars and philosophers included, be able to
show a work like Weitling's* Guarantees of Peace
and Concord '
bearing on the question of emancipa-tion ? If one compares the insipid, spiritless
mediocrity of German political literature with this
unconstrained and brilliant literary debut of the
German workers, if one compares these gigantic baby
24 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
shoes of the proletariat with the dwarfishness of the
worn-out political shoes of the German middle classes,
one can only prophesy an athletic stature for the
German Cinderella. One must admit that the German
proletariat is the philosopher of the European pro-
letariat, just as the English proletariat is its political
economist and the French proletariat its politician.
One must admit that Germany is destined to play
just as classic a rdle in the social revolution as it is
incompetent to play one in the political. For, as the
impotence of the German middle classes is the political
impotence of Germany, so the capacity of the German
proletariat even leaving out of account German
philosophy is the social capacity of Germany."At that time (1844) Marx had already begun to mix
among the German working classes resident in Paris,
who clung to the various Socialist and Anarchist
doctrines which then held sway, and he sought to
influence them according to his own ideas. With
Heine, too, who at that time was coquetting with
Communism, he carried on a sprightly and not unfrait-
ful intercourse. He likewise came into frequent contact
with Proudhon, whom he endeavoured to makefamiliar with Hegelian philosophy. Already in his
first work, "What is Property?"
(1840) Proudhon
had played with Hegelian formulae, and Marx
probably believed that he could win him over to
Socialism. Proudhon, who, like the German Weitling,
sprang from the proletariat, ushered in his activity
as a social theorist with the above-mentioned work,which had a stimulating effect on Marx and on GermanSocialists in general, all the more so as Proudhon
manifested some acquaintance with classical German
philosophy. In this book (" What is Property ?"
CONTROVERSIES BAUER AND RUGE 2&
German edition, 1844, p. 289) he sums up the whole
matter as follows :
"Expressing this according to the
Hegelian formula, I should say that Communism, the
first kind, the first determination of social life, is the
first link in social evolution, the thesis; property is
the antagonistic principle, the antithesis; if only wecan get the third factor, the synthesis, the questionis solved. This synthesis comes about only throughthe cancelling of the thesis by the antithesis; one
must therefore in the last instance examine its char-
acteristics, discard what is anti-social, and in the
union of the remaining two is then seen the real kind
of human social life."
That was indeed a superficial conception of Hegelian
dialectics, for what Proudhon wanted to find was not
a synthesis but a combination; still for a French
working man it was a smart performance to have
manipulated German philosophical formulae, and
would justify the most sanguine hopes. Marx did not
want to let this opportunity slip, and in " debates
both late and long" he discussed Hegelian philosophy
with Proudhon. (Marx :" The Poverty of Phil-
osophy," German edition, Stuttgart, 1885, p. 29.)
In the midst of this activity, however, Marx and
other German contributors to the Paris Vorwarts were
expelled from France in January, 1845, at the instiga-
tion of the Prussian Government. Marx packed up his
traps and left for Brussels, where he lived, with short
interruptions, until the outbreak of the EuropeanRevolution in February, 1848. During his sojourn in
Brussels his time was occupied mainly with economic
studies, for which Engels placed his library of works
on political economy at his disposal. Marx embodied
the result of these studies in the criticism directed
26 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
against Proudhon in his " Misere de la Philosophic
(Poverty of Philosophy), published in 1847.
IV. CONTROVERSY WITH PROUDHON.
Marx's " Misere de la Philosophic" indicates the
culmination of the first phase of his creative work.
In this critical review he makes his position clear with
respect not only to Proudhon but to Utopian Socialism
in general. It marks also the turning point in the
studies of Marx : English political economy occupiedhenceforth the place which German philosophy had
held. The anti-Proudhon controversy is therefore
worthy of a fuller treatment.
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (b. 1809 in Besancon, d.
1865 in Paris) was one of the most gifted and most
distinguished of social philosophers which the modern
proletariat has produced. He was originally a com-
positor, like his similarly minded English contem-
porary, John Francis Bray, the author of" Labour's
Wrongs," published in 1839, but he had a much
greater inclination for study and a more fruitful
literary talent. He managed to acquire, self-taught,
a knowledge of the classical languages, of mathematics
and of science, read assiduously but indiscriminately
works on economics, philosophy, and history, and
applied himself to social criticism. It is rare for a
working man in the West of Europe to feel impelledto make an acquaintance with Kant, Hegel, and
Feuerbach as Proudhon did through French transla-
tions and through intercourse with German scholars
in Paris. He possessed the noble ambition of blending
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 27
French sprightliness with German thoroughness. Butself-instruction failed to give him that intellectual
training which is more valuable than knowledge, and
which alone gives the power to order and to utilise
the information acquired, as well as to submit one's
own work to self-criticism. The value of a systematiceducation does not consist in the main in the acquisi-
tion of knowledge but in the training of our intellec-
tual faculties as instruments of inquiry and apprehen-
sion, of methodical thinking and of sound judgment,to enable us to find our bearings more easily in the
chaos of phenomena, experiences, and ideas. A self-
taught man may no doubt attain to this degree of
culture, but only if his first attempts at independentcreative work are submitted to a strict but kindly
criticism, which makes him discipline his thoughts.This was not the case with Proudhon; he lacked
mental self-discipline. His first work," What is
Property?"
(1840) brought hiiri immediate recogni-tion and strengthened him in his high opinion of his
knowledge and his powers, even to the point of makinghim conceited. When, for example, the French
historian, Michelet, disapproved of his dictum,"Property is robbery," Proudhon replied,
" Nottwice in a thousand years does one come across a
pronouncement like that." (" Economic Contradic-
tions," Leipzig, 1847. Vol. II., p. 301.) And yet the
idea is as old as Communism itself. Besides all this,
the vivacity and exuberance of language for which
Proudhon was noted easily blinded him to the short-
comings of his intellectual culture. Thus it often
happened that he rediscovered ideas of his predecessorsand published them to the world with naive pride.
Through page after page of argument he holds the
38 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
reader in expectation of the explanation, which he is
about to give, of the nature of value, which he rightly
characterises as the " corner-stone of political
economy." At last he will disclose the secret :
"It
is time to make ourselves acquainted with this power.This power . . . is labour." His main work,
'* The
System of Economic Contradictions," swarms with
philosophical formulae and expressions like thesis,
antithesis, antinomies, synthesis, dialectics, induction,
syllogisms, etc., as also with Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew etymologies ; it often wanders into irrelevant
theological and philosophical digressions and side
issues, not so much with the intention of paradingthe author's knowledge as from his lack of intellectual
discipline and insufficient command of his material.
The work in question was to combine German phil-
osophy with French and English political economy,and its author believed that it would secure for him
before everything else the admiration of the German
Socialists, especially of Marx. He drew the latter's
attention to it by letter, and awaited his"
rigorous
criticism.'* The criticism came in" Misere de la
Philosophie"
(Brussels, 1847), but it could no longer
fulfil its purpose, as the fundamental difference be-
tween the two men had already widened to a gulf
that could not be bridged. Marx had almost com-
pleted his materialistic, logical, and revolutionary
Socialism, Proudhon had laid the foundations of his
peaceful Anarchism with its federative economic
basis. With his searching analysis, his systematised
knowledge, and his great indignation at the presump-tuous attacks on every Socialist school and leader,
Marx sat in judgment upon Proudhon, exposing him
as a dilettante in philosophy and economics, and at
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 29
the same time sketching in outline his own conceptionof history and economics.
Marx's verdict is damning, yet one cannot but
acknowledge that Proudhon, in spite of his obvious
insufficiency, had endeavoured, honestly and
zealously, to extricate himself from Capitalism as well
as from Utopianism, and to outline a scheme for an
economic order, in which men, such as he had found
them, might lead a free, industrious, and righteous
life. The task which Proudhon had set himself was
the same as that which engaged the attention of Marx,the criticism of political economy and of the senti-
mental Utopian Socialism. That is the key-note of
Proudhon's system, and it is sounded in almost every
chapter. He lacked, however, the requisite knowledgeand the historical sense which alone could have madehim equal to his task. The whole of his criticism
consists virtually in the complaint that riches and
poverty accumulate side by side, and that the economic
categories use value, exchange value, division of
labour, competition, monopoly, machinery, property,
ground rent, credit, tax, etc. manifest contradictions.
Proudhon's special problem was the following :
" Theworkers of any country produce yearly goods to the
value, let us say, of 20 milliards. But if the workers,
as consumers, wish to buy back these goods they have
to pay 25 milliards. The workers are thus cheated
out of a fifth. That is a terrible contradiction."
(' What is Property ?"
Chap. IV. ; Economic
Contradictions," Vol. I., pp. 292-93.) This statement
of the problem shows that Proudhon had no inkling
of the essential features of the question of value, in
gpite of the fact that he cites Adam Smith, David
Ricardo, etc., whom he must therefore have read.
80 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Had he really understood these economists and taken
up his critical attitude towards them from the stand-
point of justice, he would have stated the problemsomewhat as follows : The workers of any country
produce yearly goods to the value, say, of 20 milliards.
For their work, however, they receive as wages a
quantity of goods of the value of only 10 or 12
milliards. Is that just?"
Only this way of stating
the question could possibly have revealed to him the
nature of wages, of value, of profit, of capital and
its contradictions. Proudhon sees the perpetration of
fraud or robbery in the sphere of exchange and not
in that of production, and he does not ask himself
how, if labour produces goods to the value of only20 milliards, they can be exchanged at a value of '25
milliards, and what is responsible for the increase of
five milliards. The other contradictions which he
brings forward are not indeed new, but they are
ingeniously treated. For example : the essence of
exchange-value is labour, which creates wealth ; but
the more the wealth produced, the less becomes its
exchange-value. Or this : the division of labour is,
according to Smith, one of the most effective means
of increasing wealth, but the further the division of
labour proceeds the lower sinks the workman, beingreduced to the level of an unintelligent automaton
engaged in the performance of a fractional operation.
The same thing holds good for machinery. So, too,
competition stimulates effort, but brings much miseryin its train by leading to adulteration, sharp practices,
and strife between man and man. Further, taxation
should be proportional to riches, in reality it is pro-
portional to poverty. Or again, private ownershipof land ought to increase productivity; in practice
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 81
it deprives the fanner of the land. In this way he
runs to earth the contradictions in political economy,and so we find everywhere the words thesis and
anti-thesis or antinomies (contradictions between two
well-established propositions). And out of this
contradiction springs poverty. The solution or the
synthesis is the creation of an economic order which
shall preserve the good elements in this category and
eliminate the bad ones, and so satisfy the demandsof justice. And that is what Socialism cannot do." For the economic order is based upon calculations
of an inexorable justice and not upon those angelic
sentiments of brotherhood, sacrifice, and love which
so many well-meaning Socialists of the present time
are endeavouring to awake in the people. It is useless
for them to preach, after the example of Jesus Christ,
the necessity for sacrifice, and to set an example of
it in their own lives : selfishness is stronger than theyand can only be restrained by rigid justice and
immutable economic law. Humanitarian enthusiasm
may cause upheavals which are conducive to the
progress of civilisation, but such emotional crises, like
the fluctuations in value, simply result in the estab-
lishing of law and order on a more rigid and more
restricted basis. Nature or the Deity planted mistrust
in our hearts, having no faith in the love of man for
his fellow men; and though I say it to the shame
of the human conscience (for our hypocrisy must be
confronted with it sooner or later), every disclosure
which science has made to us concerning the designs
of providence with respect to the progress of society
points to a deeply rooted hatred of mankind on God's
part." (" System of Economic Contradictions or the
Philosophy of Poverty," Vol. I., p. 107.) Just as
32 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
severely does he denounce the institution of Trade
Unionism and its methods of warfare, together with
State politics, as indeed the working of class organisa-
tion and of the State generally. The only way to
realise social justice is to create a society of producerswho exchange their goods among one another
according to their equivalents in labour and carry on
work in adequate relationship to the production of
wealth, or, to put it clearly, to establish an order
where supply and demand balance one another.
Marx's answer to the "Philosophy of Poverty
"'
is indicated at once by the title" The Poverty of
Philosophy." He deals first of all with the economic
details of Proudhon's work, and proves with docu-
mentary evidence that the theses and antitheses it
contains partly spring from a half-understood reading
of English and French political economists, and in
part have been taken direct from the English
Communists. Marx already displays in this section
an extensive knowledge of economic literature. Thenhe confronts Proudhon's philosophical and social
theories with his own deductions and gives manypositive results. Marx's main object was to induce
the Socialists to give up their Utopianism and think
in terms of realism, and to regard social and
economic categories in their historical setting :
" Economic categories are only the theoretical
expressions, ideal conceptions of the conditions of
production obtaining in society. . . . Proudhon
has grasped well enough that men manufacture cloth,
linen, etc., under certain conditions of production.But what he has not grasped is that these social
conditions themselves are just as much human
products as cloth, linen, etc. Social conditions are
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 33
intimately bound up with productive power. With
the acquisition of new productive power men change
their methods of production, and with the change in
the methods of production, in the manner of obtaining
a livelihood, they change their social conditions. The
hand-mill gives rise to a society with feudal lords,
the steam-mill to a society with industrial capitalists.
But the same men who shape the social conditions
in conformity with the material means of production,
shape also the principles, the ideas, the categories
in conformity with their social conditions. Con-
sequently these ideas, these categories, are just as
little eternal as are the conditions to which they give
expression. They are the transitory and changing
products of history. We are living in the midst of a
continuous movement of growth in productive power,of destruction of existing social conditions, of forma-
tion of ideas." (" Poverty of Philosophy," Stuttgart,
1885, pp. 100-101.)
Here it should, above all, be noticed that Marxascribes to industrialism a powerful revolutionary
effect, and that he characterises the different forms
of society by their different methods of labour. Or,as he says later in " Capital,"
" not what is produced,but how it is produced distinguishes the various forms
of society." What he means to say, then, is that
ideas and systems are limited by their time, that theyare conditioned by the prevailing means of production.To understand them one must study the times which
have preceded them, as well as investigate the ideas
and systems themselves, and find out whether newforms have not arisen which stand in contradiction
or in contrast to the old one. Or, as Marx says :
34 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
"Feudalism, too, had its proletariat the villeinage
which contains all the germs of the middle class.
Feudal production, too, had two contradictory
elements which are likewise characterised as the'
good' and * bad '
sides of feudalism without regardto the fact that it is always the ' bad '
side which
triumphs ultimately over the '
good'side. It is the
bad side which calls into being the movement which
makes history, in that it brings the struggle to a head.
If, at the time of the supremacy of feudalism, the
economists, in their enthusiasm for knightly virtues,
for the beautiful harmony between rights and duties,
for the patriarchal life of the towns, for the flourishing
home industries in the country, for the developmentof industry organised in corporations, companies and
guilds, in a word, for everything which forms the
finer side of feudalism, had set themselves the problemof eliminating everything which could throw a shadow
on this picture serfdom, privileges, anarchy where
would it all have ended ? They would have destroyed
every element which called forth strife, they would
have nipped in the bud the development of the middle
class. They would have set themselves the absurd
problem of blotting out history.
When the middle class had come to the top, neither
the good nor the bad side of feudalism come into
question. The productive forces, which had been
developed under feudalism through its agency, fell to
its control. All old economic forms, the legal relations
between private individuals, which corresponded to
them, the political order, which was the official
expression of the old society, were shattered."
Those Socialists and social revolutionaries who
regard the hardships and struggles of society
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 35
as an absolute evil and plan the construction of a
society comprised solely of good elements, have not
grasped the meaning of the history of mankind. Theythink abstractly. They misjudge both the past and
the present." Hence to form a correct judgment of production
under feudalism one must consider it a method of
production based upon contradiction. One must show
how wealth was produced within this contradiction,
how productive power developed contemporaneouslywith the antagonism of classes, how one of these
classes, the bad side, the social evil, constantly
increased until the material conditions for its libera-
tion were fully ripe." Does that not show clearly enough that the means
of production, the conditions under which productive
power is developed, are anything but eternal laws,
that they rather correspond to a definite stage in the
evolution of mankind and of its productive power,and that a variation in the productive power of man-
kind necessarily brings about a variation in its
conditions of production?" The middle class begins with a proletariat, which
in its turn is itself a remnant of the feudal proletariat.
In the course of its historical development the middle
class necessarily develops its contradictory character,
which on its first appearance is more or less veiled,
existing only in a latent form. In proportion as the
middle class develops, there develops in its bosom a
new proletariat, a modern proletariat; and a struggle
arises between the proletarian class and the middle
class, a struggle which, before being felt, observed,
estimated, understood, acknowledged, and finally
openly proclaimed on both sides, issues in the mean-
86 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
while only in partial and transitory conflicts and acts
of destruction."
In a special chapter Marx shows the necessity and
the historical significance of the Trade Unions, which
in spite of all the apprehensions and warnings of
Utopians and Economists the workers have gone on
establishing and perfecting, in order to be able to
withstand the domination of capital. That means the
gathering together of the divided interests and
activities of the workers in a vast class movement,
standing in opposition to the middle class; which,
however, does not exclude the possibility of conflicting
interests within the classes themselves, though these
shall be put aside as soon as class is brought against
class :
" From day to day it becomes clearer then that
the conditions of production, among which the middle
class moves, have not a simple, uniform character
but one which involves conflicting elements; that the
same conditions which produce wealth produce also
poverty; that the same conditions which tend to the
development of productive power develop also the
power of repression; that these conditions only create
bourgeois wealth, i.e., the wealth of the middle class,
at the cost of the continued destruction of the wealth
of individual members of this class and the creation
of an ever-increasing proletariat." (" Poverty of
Philosophy," 1885, pp. 116-118, 177 sq.)
This antithetical character of capitalist society has
for its effect that the political economists, who are
the philosophers of the existing order, lose their
bearings, while the Socialists, who are the philosophersof the proletariat, look round for means to relieve the
CONTROVERSY PROUDHON 37
distress. They condemn class struggles,* build Utopiasand plan schemes of salvation, whereas the only real
solution, because it is the only one which arises from
the actual conditions, must be to further the organisa-
tion of the oppressed class and make it conscious of
the objects of its struggles. For out of these struggles
the new society will arise, and that, of course, can
only happen when productive power has reached a
high stage of development. Or as Marx himself
proceeds :
" An oppressed class is a vital condition of any
society founded upon class antagonism. The libera-
tion of the oppressed class necessarily includes,
therefore, the creation of a new society. In order that
the oppressed class may be able to free itself, a stage
must be reached in which the already acquired powersof production and the prevailing social institutions
can no longer exist side by side. Of all the instruments
of production, the greatest productive force is the
revolutionary class itself. The organisation of the
revolutionary elements as a class presupposes the
existence in perfected form of all the productive forces
that could in any way be developed in the bosom of
the old society. Does this mean that after the collapse
of the old order of society there will be a new class
domination culminating in a new political power?The condition of the emancipation of the workingclass is the abolition of all classes, as the condition
of the emancipation of the third estate, of the middle
class, was the abolition of all the three estates. The
working class will, in the course of its evolution,
replace the old middle-class society by an association
* The Socialists of those times were the Owenites and the Fouvierists,who condemned all class struggles, Trade Unionist strikes, and Labourpolitics.
38 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
excluding classes and their antagonism, and there will
no longer be any real political power,* because it is
just this political power which is the official expression
of class antagonism within the community." Meanwhile the antagonism between proletariat and
bourgeoisie is a struggle of class against class, a
struggle which, when brought to its highest expression,
means a complete revolution. And can one indeed
be surprised that a society founded upon class
antagonism should, at its final dissolution, issue in
brutal conflict and collision of man against man ? Let
it not be said that the social movement excludes the
political. There never was a political movement which
was not at the same time a social movement."Only in an order of things where there are no
classes and no class antagonism will social evolution
cease to be political revolution. Until then the last
word of social science on the eve of every general
reconstruction of society must ever be :
*
Fight or die ;
bloody war or annihilation. Thus are we confronted
with the inexorable question.' (George Sand)."With this battle-cry
" The Poverty of Philosophy"
comes to a close. It is the prologue to the" Communist Manifesto," which in itself is but a
popular version of the positive doctrines developedin the controversy against Proudhon.
* Marx means the State.
in.
YEARS OF AGITATION AND VARYINGFORTUNES.
I. THE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT OF THE FORTIES.
MARXwas a revolutionary not only in the
sense that he was the representative of a
new conception of society and the founder
of a theory of a new economic order, but also in the
popular sense of advocating the use of force, in which
connection he looked to the first years of the French
Revolution as a model. He had a keen ear for the
revolutionary rumblings in the depths of the populace.
The years during which the elements of his new
conception of society were accumulating in his mind
and shaping themselves into a system were involved
in a revolutionary atmosphere. In 1842 Englandwitnessed the first strike on a large scale, which
threatened to extend into a general strike and bore a
political revolutionary character. In 1843 and 1844
the idea of the impending revolution was widely spreadin England. Insurrections broke out among the
Silesian weavers in 1844. In 1845 and 1846 Socialism
spread rapidly on all sides in Germany, and Socialist
periodicals appeared in the industrial centres. France
swarmed with Socialist systems, Socialist novels and
newspaper articles. The spectre of Communism was
abroad in Europe. The convention of the United
Assembly by Frederick William IV. at the beginningof February, 1847, was looked upon as the harbinger
of the German Revolution. The connection between
39
40 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
these phenomena could not escape acute intellects.
Hand in hand with the extension of industry and the
rapid construction of railways and telegraphs came
alternations of economic prosperity and crisis, poverty
grew, and the workers fought with ever-increasing
bitterness against the iron law of wages and against
the scanty pay, which hardly allowed the proletariat
to eke out a bare subsistence. The cry in Englandwas :
" More factories, more poverty," but at the
same time :" The greater the political rights of the
masses, the surer becomes emancipation." Whoeverlived in England and France during these years and
had dealings with Socialism could not help feeling that
political and social revolutions were on the march.
Already in his first letter to Ruge, written from
Holland in March, 1843, Marx deals with the coming
revolution, and foresees, to the astonishment of Ruge,who refused to believe it, that the Government of
Frederick William IV. was drifting towards a revolu-
tion. At that time Marx had hardly begun his studies
in Socialism ; and the further he advanced in these
studies, elaborating his social dialectics and evolving
the ideas of the class struggle, the more inevitably
was he driven to the conclusion that the proletarian
revolution, the seizure of political power by the
proletariat, was the indispensable preliminary to the
triumph of Communism.
Utopian Socialism stood outside the State and
attempted to set up a Socialist Commonwealth apartfrom the State and behind the back of the State.
Utopianism, with its moral and religious motives and
mediaeval Communist traditions, was pervaded with
that spirit of contempt for the State which was char-
acteristic of the Catholic Church during the period of
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 41
its splendour. Moreover Marx, who recognised
all practical forms of power, even if he did not alwaysestimate them at their true value, saw in the State
an executive power which it was a question of over-
turning and using as an extremely powerful instrument
in the social revolution. As a result of his excursions
into politics and French and English Socialism, Marx
gave up Hegel's overstrained idea of the State and
accepted the view current in Western European
thought of the time; but he interpreted the State in
the sense of the doctrine of the class struggle as the
executive council of the ruling and possessing classes.
The impressions, the ideas, the experiences and
the modes of thinking which took root in the mindof Marx during the evolution of the fundamental
principles of his sociological and historical systemdominated the whole of his life's work.
Marxism is quite a natural growth of the
revolutionary soil of the first half of the nineteenth
century. Marx completes the social revolutionary
doctrines of that time, of which he is, as it were, the
executor. All his thoughts and sentiments are deeplyrooted in it; they have nothing specifically Jewish
about them. I know of no Jewish philosopher,
sociologist, or poet who had so little of the Jewish
character as had Marx.
II. THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO.
As in Paris, so too in Brussels, Marx frequentedthe society of German working men in order to
instruct them by lectures and by conversation. He
42 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
was loyally seconded by Engels, who had more time
and more money to devote to this task, and whoworked for the new doctrine in Paris, Cologne,Elberfeld and other towns. Since 1836 the German
working men living abroad had been organised in the
League of the Just, which from 1840 had its head-
quarters in London. The individual groups were
kept in touch with one another by means of Com-munist correspondence committees. The Paris and
Brussels groups drew the attention of the London
Committee to Marx, and in January, 1847, Joseph
Moll, one of its members, was commissioned to goto Brussels and obtain information about Marx.
(" Mehring's Introduction to the Reprint of the
Cologne Communist Proceedings," published byVorwarts, Berlin, 1914, pp. 10-11.) The result
was the transformation of the League of the Just
into the League of Communists, which held its first
Congress in London in the summer of 1847, Engelsand Wilhelm Wolf (Lupus) being among those present
as delegates. At the second Congress, held in London
towards the end of November and beginning of
December, 1847, Marx also appeared, and together
with Engels was commissioned to prepare a new
program. The new program is the Communist
Manifesto. Engels had come from Paris, Marx from
Brussels. Before leaving Paris, Engels wrote a letter
to Marx, dated November 24, in which he speaks as
follows on the subject of the Manifesto :
" Just think over the confession of faith a little.
I believe it will be best if we leave out the form
of catechism and entitle the thing* The Communist
Manifesto.' And then, as more or less of it will
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 43
consist in historical narrative, the present form is
quite unsuitable. I am bringing along the manu-
script which I have written ; it is a plain narrative,
but is badly put together, and has been done in
a frightful hurry. I begin,' What is Communism ?
'
and then straight away with the proletariat the
history of its origin, difference from earlier workers,
development of the antagonism of the proletariat
and the middle class, crises, conclusions, with all
kinds of secondary considerations thrown in, and
lastly party politics of the Communists, as muchas is good for the public to know." (" Correspond-ence of Marx and Engels," Vol. I., p. 84.)
Engels' draft of the Communist Manifesto has
been edited by Eduard Bernstein. (" Grundsatze des
Kominunismus," published by Vorwarts, 1914.)
A comparison of this draft with the actual " Com-munist Manifesto " makes evident the full extent of
Marx's intellectual superiority to Engels. The Com-munist Manifesto contains four main groups of ideas :
(1) The history of the evolution of the middle class,
its character, its positive and negative achievement
modern capitalism and the rise of the proletariat.
(2) Theoretical conceptions and conclusions the
doctrine of the class struggle and the role of the
proletariat. (3) Practical application revolutionaryaction by the Communists. (4) Criticism of other
Socialist schools. The last section has long ago lost
all practical interest, so that we need only deal with
the first three sections.
(1) The middle class developed in the bosom of
feudal society, in the mediaeval industrial towns.
With the geographical discoveries of the sixteenth and
44 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
seventeenth centuries its sphere of activity was
extended; it revolutionised the methods of industry,
agriculture and communication; it broke through the
mediaeval economic and political bonds ; it overthrew
feudalism, the guilds, the little self-governing regions,
absolute monarchy, and established modern industrywith its accelerated and concentrated production,middle-class franchise, the national State, and, at the
same time, international trade. It was the middle
class which first showed what human activity can
accomplish."
It has achieved greater miracles than
the construction of Egyptian pyramids, Roman
aqueducts, or Gothic cathedrals, it has carried out
greater movements than the migration of peoples or
the crusades. . . . Although it is scarcely a
century since it came to be the dominating class, the
middle class has created more powerful and more
gigantic forces of production than all past generations
put together." The subjugation of natural forces,
machinery, the application of chemistry to industry
and to agriculture, steamships, railways, electric
telegraphs, the clearing of whole continents, makingthe rivers navigable, the conjuring forth of whole
peoples out of the ground : that is the positive achieve-
ment of the middle class. Now for the negative : it
created the proletariat, immeasurable, uncontrollable,
anarchical economic conditions, periodical crises
poverty and famine in consequence of over-production
and a glut of wealth, over-driving and reckless
exploitation of the workers, whose labour is boughtin exchange for the minimum quantity of the neces-
saries of life. These facts show that the forces of
production are more extensive and more powerful than
is demanded by the conditions under which they are
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 45
operative : the economic system can produce and
deliver more goods than society can use under the
existing laws concerning property, i.e., the distribu-
tion and the effective demand fall short of the
manufacture and the supply. The material forces of
production press upon the limits imposed uponthem by the laws of private property. This happens,
too, because the working class must reduce its
consumption of goods to a minimum in consequenceof the existing laws of property, which give to capital
the right of distribution. All these conditions taken
together, the positive as well as the negative ones,
make possible and give rise to the struggles of the
workers against the middle class and so the produc-tive agents rise in rebellion. These struggles lead to
the organisation of the workers in trade unions, to
the awakening of class consciousness, and, as a result,
to the formation of the political labour party.
(2) The movements within middle-class society, as
well as in feudal and ancient society, where freeman
and slave, patrician and plebeian, baron and serf,
guild-master and journeyman, capitalist and workingman stood and stand in constant antagonism to one
another, prove that the whole history of mankindsince the rise of private ownership is the history of
class struggles, and that in these class struggles,
carried on now openly, now under the surface, either
new forms of society and of ownership, new economic
systems arise or else end with the common destruction
of the two classes. The antagonistic classes are
supporters of conflicting economic interests, systemsof ownership and ideals of culture. The craftsman
and tradesman of the towns, the burgher, fought
against the feudal lord and knight for individual
46 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
property, for freedom of industry and trade, for
freedom to dispose of personal property and for the
national State. With the triumphal progress of the
middle class private property fell into fewer and fewer
hands. The proletarians are without property, theyhave no share in the wealth of their country; on the
other hand, the production of capital becomes moreand more a matter of common co-operation, and
capital becomes a joint product. The proletariat can,
accordingly, no longer fight for individual ownershipbut for the socially conducted utilisation of the meansof production belonging to the community and of the
goods produced. The middle class has therefore
created in the proletariat a social class which must
have as its object to do away with the middle class
system of ownership and to set up the proletarian
system of common ownership.
(3) In this struggle of the working classes the
Communists are therefore the pioneers of the move-
ment. They are at once the philosophers and the
self sacrificing champions of the proletariat awakened
into class consciousness. " The Communists are not
a special party in contradistinction to the other
Labour parties. They have no interests apart from
the interests of the whole proletariat. They set upno special principles according to which they wish to
mould the proletarian movement." The Communists
lay stress on the common interests of the whole
proletariat and of the collective movement. Their
aim is the organisation of the proletariat into a class,
the overthrow of middle-class domination, and the
conquest of political power by the proletariat. Theysupport everywhere
"any revolutionary movement
against the existing social and political conditions.
THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 47
In all these movements they emphasise the question
of property, in whatever state of evolution it mayappear, as the foundation of the movement. And
finally the Communists work everywhere for the union
and agreement of democratic parties* of all nationali-
ties. The Communists disdain to conceal their views
and intentions. They declare openly that their ends
can only be attained by the forcible overthrow of
every obtaining order of society. Let the ruling
classes tremble before a Communist revolution; the
workers have nothing to lose fey it but their chains.
They have the world to win. Workers of every land,
unite !
"
From the standpoint of social philosophy, the
Manifesto, a document reflecting its time, is almost
perfect. Strong emotion and extraordinary intellec-
tual power are united in it. Years of study of one
of the boldest and most fertile minds are here welded
together in the glowing heat of one of the most active
of intellectual workshops. But the work is not free
from logical flaws. In the passages we have
quoted the part played in history by the middle class
is extolled by Marx; yet in the last few lines of the
very same section he declares that " the middle class
is the unwitting and inert instrument of industrial
progress," and still more scathing is his criticism in
the second section, where the middle class is accused
of indolence. "It has been objected that, if private
property were done away with, all activity would
cease and a general laziness set in. According to that,
middle-class society would have been ruined by idle-
ness long ago; for those of its members who work
gain nothing, and those who gain do not work." That
* By democratic parties were then understood working-class politicalmovements, such as Chartism, etc.
48 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
is as much as to say that the middle class is lazy and
does not work, and yet the Manifesto says that the
middle class has achieved more marvellous works than
Egypt, Rome, and the Middle Ages, and that, in its
reign of power of scarcely a hundred years, it has
created more powerful and more gigantic forces of
production than all past generations put together.
How can a class which does not work produce more
marvellous works than the whole ancient and
mediaeval world?
Marx frees himself later from this inconsistency by
ascribing surplus value solely to the operation of the
variable part of capital (wage-labour) a doctrine
which he develops with iron logic in his principal
work,"
Capital."
III. THE REVOLUTION OF 1848.
The ink had hardly dried on the Communist
Manifesto when the February Revolution broke out.
The crowing of the Gallic cock soon awoke an echo
in the various German States, whilst in Brussels the
democrats were attacked and ill-treated by the mob.
One of the victims of this attack was Karl Marx,who was, moreover, banished shortly afterwards bythe Belgian Government. This action, however, did
not cause him any embarrassment, as he was readyin any case to proceed to Paris, whither the
Provisional Government of the French Republic had
already invited him in the following terms :
THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 49
"Paris, March 1, 1848.
*' BRAVE AND FAITHFUL MARX," The soil of the French Republic is a place of
refuge for all friends of freedom. Tyranny has
banished you; France, the free, opens to you her
gates to you and to all who fight for the holy
cause, the fraternal cause of every people. In this
sense shall every officer of the French Government
understand his duty. Salut et Fraternite.
FERDINAND FLOCON,Member of the Provisional Government."
The stay in Paris was, however, of short duration.
Marx and Engels gathered together the members of
the League of Communists and procured them the
means for returning to Germany to take part in the
German revolution. They themselves travelled to the
Rhineland and succeeded in getting the establishment
of the newspaper planned in Cologne into their hands.
On the first of June, 1848, the Neue Rheinische
Zeitung appeared for the first time. It goes without
saying that the editor was Karl Marx, and amonghis collaborators were Engels, Freiligrath, Wilhelm
Wolff, and Georg Weerth. Occasionally, too, Lassalle
sent contributions. It is but rarely given to a daily
paper to have such an editorial staff. In the third
volume of his " Collected Papers of Marx and Engels,"Franz Mehring gives a selection of the articles which
appeared in this journal. They are still worth reading.Here are a few examples. After the fall of Vienna
he wrote an article concluding with the followingwords :
" With the victory of the ' Red Republic'
in Paris the armies from the inmost recesses of every
50 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
land will be vomited forth upon the boundaries and
over them, and the real strength of the combatants
will clearly appear. Then we shall remember June
and October, and we too shall cry,* Woe to the
vanquished !
' The fruitless butcheries which have
occurred since those June and October dayswill convince the peoples that there is only one means
of shortening, simplifying, and concentrating the
torturing death agonies of society only one means
revolutionary terrorism." (Neue Rheinische Zeitung,
November 6, 1848.)
Or take, for example, this passage from the last
article of the paper, when on May 18, 1849, it suc-
cumbed to the "craft and cunning of the dirty West
Kalmucks "(i.e., the Prussians).
" In taking leave of our readers we remind them
of the words in our first January number :
' Revolu-
tionary upheaval of the French working class, general
war that is the index for the year 1849. And already
in the east a revolutionary army comprised of warriors
of all nationalities stands confronting the old Europe
represented by and in league with the Russian army,
already from Paris looms the Red Republic.''
In reading these extracts one has only to substitute
Russia for France and Moscow for Paris and we get
at one of the sources of Lenin's and Trotsky's
revolutionary policy. The articles written by Marxin 1848 and 1849 have supplied the Bolsheviks their
tactics.
The censorship, Press lawsuits, and the decline of
the revolution severed the life threads of the paperafter scarcely a year of its existence. Marx sacrificed
everything he had in money and valuables in all,
7,000 thalers in order to satisfy creditors and to pay
DAYS IN LONDON 51
the contributors and printers. Then he travelled to
Paris, where he witnessed not the triumph of the Red
Republic but that of the counter-revolution. In July,
1849, he was banished by the French Government to
the boggy country of Morbihan, in Brittany; he
preferred, however, to go over to London, where he
remained to the end of his life.
IV. DAYS OF CLOUD AND SUNSHINE IN LONDON.
Marx lived for more than a generation in London.
Half of this time was spent in a wearying struggle
for existence, which, however, did not prevent him
from collecting and systematising a vast amount of
material for his life-work,"
Capital," nor from takinga decisive part in the Labour movement as soon as
the opportunity presented itself, as it did on the
founding of the International. The first decade was
particularly trying. A letter written on May 20, 1851,
by Marx's wife to Weydemeyer, in America, gives
an affecting picture of their poverty during these first
years of exile. (" Neue Zeit," 25th year, Vol. II.,
pp. 18-21.)
The attempt to continue the Neue Rheinische
Zeitung under the title Neue Rheinische Revue had
only the negative result of swallowing up Marx's last
resources. How poor Marx then was can be judgedfrom the fact that he had to send his last coat to the
pawnshop in order that he might buy paper for his
pamphlet on the Cologne Communist trial (towardsthe end of 1852). On top of all this, lamentable
differences sprang up among the German exiles,
52 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
who, deceived in their revolutionary illusions, over-
whelmed one another with recriminations; an echo
of these conflicts is heard in the pamphlet" Herr
Vogt"
(1860). Marx's only regular source of income
in the years 1851 60 was his earnings as correspon-
dent of the New York Tribune, which paid him at the
rate of a sovereign per article, and this hardly covered
his rent and the cost of newspapers and postage. Yet
his articles were veritable essays, the fruit of researches
which cost him a good deal of time. And in the midst
of this penury the idea of writing a Socialistic criticism
of political economy burnt within him. One mightalmost say that since 1845 this idea had allowed him
no peace. Freiligrath's lines are, as it were, stamped
upon him :
In the clouds his goal he planted;In the dust had he to live,
Bare existence daily granted.
Cramped, hemmed in on every side,
Pinched by poverty and urged
By want, he, of all denied,
By necessity was scourged.
Only in the sixties did his fortunes improve. Small
family inheritances, Wilhelm Wolff's legacy of over
800, and Engels' more plentiful and regular help,
which from 1869 onward amounted to about 350
annually, enabled Marx to write his"
Capital," the
first volume of which, as is well known, is dedicated
to Wilhelm Wolff.
To these relatively happy times belong Paul
Lafargue's reminiscences (" Neue Zeit," 9th year,
Vol. I., pp. 10-17, 87-42) of his intercourse with the
DAYS IN LONDON 53
Marx family. In particular he depicts the personality
of the author of"
Capital." In the bosom of his
family and among the circle of his friends on Sunday
evenings Marx was a genial companion, full of wit
and humour. " His dark black eyes sparkled with
mirth and with a playful irony whenever he heard a
witty remark or a prompt repartee." He was a
tender, indulgent father, who never asserted the
parental authority. His wife was his helper and
companion in the truest sense of the word. She was
four years older than he, and notwithstanding her
aristocratic connections and in spite of the great
hardships and persecutions which for years she had
to suffer by the side of her husband, she never
regretted having taken the step which linked her
destiny with that of Marx. She possessed a cheerful,
bright disposition and an unfailing tact, easily
winning the esteem of every one of her husband's
acquaintances, friends, and followers." Heinrich
Heine, the relentless satirist, feared Marx's scorn; but
he cherished the greatest admiration for the keen,
sensitive mind of Marx's wife. Marx esteemed so
highly the intelligence and the critical sense of his
wife that he told me in 1866 he had submitted all
his manuscripts to her and that he set a high value
upon her judgment." Six children were born to the
Marxes, four girls and two boys, of whom only three
of the girls grew up Jenny, who married Charles
Longuet; Laura, who became the wife of Paul
Lafargue; and the unhappy but highly-gifted
Eleanor, who spent 14 sad years of her life by the
side of Dr. Edward Avelihg.
The sixties were undoubtedly the happiest yearsof Marx's life, and seemed to promise an abundant
54 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
harvest in his later life. But his health soon beganto fail, and did not allow him to complete his work.
The most productive years of Marx's life were
between 1837 and 1847 and between 1857 and 1871.
All his valuable work falls within these years : the"Poverty of Philosophy," the Communist Mani-
festo, his activity in the International,"
Capital/'the Civil War in France (the Commune).
V. THE INTERNATIONAL.
The economic studies necessitated by his book"
Capital" led Marx into the study of the social
history of England during the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries, and gave him an insight into the
working-class movements of those times such as but
few scholars, English or foreign, have acquired. Hebecame familiar with the modes of thought and
expression of the working-class revolutionary move-
ments, and especially of the Chartist movement, with
the surviving leaders and adherents of which he was
personally acquainted. Always eager to obtain
knowledge of the actual working-class movement and
to take part in it, he watched the activities of the
English working class, which in the fifties was mainly
occupied with purely trade unionist questions, being,
politically, still in the Liberal camp. A changeseemed imminent, however, about the beginning of
the sixties. The London Labour leaders began to
think about a Parliamentary reform movement, about
starting a campaign for universal suffrage, which was
an old Chartist demand. Likewise they manifested
THE INTERNATIONAL 55
an interest in the fate of Poland and in other inter-
national questions concerning liberty.
At the International Exhibition held in London in
1862, the Labour leaders made the acquaintance of a
deputation of French working men, with whom theyafterwards carried on a correspondence. In 1863 and
1864, in the course of this correspondence, the idea
of founding an international union of workers was
mooted ; and in the fourth week of September, 1864,
this idea was carried into effect. Labour delegates
from Paris and London held a conference in Londonfrom the 25th to the 28th of September, and the
event was celebrated by a public gathering in St.
Martin's Hall on the evening of the 28th. Marxreceived an invitation to this meeting in order
that the German workers might be representedthere. This conference and meeting resulted in the
formation of the International Working Men's
Association. Committees and sub-committees were
elected to draw up a declaration of principles and
outline the constitution. One of Mazzini's followers
and a Frenchman submitted schemes which were
handed over to Marx to be elaborated by him. He
consigned them to the waste-paper basket and wrote
the "Inaugural Address," giving a history of the
English workers since the year 1825, and deducingthe necessary conclusions. The declaration of prin-
ciples is entirely the work of Marx, and it is byno means a subtly and diplomatically conceived
composition designed to please English and French
working men ; it consists essentially of Marxian ideas
expressed in terms, however, which would appeal to
English working men of that time. "It was difficult,"
writes Marx to Engels (" Correspondence," Vol.
56 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
III., p. 191)" so to arrange matters that our view
should appear in a form which would prove accept-
able to the working-class movement with its present
outlook. ... It needs time before the re-
animated movement will allow of the old boldness
of speech. One must go fortiter in re, suaviter in
modo (firmly maintaining essential principles with a
pleasant manner)."The Inaugural Address sums up the history of the
English working class from 1825 to 1864, and shows
that from its struggles, as indeed from modern social
history in general, the following lessons may be
learnt by the proletariat : independent economic and
political action by the working class ; the turning to
account of reforms forced out of the ruling classes
by the proletariat; international co-operation of
workers in the Socialist revolution and against secret,
militarist diplomacy.Marx devoted a great deal of his time during the
years 1865 to ]871 to the International. Its progress
awoke in him the greatest hopes. In 1867 he writes
to Engels :
"Things are moving. And in the next
revolution, which is perhaps nearer than it seems,
we (i.e., you and I) have this powerful machineryin our hands." (" Correspondence of Marx and
Engels," Vol. III., p. 406.)
The International passed through three phases :
from 1865 to 1867 the followers of Proudhon held
sway ; from 1868 to 1870 Marxism was in the ascend-
ant; from 1871 to its collapse it was dominated and
ultimately broken up by the Bakunists. The
followers of Proudhon, like those of Bakunin, were
against political action and in favour of the federative
economic form of social organisation, only the
THE INTERNATIONAL 57
Bakunists were also Communists, whereas the
followers of Proudhon had an antipathy to Commun-ism. Both groups were in agreement with Marx only
on the one point that he made~economics the basis
of the working-class movement. Both groups, how-
ever, accused him of being dictatorial, of attemptingto concentrate the whole power of the International
in his own hands. Besides insurmountable theoretical
differences, racial and national prejudices crept into
the International as disintegrating factors. The
Romance and Russian Anarchists looked upon Marxas a pan-German, and conversely, some Marxians
considered Bakunin a pan-Slav. Even as late as 1914,
in the first months of the war, Professor James
Guillaume, the last of the Bakunists, wrote a
pamphlet entitled " Karl Marx, Pangermaniste"
(Paris).
Michael Bakunin (b. 1814, near Twer, in Russia;
d. 1876, in Berne) lived and studied in Germanyduring the forties. In 1848 and 1849 he took partin the revolution, was arrested, then handed over to
Russia and banished to Siberia, whence he escapedin 1856, afterwards living in various countries of
Western Europe. He was an indifferent theorist, and
contributed little to the enrichment of philosophical
Anarchism, but he distinguished himself by his
immense revolutionary activity and his capacity for
sacrifice. The influence which he exercised sprangfrom his character. He had been acquainted with
the Young Hegelians as well as with Marx, Engels,and Wilhelm Wolff since the beginning of the forties.
Until the end of 1868 he acknowledged Marx as his
intellectual leader, as is evident from the following
letter which he addressed to Marx :
58 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
"123, Montbrillant, Geneva,
" December 22, 1868.
" Serno has shown me the portion of your letter
which concerns me. You ask him whether I amstill your friend. Yes, more than ever, my dear
Marx, for now I understand better than ever how
truly right you are when you advance along the
high road of economic revolution and invite us to
follow, and when you set those below us who
stray into the side-tracks either of national or
exclusively political enterprises. I am now doingthe same thing that you have been doing for more
than twenty years. Since my solemn public leave-
taking from the bourgeois of the Berne Congress,
I no longer know any other society, any other
milieu, than the world of the workers. Henceforth
my country is the '
International,' of which you are
one of the most illustrious founders. You see, mydear friend, that I am your disciple and I am
proud of it. That will be enough to make clear
my attitude and my feelings toward you."
(" Neue Zeit," 19th year, Vol. I., p. 6.)
Nevertheless, this discipleship did not hinder
Bakunin from secretly forming a separate organisa-
tion which contributed to the break-up of the
International. Moreover, the International was onlya kind of school for Socialist officers who had yet to
create their armies, but it proved even more success-
ful than Marx himself could have expected. The
fundamental principles of Marxism ousted every other
social revolutionary system which had made itself
prominent within the working-class movement.
THE PARIS COMMUNE 59
VI. THE PARIS COMMUNE.
On September 1, 1870, a part of the French Armywas defeated near Sedan and compelled to capitulate
on the following day- Among the prisoners was
Louis Bonaparte, the French Emperor. The Empirefell on September 4, and France was proclaimed a
Republic. On September 6 Marx wrote to Engels :
*' The French section of the International travelled
from London to Paris in order to do foolish things in
the name of the International. They want to over-
throw the Provisional Government and set up a
Commune de Paris.9 '
(" Correspondence," Vol. IV.,
p. 330).
Although the Provisional Government of the newly-baked French Republic was in no wise made up of
friends of the democracy, Marx and Engels expressedthemselves against any revolutionary action by the
Paris working class. In the second Address (or
declaration) of the General Council of the Inter-
national, written on September 9, and composed byMarx, the question is discussed as follows :
" Thus the French working class finds itself
placed in extremely difficult circumstances. Anyattempt to overthrow the new Government, whenthe enemy is already knocking at the gates of Paris,
would be a hopeless piece of folly. The French
workers must do their duty as citizens; but theymust not let themselves be overcome by the
national reminiscences of 1792 Theyhave not to repeat the past but to build the future.
Let them quietly and with determination make the
most of the republican freedom granted to them,in order to carry out thoroughly the organisation
60 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
of their own class. That will give give them new,Herculean strength for the rebirth of France and
for our common task the emancipation of the
proletariat." (" Civil War in France," Second
Address.)
Marx then urged the French workers not to do
anything foolish, not to set up a revolutionary
Commune of Paris, but to make use of their repub-lican liberties to create proletarian organisations and
to save and discipline their forces for future tasks.
Circumstances, however, proved much stronger than
any words of wisdom. Goaded by the anti-
democratic moves of the Government supporters,
deeply humiliated by the defeats of the French army,
burning with patriotism and whipped up into fury
against the "capitulards," the Paris working men
cast Marx's words to the winds and rose in revolution
on March 18, 1871, proclaiming the Paris Commune.Paris was to be the capital of a Socialist Republic.
In seven weeks the Paris Revolution was overthrown
and " Vae victis !
"(Woe to the vanquished !)
Marx afterwards wrote the pamphlet on " The Civil
War in France, 1871," which is one of the most
mature of his writings. He did not cut himself entirely
adrift from the revolutionaries the Bolsheviks of that
time but defended them with unsurpassable energy.
It is the swan song of Marx and of the first Inter-
national.
VII. THE EVENING OF LIFE.
During the last twelve years of his life Marx had
to fight almost uninterruptedly against various bodily
THE EVENING OF LIFE 61
ailments, all of which had their origin in his chronic
liver complaint and over-exertion. His work, for
which he had sacrificed, as he wrote to an American
friend,"
health, happiness and family," remained
unfinished. He devoted his enforced leisure to
making a study of American agriculture and of rural
conditions in Russia, for which purpose he learnt
Russian; he likewise occupied himself with studies of
the Stock Exchange, banking, geology, physiology,and higher mathematics. In 1875 he wrote his"
Criticism of the Gotha Program"
(" Neue Zeit,"
9th year, Vol. I., No. 18) which contains some
very important data as to Marx's attitude to the
State, to the revolutionary period of transition from
Capitalism to Socialism, and lastly to Socialist society
itself.
He went to Karlsbad for the purpose of recovering
his health. In 1877 and 1878 he was in some measure
capable of carrying on his work, and set about
arranging his manuscripts and getting the second
volume of "Capital
"ready for the press; it soon
appeared, however, that his capacity for work had
gone. The decline in body and mind could no longer
be checked ;even visits to French and Algerian
watering-places proved ineffective. It was just at this
time that Marx began to find recognition both in
France and in England : Jules Guesde, Henry M.
Hyndman, Belfort Bax set about spreading Marxian
doctrines, and Marxian and anti-Marxian parties
were formed. But the man to whom this recognition
had come was already a ruin. Bronchial catarrh,
inflammation of the lungs, spasmodic asthma,
together with the loss of his wife on December 2,
1881, and of his eldest daughter (Mme. Longuet) in
62 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
January, 3883, gave the finishing stroke to his
enfeebled body. On March 14, 1883, Marx breathed
his last. Engels gives an account of the last moments
in a letter to his American friend Sorge, dated March
15, 1883 :
"Yesterday, at half-past two in the afternoon,
the best time for visiting him, I went down to see
him ; everybody was in tears ; it looked as if the
end had come. I made inquiries, trying to get at
the truth of the matter and to offer consolation.
There had been a slight haemorrhage, but a sudden
collapse had supervened. Our good old Lena, whohad tended him better than any mother does her
child, went up, came down. He was half asleep,
she said; I could go up. As we went in, he lay
there, sleeping, never to wake again. Pulse and
breathing had ceased. In those two minutes he had
gone painlessly and peacefully to sleep
Mankind is less by a head, and indeed by the most
important head it had to-day. The working-class
movement will pursue its course, but its central
point, to which French, Russians, Americans, and
Germans turned of their own accord in decisive
moments, always to receive that clear, unambiguouscounsel which genius and perfect mastery alone can
give is gone."
On Saturday, March 17, he was buried in the
Highgate Cemetery, London. Among those who spokeat the graveside were Friedrich Engels*and Wilhelm
Liebknecht. The former gave a brief account of his
revolutionary struggles, in which he said :
THE EVENING OF LIFE 63
" Just as Darwin discovered the law of the
evolution of organic nature, so Marx discovered the
evolutionary law of human history the simple fact,
hitherto hidden under ideological overgrowths, that
above all things men must eat, drink, dress, and
find shelter before they can give themselves to
politics, science, art, religion, or anything else, and
that therefore the production of the material
necessaries of life and the corresponding stage of
economic evolution of a people or a period providesthe foundation upon which the national institu-
tions, legal systems, art, and even religious ideas
of the people in question have been built, and uponwhich, therefore, their explanation must be based,
a procedure the reverse of that which has hitherto
been adopted. Marx discovered also the special law
of motion for the modern capitalist mode of pro-duction and for the middle-class society which it
begets. With the discovery of surplus value light
was at once thrown upon a subject, all the earlier
investigations of which, whether by middle-class
economists or by Socialist critics, had been gropingsin the dark. . . ."
After him spoke Liebknecht, who had hastened
from Germany to pay a last tribute to his friend and
master :
" The dead one, whose loss we mourn, was great
in his love and in his hate. His hate sprang from
his love. He had a great heart, as he had a greatintellect. He has raised social democracy from a
sect, from a school, to a party, which now already
fights unconquered, and in the end will win the
victory."
64 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Engels, who outlived him by twelve years, edited
the two last volumes of "Capital," while Karl
Kautsky, the disciple and successor of Engels and
the real disseminator of Marxian doctrines, edited the
three volumes of Marx's historical studies on surplus
value. The latter work is not far short of being a
great history of political economy.
IV.
THE MARXIAN SYSTEM.
I. THE MATERIALIST CONCEPTION OF HISTORY.
ASa guide to his studies from 1843-4 onwards,Marx used the conception of history, or
method of investigation, which in contra-
distinction to the idealist conception of history of
Hegel was named materialistic. As its nature is
dialectic as it seeks to conceive in thought the
evolving antagonisms of the social process it is, like
Hegel's dialectic, a conception of history and a methodof investigation at the same time. Nowhere did Marxwork out his method of investigation in a special and
comprehensive form ; the elements of it are scattered
throughout his writings, particularly in the CommunistManifesto and in the "
Poverty of Philosophy," and
serve the purpose of polemics or demonstration. Onlyin the preface to his book,
" On the Critique of
Political Economy"
(1859) did he devote two pagesto a sketch of his conception of history, but in
phraseology which is not always clear, sequential, or
free from objection. It was the intention of Marx to
write a work on Logic, where he would certainly have
formulated clearly his materialistic dialectic. As,
however, his fundamental ideas on this subject are
available, we are able to extract the essentials of his
position.
A glance over human history suffices to teach us
that from age to age man has held to be true or false
various opinions on rights, customs, religion, the
65 a
66 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
State, philosophy, land-holding, trade, industry, etc.,
that he has had various economic arrangements, and
forms of the State and of society, and that he has
gone through an endless series of struggles and wars
and migrations. How has this complicated varietyof human thought and action come about? Marxraises that question, which, so far as he is concerned,
does not aim in the first place at the discovery of
the origin of thought, of rights, of religion, of society,
of trade, etc. ; these he takes to be historically given.
He is rather concerned to find out the causes, the
impulses, or the springs which produce the changesand revolutions of the essentials and forms of the
mental and social phenomena, or which create the
tendencies thereto. In a sentence : What interested
Marx here was not the origin, but the developmentand change of things he is searching for the dynamiclaw of history.
Marx answered : The prime motive power of human
society, which is responsible for the changes of humanconsciousness and thought, or which causes the various
social institutions and conflicts to arise, does not
originate, in the first place, from thought, from the
Idea, from the world-reason or the world-spirit, but
from the material conditions of life. The basis of
human history is therefore material. The material
conditions of life that is, the manner in which menas social beings, with the aid of environing nature,
and of their own in-dwelling physical and intellectual
qualities, shape their material life, provide for their
sustenance, and produce, distribute and exchange the
necessary goods for the satisfaction of their needs.
Of all categories of material conditions of existence,
the most important is production of the necessary
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 67
means of life. And this is determined by the nature
of the productive forces. These are of two kinds :
inanimate and personal. The inanimate productive
forces are : soil, water, climate, raw materials, tools
and machines. The personal productive forces are :
the labourers, the inventors, discoverers, engineers,
and finally, the qualities of the race the inherited
capacities of specific groups of men, which facilitate
work.
The foremost place among the productive forces
belongs to the manual and mental labourers ; they are
the real creators of exchange-value in capitalist
society. The next place of importance is taken bymodern technology, which is an eminently revolu-
tionising force in society. (" Capital"
(German),Vol. I., Chapters 1, 12, 13 and 14,
"Poverty of
Philosophy"
(German edition, 1885, pp. 100-101.)
So much for the conception" Productive Forces,"
which plays an important part with Marx. Wecome now to the other equally important notion," Conditions of production." By this phrase Marxunderstands the legal and State forms, ordinances and
laws, as well as the grouping of social classes and
sections : thus, the social conditions which regulate
property and determine the reciprocal human relations
in which production is carried on. The conditions of
production are the work of men in society. Just as
men produce various material goods out of the
materials and forces made available to them byNature, so they create out of the reactions of the
productive forces upon the mind definite social,
political, and legal institutions, as well as systems of
religion, morals, and philosophy.
68 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
" Men make their own history, but do not so
spontaneously in conditions chosen by them, but on
the contrary, in conditions which they have found
ready to hand transmitted and given." (Marx," The
Eighteenth Brumaire," I.)
That is to say, under the influence oi productivework and its needs, men build their form of society,
their State, their religion, their philosophy and
science. The material production is the substructure
or the groundwork, while the corresponding political,
religious, and philosophical systems are the super-
structure. And in such a manner that the super-
structure corresponds to the foundation, lends it
strength, and promotes its development.The foundation is material, and the superstructure
is the psychical reflex and effect.
In broad outlines this conception may be illustrated
somewhat as follows :
Primitive human groups lived under Communismand were organised according to blood relationship.
Their deities have the characteristics of their natural
environment, and reflect the physical effects of this
environment upon the primitive mental life of the"
savage"
; their religion, their morality, and their
laws promote the communal life and the tribal dis-
cipline. Feudal society is based on the possession of
land by the nobles and on the industrial labour of
the corporations of the towns. The inherited religious
ideas are soon transformed in accordance with the
dominant interests of these historical periods (primi-
tive Christianity became a State religion) ; all religious,
ethical, and philosophical ideas antagonistic to these
interests were fought and persecuted. The middle-
class society, which is based on personal property, is
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 69
endeavouring to sweep away all vestiges of communaland corporation rights, to set free the individual, to
mobilise labour and property, to abolish Feudalism and
the old Church and monasterial institutions, and to
put in their place the individual relation between manand God, or the personal conscience (the Reforma-
tion), introducing individual rights as well;it struggles
against the independent sovereignty of the feudal
domains, and labours for a unified national territory,
which will afford greater scope to trade and commerce ;
it supports Absolutism, so long as the latter is in
conflict with the feudal lords ; and when, afterwards,
Absolutism is a hindrance to the development of
middle-class society, this also is fought and a consti-
tutional monarchy or a republic demanded. And all
this takes place not because certain human intelli-
gences, by reason of more intense thought, or
enlightenment, or the call of a supernatural power,are primarily at work, but as a consequence of the
influence of the material basis, of the economic
foundation of society, upon the mind, which translates
and transforms these external realities into religious,
juridical, and philosophic conceptions :
"It is not the consciousness of men which
determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their
social existence determines their consciousness."
(Marx, Preface to "Critique of Political Economy.")
Man, even the most heroic, is not the sovereign
maker and law-giver of social life, but its executive;
he only follows out the tendencies and currents set
up by the material foundation of society. Never-
theless, a great deal depends upon the executive
officials. If they possess comprehensive knowledge,
energetic natures, and outstanding capacities, they
70 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
are able, within the boundaries drawn for them, to
accomplish great things, and to accelerate the
development."Up to the present the philosophers have but
interpreted the world; it is, however, necessary to
change it." (Marx," Theses to Feuerbach.")
We have referred in various places to interests.
We are not to understand by this personal, but general
social or class interests. Marx is not of the opinion
that everybody acts hi accordance with his personal
welfare. This is not Marxian doctrine, but that of
the middle-class moral philosophers, like Helvetius
(1715 1771) and Jeremy Bentham (17481832), who
regarded pleasure and pain of the individual as the
measure and motive of his actions and conduct.
Marx is rather of the opinion that men often, in the
most important events of their lives, act contrary to
their personal interests, as in their feelings and
thoughts they identify themselves with that which
they hold to be the interests of the community or of
their class. According to Marx, individual interest
generally plays a slight part in history. He is
preoccupied with the collective interest of social
production. Only the latter does he hold to be
determining in the formation of the intellectua
superstructure.
Up till now we have only spoken of various forms
of production and society, and their corresponding
mental systems. But we do not yet know why and
how one form of production and society becomes
obsolete and gives place to another, that is, how and
why revolutionary changes are brought about. Or
in other words : we have hitherto considered the
statics of society; we will now look at its dynamics.
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 71
The revolutionary changes in society depend on two
groups of phenomena, which, although casually
connected with each other, yet work differently. Oneof these groups of phenomena is technical, and
consists in changes in the productive forces. The other
group, which is the effect of the first, is of a personal
nature, and consists in struggles between the social
classes. Let us consider the first group of causes.
As the productive forces expand, through greater
skill on the part of the worker, through discoveries
of new raw material and markets, through the
invention of new labour processes, tools and
machines, and through the better organisation of
trade and exchange, so that the material basis or the
economic foundation of society is altered, then the
old conditions of production cease to promote the
interests of production. For the conditions of pro-
duction : the former social classes, the former laws,
State institutions, and intellectual systems were
adapted to a state of the productive forces which is
either in process of disappearing, or no longer exists.
The social and intellectual superstructure no longer
corresponds to the economic foundation. The pro-
ductive forces and the conditions of production come
into conflict with each other.
This conflict between the new reality and the old
form , this conflict between new causes and the obsolete
effects of bygone causes, begins gradually to influence
the thoughts of men. Men commence to feel that theyare confronted with a new external world, and that
a new era has been opened.Social divisions acquire a new significance : classes
and sections which were formerly despised gain in
social and economic power; classes which were
72 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
formerly honoured decline. While this transforma-
tion of the social foundation is proceeding, the old
religious, legal, philosophical, and political systems
cling to their inherited positions, and insist on
remaining, although they are obsolete and can no
longer satisfy mental needs. For human thoughtis conservative : it follows external events slowly, just
as our eye perceives the sun at a point which the
sun has in reality already passed, as the rays requireseveral minutes of time in order to strike our optic
nerves. We may recall Hegel's fine metaphor :
" TheOwl of Minerva begins its flight only when twilight
gathers." However late, it does begin. Great
thinkers gradually arise, who explain the new situa-
tion, and create new ideas and trains of thought which
correspond to the new situation. The humanconsciousness gives birth to anxious doubts and
questionings, and then new truths ; leading to differ-
ences of opinion, disputes, strifes, schisms, class
struggles, and revolutions.
In the next chapter we will consider more closely
the class struggle between Labour and Capital.
Meanwhile, we will look at the class struggle generally.
In primitive societies, where private property is
yet unknown, or still undeveloped, there are no class
distinctions, no class domination, and no class
antagonisms. The chief, the medicine man, and the
judge regulate or supervise the observance of the
customary usages, religious ceremonies, and social
arrangements. But as soon as the old order is
dissolved, and private property develops, in con-
sequence of trade with other peoples or through wars,
there arise classes of those who possess and those whodo not. The possessing class carries on the Govern-
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY ?a
ment, makes laws, and creates institutions, which
chiefly serve the end of protecting the interests of the
possessing and ruling classes. The intellectual struc-
ture of the class society likewise corresponds to the
interests of those who possess and rule. So long as
these interests promote the common good in some
measure, so long as the old forms of production and
the old conditions of production are largely in harmonywith each other, a certain truce prevails between the
classes. But should there set in the above-mentioned
opposition between the productive forces and the
conditions of production, the latter will cease to
satisfy the oppressed classes, and class conflicts will
arise, which will either result in legal compromises
(reforms) or will end in the overthrow of the society
concerned, or will lead to a new set of conditions.
Ancient history (Hebrew, Greek, Roman) is full of
these social struggles; all the great reform laws of
these peoples were attempts to establish social peace,but the rich and the poor, the Patricians and the
Plebeians, the Slaves and Freemen, continued their
struggles until the downfall of the old world, which
has bequeathed to us great intellectual treasures as
the fruit of these struggles. In the Middle Ages social
struggles between the feudal lords and the traders,
between nobles and peasants, were kindled. In more
recent times the middle classes fought Autocracy and
Squirearchy, and at length the proletariat was pitted
against the bourgeoisie class struggles which led to
rebellions and revolutions, and powerfully influenced
the intellectual life.
From these historical antagonisms and struggles
arose the intellectual and political antagonisms,
personified by the leaders of the social groups and
74 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
classes, of which world-history relates : opposing
religious and philosophical systems : Brahma and
Buddha, Baal and Jahveh, National God and
Universal God, Heathendom and Christendom,Catholicism and Protestantism, Materialism and
Idealism, Realism and Nominalism. Howeverabstract or metaphysical, however remote from
actual life and material production they may appearto be, nevertheless, in the last resort they are to be
traced back through many intermediate stages to
changes in the economic foundation of the society in
question, to the contradiction between this foundation
and the conditions of production, as well as to the
great struggles between conflicting interests which
spring therefrom. The ethical, political, and politico-
economic systems which strive with each other for
mastery, as well as national and world wars, are
separated from the real basis of society by a progres-
sively smaller number of intermediate stages : the
questions of idealist or utilitarian ethics, monarchyor republic, oligarchy or democracy, protection or
free trade, State regulation or free scope for the
economic forces, Socialism or private enterprise,
etc., however lofty and humanitarian may be the
arguments and ideal motives which their champions
may adduce, are connected with the material foun-
dation and the conditions of production which have
come into conflict with it.
Marx and Engels have set forth this conception in
the Communist Manifesto, in popular form, as
follows :
" Does it require deep intuition to comprehendthat man's ideas, views, and conceptions, in one
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 75
word, man's consciousness, changes with every
change in the conditions of his material existence,
in his social relations and in his social life ?
*' What else does the history of ideas prove than
that intellectual production changes in character in
proportion as material production is changed. The
ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas
of its ruling class." When people speak of ideas that revolutionise
society they do but express the fact that within
the old society the elements of a new one have been
created, and that the dissolution of the old ideas
keeps even pace with the dissolution of the old
conditions of existence." When the ancient world was in its last throes
the ancient religions were overcome by Christianity.
When Christian ideas succumbed in the eighteenth
century to rationalist ideas, feudal society fought its
death-battle with the then revolutionary bour-
geoisie. The ideas of religious liberty and freedom
of conscience merely gave expression to the swayof free competition within the domain of know-
ledge."
Now one step farther. When the conditions of
production, the social divisions into classes, and the
laws of property become fetters to the productive
forces, when the conflict of interests condense them-
selves into class struggles, then comes a period of
social revolution.
" With the change of the economic foundation
the entire immense superstructure is more or less
rapidly transformed. In considering such trans-
formations the distinction should always be made
76 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
between the material transformation of the economic
conditions of production which can be determined
with the precision of natural science, and the legal,
political, religious, aesthetic, or philosophic in
short, ideological forms in which men become
conscious of this conflict and fight it out. Just as
our opinion of an individual is not based on what
he thinks of himself, so we are not able to judge of
such a period of transformation by its own
consciousness; on the contrary, this consciousness
must rather be explained from the contradictions
of material life, from the existing conflict between
the social forces of production and the conditions
of production." (Preface to "Critique of Political
Economy.")
The revolutionary period only closes when the
social order that had become full of contradictions
liberates the productive forces and strikes off their
fetters, and creates new conditions of production which
correspond to them. The old society, which is doomedto disappear, evolves the new conditions of existence
before it sinks into oblivion. The men who assist the
progress of the new society accordingly occupythemselves with problems which they are able to
solve, as the means thereto are given in the material
development. Such problems are set before them
because, regarded from the theoretical standpoint,
they are the mental reflex of the contradictions and
revolutionary tendencies within society.
Accordingly, the essence of the historical develop-
ment of human society has been so far the progressive
dialectical unfolding and perfection of the productiveforces.
CONCEPTION OF HISTORY 77
" In broad outlines," says Marx," we can designate
the Asiatic, the ancient, the feudal, and the modern
bourgeois methods of production, as so many epochsin the progress of the economic formation of society.
The bourgeois relations of production are the last
antagonistic form of the social process of production
antagonistic not in the sense of individual antag-
onism, but of one arising from conditions surroundingthe life of individuals in society; at the same time
the productive forces developing in the womb of
bourgeois society create the material conditions for
the solution of that antagonism. This social forma-
tion constitutes, therefore, the closing chapter of the
prehistoric stage of human society."
Prehistoric stage of human society I What sig-
nificant words ! The capitalist economic order is the
last phase of this stage, which is written in streams
of blood and tears of the dispossessed and exploited,
and to which is given the task of developing the
productive forces and liberating men from the
material fetters, so that they may enter into a life
of mental culture. The materialist conception of
history, unethical and unidealist like all natural
science, opens up wide and elevating prospects.
During thousands of years man struggled on the
physical plane to obtain release from the animal
kingdom, and was subjected to the discipline of
unfeeling nature. After he had emerged from the
animal kingdom, man laboured for thousands of
years to lay the foundation of human society, a
process which was performed under the hunger whipof stern taskmasters, and which powerfully stimulated
the intellectual capacities of men, but only disclosed
the ideal of justice and humanity as a remote and
inaccessible star.
78 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
The materialist conception of history has shown
itself to be a fruitful method of historical investiga-
tion. Some aspects of this idea were uttered both
before and during Marx's lifetime. The revolution in
the positions of classes and the struggles which
followed hard on the English industrial revolution
(1760 1825), and everywhere attended the transition
from an agrarian to an industrial State, were too
palpable to be overlooked. It was Marx who fused
these ideas, with the aid of the Hegelian dialectics
made of them a method of investigation, and pressedthem into the service of Socialism and historical
research.
II. CLASSES, CLASS STRUGGLES, AND CLASS-
CONSCIOUSNESS.
One of the most important contributions of Marx to
the understanding of historical processes is his
conception of social classes and of class struggles.
Although, prior to Marx, there were historians and
politicians who pointed out the part played by social
classes in politics and in social convulsions, it was
Marx who first grasped this conception in its entire
scope and significance, giving it precise form, and
making it an essential part of political and social
thought. He refers to the subject in the Communist
Manifesto in the following terms :
" The Socialist and Communist systems properly
so called, those of St. Simon, Fourier, Owen, and
others, spring into existence in the early undeveloped
CLASSES AND CLASS STRUGGLES 79
period of the struggle between proletariat and
bourgeoisie. The founders of these systems see,
indeed, the class antagonisms, as well as the action
of the decomposing elements in the prevailing form
of society. But the proletariat, as yet in its infancy,
offers to them the spectacle of a class without anyhistorical initiative or any independent political
movement."
The classification of the various groups of society,
or the division of human society into classes, is as
logical a process, that is, a result attained by the
operations of reason, as the division of animals, plants,
and minerals into various classes. A specific groupof social beings, which bear the stamp of common
characteristics, is put in a certain class by social
science. This classification cannot be made by purely
empirical methods of immediate sensuous perceptions.
It cannot be determined from the appearance of
modern men, whether they are capitalists or workers.
We must look for certain scientifically established
features which determine the social classification of
men. As we have just seen, Marx held economic
facts to be fundamental, and he contended that the
economic characteristics were valid for purposes of
classification. In his view, the manner in which a
specific human group obtained its sustenance was the
chief characteristic. Men whose chief means of life
are wages form the working class. Men whose
most important source of livelihood is the ownershipof capital (land, buildings, workshops, and raw
material) form the capitalist class. It is of little
moment that a worker owns a savings-bankbook, and
draws interest or dividends from a co-operative
80 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
society, or that a capitalist personally supervises bis
undertaking, or organises his business, so that his
profits partly consist in wages of superintendence or
salary. The outstanding feature is that the chief
interest of the worker is concentrated on wages, whilst
that of the capitalist is directed on property. It goes
without saying that the social classes are not com-
pletely homogeneous. Like botanical and zoological
classes, they may be divided into kinds and species ;
the working classes include well-paid hand and brain
workers, as well as sweated sections ; but all the sub-
divisions of the social classes possess the common
outstanding quality of the same source of livelihood,
which is either personal labour or the possession of
capital. One class disposes only of labour-power,while the other class owns the means of production.Between these two classes, says Marx, there are
deep-seated, unbridgeable antagonisms, which lead to
a class struggle. The antagonisms are primarily of
an economic nature. The wage-earners, as the owners
of labour power, are constrained to sell this as dear
as possible, i.e., to obtain the highest possible wages,whereas the owners of capital endeavour to buy such
labour-power as cheap as possible, i.e., to pay the
least possible wages. This antagonism is indeed
fundamental, but, at first sight, does not touch the
intellectual sphere very deeply. On the surface, this
antagonism is only one as between buyer and seller,
but in reality the distinction is very great, as the
seller of labour-power will quickly starve if he does
not market his commodity. The owner of the meansof production is therefore in a position to cause the
seller of labour-power to starve, if the latter does not
accept the conditions which the capitalist imposes.
CLASSES AND CLASS STRUGGLES 81
Ownership of capital reveals itself as a power that can
oppress the owner of labour-power.This antagonism leads to the formation of Trade
Unions. It is also the prime cause of the class
struggle, but mere trade unionism is but its incipient
stage. It develops into a class struggle when the
workers recognise that their condition of subjection is
not a temporary state, but the result of the economic
system of private capitalism, that the subjectionwill last so long as this economic system exists,
and that the latter could be replaced by an economic
order in which the means of production belongto all the members of society. The wage-workers
only participate in the class struggle when theylearn to think in a Socialist sense, when hostility
to the existing social order develops out of the
sporadic and unrelated wage struggle and actions
of Trade Unions, and when the proletariat, as
an organised class, turns from the preoccupations of
the present to the tasks of the future, and strives to
change the basis of society from private property to
common property. The workers then become aware
that there can be neither freedom nor equality for
them in the existing society, and that their emancipa-tion can only be attained through Socialism. The
class struggle may, however, stop short at the
recognition of these facts. The dialectical movementwill be incomplete if the working class does not take
its fate into its own hands, and is not convinced that
it has the power to achieve its own emancipation,and therefore contents itself with small social reforms,
or relies on noble-minded and benevolent men and
heroic redeemers. This was actually the case in the
beginnings of the Socialist movement, when the
82 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
workers saw in Socialism the only way out, but were
still too weak to take their fate into their own hands.
This was the period which Marx called Utopian, when
outstanding personalities spread Socialist ideas, and
made Socialist plans and experiments to free the
labouring masses. As these personalities knew the
impotence of the masses, they turned to philanthro-
pists and humane rulers, and sought to convince themthat reason, justice, and the general welfare demandedthat Socialism should be introduced, and poverty,
misery, and their consequences abolished. This
period of Utopian Socialism gave way before the
further development of industry, the progress of
machine technique, the centralisation and concentra-
tion of the means of production and exchange, which
brought with it an increase in the number, strength,
organisation, and class-consciousness of the workingclasses. It is the centralisation of the means of
production and exchange, in particular, which
renders it possible for the working class, by paralysing
industry and power stations, to cause the whole of
society to feel that living labour-power forms the soul
of the economic life.
At the same time Socialist investigators appear,who not only show the reasonableness and justice of
Socialism, but exhibit the proof that the new economic
order of Socialism is being prepared in the womb of
Capitalism, and that therefore the aspirations of the
worker are in harmony with the course of social
development.In this wise, a science and an aspiring Socialist
movement founded upon reality develops from
Utopian Socialism, and, conscious of class, of power,and of aim, enters upon the decisive struggle with
CLASSES AND CLASS STRUGGLES 88
the capitalist economic order. The class struggle
acts as a lever of social revolution.
The original antagonism of the worker and capitalist
over wages and hours of labour becomes an impas-sionate struggle of two classes over the question of
the maintenance or transformation of the social and
economic system one of which classes fights for the
existing order of private property and the other for
the coming Socialistic system. Great social class
struggles inevitably become political struggles. The
immediate object of the struggle is the possession of
the power of the State, with the aid of which the
capitalist class endeavours to maintain its position,
whilst the working class aims at the conquest of the
power of the State in order to accomplish its larger
objects.
The following chapter will show the direction taken
by the Labour movement. Here we will but briefly
refer to the profound influence of Marx's doctrine of
the class struggle as exercised in political thought.Prior to Marx, political thought and the struggles of
political parties seemed to revolve around ideas and
great personalities. Idealogy and hero-worship were
prevalent. Now, political thought, consciously or
unconsciously, proceeds along class and economic
lines. This is equally true of historical investigations.
These new political and historical orientations are
largely the result of Marx's life-work.
Rigidly conceived and applied, the Marxian doctrine
of the class-struggle may lead to ultra-revolutionary
tactics of the Socialist and Labour movement, to the
system of Workers' Councils, and Proletarian Dicta-
torship. If the emerging class and its struggle
constitutes the lever of social revolution and the
84 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
impulse of the dialectical social process, the Dictator-
ship of the Proletariat is justified, and in any case,
democracy, which includes both the capitalist and
working class, cannot be the State form during the
transition period from private property to Socialism.
Considered from the economic standpoint, political
democracy is generally impossible, or only sham
democracy so long as economic inequality exists.
The Communist Manifesto does not contain a single
political democratic reform. The conclusion can be
drawn from Marx's idea, as a whole, that in his
estimation, the class stood higher than so-called
democracy. This is one of the sources of Bolshevism.
III. THE ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT AND THE
PROLETARIAN DICTATORSHIP.
The Labour Party is the political expression of the
whole Trade Union movement so far as the latter
formulates national demands, directed towards the
State and society generally. The Labour Party will
function the more effectively, and be able to accom-
plish its allotted task, as its foundation the Trade
Union movement becomes established and streng-
thened, and the more comprehensive will be its
effects. The Trade Unions are not merely to be
satisfied with the work of the present, but are to
become the focus and centre of gravity of the pro-
letarian aspirations which arise out of the social
transformation process, and are to work for the
abolition of Capitalism. The most effective lever for
ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT 85
the achievement of this object is the conquest of
political power. With its aid the proletariat can con-
sciously carry out the transformation of a Capitalist
into a Communist society. To this transformation,there also corresponds a political transition period, the
state of which can be nothing else than a revolutionary
Dictatorship of the Proletariat. (Marx, Letter to
the German Social Democracy, 1875, on their Gotha
Programme.)Marx considered himself to be the real author of
the idea of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. In a
letter written by him, in 1852, to his American friend,
Weydemeyer, he declares :
" As far as I am concerned, I can't claim to have
discovered the existence of classes in modern society
or their strife against one another. Middle-class
historians long ago described the evolution of the
class struggles, and political economists showed the
economic physiology of the classes. I have added
as a new contribution the following propositions :
(1) that the existence of classes is bound up with
certain phases of material production; (2) that the
class struggle leads necessarily to the Dictatorship
of the Proletariat; (3) that this dictatorship is but
the transition to the abolition of all classes and to
the creation of a society of free and equal."
(" Neue Zeit," Vol. XXV., second part, p. 164.)
With the exception of the year 1870, Marx remained
true to his doctrine of Proletarian Dictatorship : he
thought in 1875 as he did in 1847, when he sketched
the groundwork of the Proletarian Dictatorship in the
Communist Manifesto :
86 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
" The first step in the revolution by the workingclass is to raise the proletariat to the position of
ruling class, to win the battle of democracy." The proletariat will use its political supremacy
to wrest, by degrees, all capital from the bour-
geoisie, to centralise all instruments of productionin the hands of the State, i.e., of the proletariat
organised as the ruling class; and to increase the
total of productive forces as rapidly as possible." Of course, in the beginning, this cannot be
effected except by means of despotic inroads on the
rights of property, and on the conditions of bourgeois
production ; by means of measures, therefore, which
appear economically insufficient and untenable, but
which, in the course of the movement, outstrip
themselves, necessitate further inroads upon the old
social order, and are unavoidable as a means of
entirely revolutionising the mode of production."
But suppose that it is not the revolutionary workingclass which first attains to power in the revolution,
but the democracy of the lower middle class and the
social reformists. In this case, Marx gives the follow-
ing advice :"
Separate from it, and fight it." In the
address to the League of Communists in 1850 he said :
"It may be taken for granted that in the bloody
conflicts that are coming, as in the case of previous
ones, the courage, resolution, and sacrifice of the
workers will be the chief factor in the attainment of
victory. As hitherto, so in this struggle, the mass of
the lower middle class will maintain an attitude of
delay, irresolution, and inactivity as long as possible,
in order that, as soon as victory is assured, to arrogate
it to themselves and call on the workers to remain
ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT 87
quiet, return to work, avoid so-called excesses, and
to exclude the proletariat from the fruits of victory.
It is not in the power of the workers to hinder the
lower middle classes from doing this, but it is within
their power to render their success over the armed
proletariat very difficult, to dictate to them such
conditions that from the beginning the rule of the
middle-class democrats is doomed to failure, and its
later substitution by the rule of the proletariat
is considerably facilitated." The workers must, during the conflict and im-
mediately afterwards, as much as ever possible, opposethe compromises of the middle class, and compel the
democrats to execute their present terrorist threats.
They must aim at preventing the subsiding of the
revolutionary excitement immediately after the
victory. On the contrary, they must endeavour to
maintain it as long as possible." Far from opposing so-called excesses, and making
examples of hated individuals or public buildings
to which hateful remembrances are attached, by
sacrificing them to the popular rage, such examplesmust not only be tolerated, but their direction must
even be taken in hand. During the struggle and after
the struggle, the workers must seize every opportunity
to present their own demands side by side with those
of the middle-class democrats. The workers must
demand guarantees as soon as the middle-class
democrats propose to take the government in hand.
If necessary, these guarantees must be exacted, and
thd new rulers must be compelled to make every
possible promise and concession, which is the surest
way to compromise them. The workers must size upthe conditions in a cool and dispassionate fashion,
88 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
and manifest open distrust of the new Government,in order to quench, as much as possible, the ardour
for the new order of things and the elation which
follows every successful street fight. Against the newofficial Government, they must set up a revolutionary
workers' government, either in the form of local
committees, communal councils, or workers' clubs or
workers' committees, so that the democratic middle-
class government not only immediately loses its
support amongst the working classes, but from the
commencement finds itself supervised and threatened
by a jurisdiction, behind which stands the entire mass
of the working class. In a word : from the first
moment of victory the workers must no longer level
their distrust against the defeated reactionary party,but direct it against their former allies, who would
seek to exploit the common victory for their own ends.
The workers must be armed and organised to enable
them to threaten energetic opposition to this party,
whose treason to the workers will commence in the
first hour of victory. The arming of the whole pro-
letariat with rifles and ammunition must be carried
out at once, and steps taken to prevent the reviving
of the old militia, which would be directed against
the workers. But should this not be successful, the
workers must endeavour to organise themselves as an
independent guard, choosing their own chief and
general staff, with orders to support not the State
power, but the councils formed by the workers. Whereworkers are employed in State service, they must arm
and organise in a special corps, with a chief chosen
by themselves, or form a part of the Proletarian
Guard. Under no pretext must they give up their
arms and equipment, and any attempt at disarma-
ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT 89
ment must be forcibly resisted. Destruction of the
influence of the middle-class democrats over the
workers, immediate independent and armed organisa-tion of the workers, and the imposition of the mostirksome and compromising conditions possible uponthe rule of the bourgeois democracy, which is for the
time unavoidable. . . . We have noted that the
Democrats come to power in the next phase of the
movement, and how they will be obliged to imposemeasures of a more or less Socialistic nature. It will
be asked what contrary measures should be proposed
by the workers. Naturally, in the beginning of the
movement the workers cannot propose actual Com-munist measures, but they can (1) compel the
Democrats to attack the old social order from as manysides as possible, disturb its regular course, and
compromise themselves, and concentrate in the hands
of the State as much as possible of the productive
forces, means of transport, factories, railways, etc.
(2) When the Democrats propose measures which are
not revolutionary, but merely reformist, the workers
must press them to the point of turning such measures
into direct attacks on private property; thus, for
example, if the small middle class propose to purchasethe railways and factories the workers must demandthat such railways and factories, being the propertyof the reactionaries, shall be simply confiscated bythe State, without compensation. If the Democrats
propose a proportional tax, the workers must demanda progressive tax; if the Democrats themselves
declare for a moderate progressive tax, the workers
must insist on a tax so steeply graduated as to cause
the collapse of large fortunes ; if the Democrats
demand the regulation of the State debt, the workers
90 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
must demand State bankruptcy. Thus the demandsof the workers must everywhere be directed againstthe concessions and measures of the Democrats.
. . . Further, the Democrats will either work
directly for a Federal Republic, or, at least, if theycannot avoid the Republic one and indivisible, will
seek to paralyse it by granting the greatest possible
independence to the municipalities and provinces.The workers must set themselves against this plan,
not only to secure the one and indivisible German
Republic, but to concentrate as much power as
possible in the hands of the State. They need not be
misled by democratic platitudes about the freedom of
the Communes, self-determination, etc. Their battle-
cry must be * the revolution in permanence.'"
This Address of Marx, written in 1850, appears to
be the guide of the Bolsheviks and Spartacists.
The working classes may, however, not expect their
immediate emancipation from their political victory." In order to work out their own emancipation, and
with it that higher form of life which present-day
society inevitably opposes, the protracted struggle
must pass through a whole series of historical pro-
cesses, in the course of which men and circumstances
alike will be changed. They have no ideal to realise ;
they have only to set free the elements of the new
society, which have already developed in the wombof the collapsing bourgeois society." (Marx,
"Civil
War in France.")The means of production will gradually be social-
ised, production will be placed on a co-operative basis,
education will be combined with productive work, in
order to transform the members of society into
producers. So long as the transition period lasts the
ROLE OF THE LABOUR MOVEMENT 91
Communist maxim," From each according to his
capacity, to each according to his needs,'* cannot
become operative. For this period is in every respect
economic, social, and intellectual still tainted with
the marks of the old society, and "rights cannot
transcend the economic structure of society, and the
cultural development which it determines." (Criti-
cism of Gotha Program.) To each will be given
according to his deeds."Accordingly the individual producer will receive
back what he gives to society, after deductions for
government, education, and other social charges. Hewill give society his individual quota of labour. For
example : the social working day consists in the sumtotal of individual working days ; the individual labour
time of the individual producer is the part of the social
working day which he contributes; his share thereof.
He will receive from society a certificate that he has
performed so much work (after deducting his work
for social funds), and with this certificate he will draw
from the social provision of articles of consumptionas much as a similar quantity of labour costs. The
same quantity of labour as he will give to society in
one form he will receive back in another. . . The
right of producers will be proportionate to the work
they will perform : the equality will consist in the
application of the same measure : labour."
Because performances will vary in accordance with
unequal gifts and degrees of diligence, an unequaldistribution will actually take place during the transi-
tion period. Only in a fully developed Communistic
society, after the distinction between intellectual and
physical labour has disappeared, when productive
activity has become a first need of life, when the
92 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
all-round development of the individual and the
productive forces has been achieved, and all the
springs of co-operative riches flow abundantly; onlythen can the narrow middle-class idea of rights be
improved on, and the Communist principle of equality
be put into operation.
Marx, who reasoned on strictly economic lines, and
placed the emancipation of the working class as the
highest goal, to which all other political and economic
movements are subordinated, did not mistake the
economic, political, and historical role of the nation :
this is shown by the Communist Manifesto, where
the creation of the national State by the bourgeoisie
is indicated. He mocked at the young enthusiasts
who thought they could brush aside the nation as an
obsolete prejudice, but, in spite of this, he considerably
under-estimated the unifying force of national feeling,
considered from a biological and cultural point of view.
He divided civilised mankind into antagonistic classes,
and assumed that the economic dividing lines would
prove to be more effective than national and political
boundary lines. He was, therefore, through and
through international. Marx demanded that the
national Labour Parties should act internationally as
soon as there was a possibility of the collapse of the
capitalist domination. He reproached the original
Gotha program with the fact that "it borrowed from
middle-class Leagues of Peace and Freedom the phraseof the international brotherhood of peoples, whereas
it was necessary to promote the international com-
bination of the working classes in a common struggle
against the ruling classes and their Governments."
Marx had no confidence in the pacifism of the
bourgeoisie.
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 98
IV. OUTLINES OF THE ECONOMIC DOCTRINES.
1. Capital.
As we already know, Marx became a Socialist in
the year 1843. As a believer in dialectics, he knewthat Socialism can only be understood by a knowledgeof the movement operating in middle-class society
and its developing forces. His investigations in
1843-4 led to the result that political economy forms
the basis of bourgeois society. Henceforth political
economy became the chief department of his studies.
His comprehensive studies of French and English
economists, especially Sismondi and Ricardo, and the
anti-capitalist literature of England of the years
1820-40, which were connected with the Ricardian
theory of value, furnished him with a wealth of
suggestions and materials for the criticism of political
economy, for the source and origin and developmentand decline of capitalism, written from the standpoint
of the working class and the coming Socialistic society.
Such a work is"
Capital." It consists of three
volumes. Only the first volume (1867) was carried
through the press by Marx himself. The other two
volumes he only sketched, and they were completedand published by Engels after Marx's death.
The first volume deals with the origin and tendencies
of large industrial capital, with the immediate and
simple process of commodity production, so far as it
concerns the relations between employer and worker,
the exploitation of the proletariat, wages and labour
time, and the influence of modern technique on the
condition of the worker. We see in the first volume
the effect of the factory system in creating capital. Its
chief figure is the producing, suffering, rebellious
94 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
working class. In the second volume, the employer
appears on the market, sells his commodities, and sets
the wheels of production again in motion, so that
commodities will continue to be produced. In the
third volume, the realisation process of the under-
takings of the capitalist class, or the movement of
capital as a whole is exhibited : cost of production,cost price, total gains and their division into profit,
interest and ground rent. The first volume presentsthe greatest difficulties. The tremendous efforts of
the author to produce a masterpiece unnecessarily
refined and sublimated and overloaded with learning
the doctrines of value and surplus value until theyattained the level of a philosophy, an example of
Hegelian logic. He played with his subject like an
intellectual athlete. That Marx could handle com-
plicated economic questions in a clear, vigorous
manner is shown by the third volume, which is written
just as it came out of the author's head, and without
the apparatus of learning subsequently erected, with-
out the crutches of notes and polemico-philosophical
excursions.
To understand "Capital
"it is necessary to bear
in mind that (1) Marx regarded the scientifically
discovered principles as the real inner being of things,
practice he regarded as the superficial appearance of
things, capable of being apprehended empirically;
for example, Value is the theoretical expression, Price
the empirical; Surplus Value is the theoretical, and
Profit the empirical expression; the appearances
apprehended by experience (Price and Profit) deviate
indeed from theory, but without the theory theycannot be understood; (2) he looked at the capitalist
economic system as being essentially free from ex-
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 95
ternal hindrances and disturbances, free from invasions
both by the State and the proletariat : the Labour
struggles of factory protection laws of which Marx
speaks in"
Capital" serve rather to perfect the
productive forces than to restrict the exploiting pro-
clivities of sovereign capital.
2. Value.
The life and motion of capitalistic society appears
as an infinite net of exchange operations, formed out
of numerous entwined meshes.
Through the medium of money, men continually
exchange the most varied commodities and services.
A ceaseless buying and selling, an uninterrupted series
of exchanges of things, and labour power this
constitutes the essential part of human relations in
capitalistic society. An economic map of these
relations, graphically displayed, would not be less
confusing than an astronomical map which exhibited
the manifold and intersected orbits of the heavenly
bodies. And yet there must be some rule or law
which operates in this seeming medley of movements ;
for men do not work or exchange their goods byhazard, like savages who give their entire lumps of gold
or rough diamonds for a necklace of glass pearls. The
English and French economists in the seventeenth,
eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, amongst whomPetty (1623-87), Quesnay (1694-1759), Adam Smith
(1723-96), and Ricardo (1772-1823) were the most
original, sought for the laws which regulated exchange
operations, and their theories were designated byMarx as classical bourgeois economy. Following uptheir investigations, Marx declared : Every com-
modity, that is, every thing or good produced under
96 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Capitalism and brought to the market possesses a use
value and an exchange value.
The use value is the utility of the commodity to
satisfy a physical or mental need of its user : a com-
modity without use value is not exchangeable or
saleable. As use values, commodities are materially
different from each other ; nobody will exchange a ton
of wheat for a ton of wheat of the same kind, but
he will for clothes.
In what measure will commodities exchange with
one another? The measure is the exchange value,
and this consists in the trouble and quantity of labour
which the production of a commodity costs. Equal
quantities of labour are exchanged with each other
on the market. As exchange values, as the embodi-
ment of human labour, commodities are essentially
equal to each other, only quantitatively are they
different, as different categories of commodities
embody different quantities of labour. It is obvious
that the quantities of labour will not be calculated
according to the working methods of the individual
producers, but according to the prevailing social
working methods.
If, for example, hand-weaver A requires twentyhours for the production of a piece of cloth, which in
a modern factory will be produced in five hours, the
cloth of the hand-weaver does not therefore possess
four-fold exchange value. If hand-weaver A demandsof consumer B an equivalent of twenty working hours,
B answers that a similar piece of cloth can be pro-duced in five hours, and therefore it only representsan exchange value of five working hours. Thus,
according to Marx, the exchange value of a commodityconsists in the quantity of socially necessary labour
power which its reproduction would require.
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 97
This quantity of labour is no constant factor. Newinventions, improvements in labour processes, increase
in the productivity of labour, etc., cause a diminution
in the quantity of labour necessary for the reproduc-tion of a commodity ; its exchange value, or expressedin terms of money, its price, will therefore sink, pro-vided that other things (demand, medium of exchange)remain equal.
Consequently, labour is the source of exchange
value, and the latter is the principle which regulates
exchange operations. Exchange value even measures
the extent of the commodity wealth of society.
Wealth may increase in volume, but decrease in value,
in so far as a less quantity of socially necessary labour
becomes necessary for its reproduction.
The more progressive a country is industrially and
the higher the level of its civilisation, the greater is its
wealth, and the smaller is the quantity of labour which
must be expended on the creation of wealth. In the
practical Labour politics of our times, this is expressedin higher wages and shorter working hours.
It was said above that use value is a basic condition
for the exchange of the individual commodity. This
does not exhaust the role of use value. The quantityof use value of which society has need determines the
quantity of the exchange values to be created. If
more commodities are required than society requires,
the superfluous commodities have no exchange value,
in spite of the labour that is expended on them.
(" Capital"
(German), Vol. III., 1, pp. 175-170.)
The complete realisation of exchange values or the
social labour that is performed depends, as is seen,
on the adaptation of supply to demand, and is a matter
of organisation, of social direction.
98 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
We have noticed that the Marxian theory of value
is related to that of the classical economists, but theyare by no means the same thing. Apart from some
improvements and definitions which Marx made, theyare distinguished by the following conceptions : In the
classical theory of value, the capitalist who directs
production and provides with his capital the tools and
raw materials of labour, markets the finished com-
modity, and keeps going the processes of reproduction,
appears as the only creator of value : the wage worker
is only one of his means of production. In the
Marxian theory of value, on the other hand, the wageworker who transforms the raw materials into com-
modities, or removes the raw materials to the place
of production, appears as the sole creator of value.
Value is only created by the worker in production,
and in distribution connected therewith.
6. Wages and Labour.
The worker appears to receive wages for his work.
In reality he receives wages as the equivalent for the
labour power expended by him, quite in accordance
with the law of value, inasmuch as he receives by wayof exchange as much means of sustenance as is usual
and customary to replace the labour power he has
expended, just as the working horse receives as muchoats and hay as are necessary to maintain it capableof work.
The capitalist and the worker exchange certain
quantities of commodities in proportions determined
by economic laws (means of subsistence against a
quantity of the commodity, labour power, of equal
value, commodity for commodity, exchange value for
exchange value).
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 00
As, therefore, the wages of labour signify a certain
quantity of the means of subsistence, so they increase
even if their money form remains unaltered with a
fall in the price of the means of life, for the worker
is then in the position, with his unaltered wage, to
buy a greater quantity of the means of life. In the
reverse case, if the prices of the means of life rise,
the wages of labour fall, even if their money form
remains the same as previously. This law of wages,formulated by Ricardo , was accepted by Marx, but
he did not content himself with this acceptance.Ricardo regarded the capitalist world as the only
possible and reasonable one, at least at the time whenhe wrote his
"Principles," while Marx from the year
1843 adopted a critical attitude towards it, and soughtto negate it. Consequently, he investigated further,
and expressed himself somewhat as follows :
The capitalist theoricians believed that the wages
question was disposed of when it was settled by the
law of value. We know, however, that every com-
modity possesses not only an exchange value, but also
a use value, and is bought for the sake of the latter.
The use value of the commodity labour power is
distinguished in a very remarkable way from the
use value of all other commodities.
The use or the employment of labour power creates
exchange value, and can create much more exchangevalue than itself possesses.
The employer can make use of labour power so longthat it not only creates its own exchange value (the
value of the means of subsistence), but double this.
To create the value of wages, the worker needs five
or six hours daily, but he is obliged to produce for the
capitalist during ten or twelve hours. If the worker
were independent he would only produce during one
half of the working day in order to receive his means
of subsistence. This period of producing Marx called"
necessary labour." As he is dependent on the
capitalist, the worker must not only perform" neces-
sary labour " but also surplus labour : the worker can
generally only find employment under the conditions
that, besides the time needed for himself, he also works
a definite number of hours for the capitalist without
payment. Or, as Marx says :
" The fact that half a
day's labour is necessary to keep the labourer alive
during the 24 hours, does not in any way prevent him
from working the whole day. Therefore, the value of
labour power and the value which labour creates in
the labour process are two entirely different magni-tudes. And this difference in the two values was what
the capitalist had in view when he was purchasinglabour power. The circumstance that on the one hand
the daily sustenance of labour power costs only half
a day's labour, while on the other hand the very same
labour power can work during a whole day ;that con-
sequently the value which its use during one daycreates is double what he pays for that use, this
circumstance is, without doubt, a piece of good luck
for the buyer, but by no means an injury to the seller."" No injury to the seller," which is quite correct
from the standpoint of Rieardo, but not from that of
Marx. He often calls surplus value "unpaid labour,"
and says, for example," the capitalist appropriates
one half of every day's labour without payment." In
other words, he takes away something without return.
This is a very distinct ethical judgment.On the other hand, it is veiy important that in our
consideration of the wages question we have come up
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 101
against the Marxian doctrine of surplus value. For
this doctrine is the cornerstone of the whole economic
system of Marx.
4. Surplus Value.
We have already noted that Marx followed the
classical economics in his treatment of the theory of
value, but improved the definition of it, and broughtit to bear on wages. In doing this he laid stress on
the conflict between Capital and Labour.
The beginning of this dialectical process, so far
as England was concerned, was the work of the anti-
capitalistic critics, who uttered their protest about
1820, or three years after the appearance of Ricardo's
work. They declared, according to Ricardo, labour
is the source and the measure of value. And yet
according to his opinion labour is nothing and capital
everything.
This should be reversed : labour must be all, and
capital nothing. This literature was contemporaneouswith the emergence of the English revolutionary
Labour movement, from which Chartism arose at a
later date. Piercy Ravenstone (1821) called capital
a metaphysical (airy, impalpable) entity. Hodgskin
(1827) called it a fetish, whereas they described labour
as the economic reality. The expressions surplus-
product and surplus-value were already known to this
anti-capitalist school, with which Marx also connected
himself when he set to work to elaborate his criticism
of political economy.* But this literature supplied him
with much less material for the construction of the
theory of surplus value than the formulation of the
theory of value of the classical economy. Besides,
Compare M. Beer,"History of British Socialism," Vol. I., pp.
245270.
108 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
while the English anti-capitalist critics, like Raven-
stone, Gray, Hodgskin, and J. F. Bray merely con-
demned surplus value as immoral and as the source
of all social wrongs, Marx used the theory of surplus
value as the key to unlock the mechanism of the
capitalist system and to reveal its workings, its
tendencies, and its final destiny. This appears to be
the real difference between the English anti-capitalist
critics and Marx. In this matter he was obliged to
perform most of the work himself. The question he
put was no longer" What is the substance of wealth
and how is it measured ?" but " How is its
growth and continual accretions to be explained ?"
Capital is that portion of wealth which is employedfor the purpose of gain, of increase. Whence comes
this gain, this increase? The answer is as follows :
All capital that is embarked on a productive under-
taking consists of two parts : one part is expended on
the technical means of production on buildings,
machines, tools, and raw materials, the other on
wages. The first part Marx calls Constant Capital (c),
the other part Variable Capital (v). The first is called
constant, because it only adds to the commodities
just as much value as it loses in the course of the
productive process ; it creates no fresh value : Marxalso calls it the passive portion. The outlay on wagesis called variable capital because it undergoes an
alteration hi the process of production : it creates newadditional value : Marx also called variable capital
the active portion, for it creates surplus value (s).
This composition of capital of constant and variable
parts Marx calls its organic composition. He calls it
average or normal composition when the capital of
a business is 80 per cent, constant and 20 per cent.
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 108
variable. If the constant part is higher, and the
variable part lower, he calls it capital of a high
composition.
Capital of under 80 per cent, constant portion and
over 20 per cent, variable portion he calls capital
of a lower composition. And rightly, because the
higher the ladder of capitalist production is, the more
costly and extensive are the machinery and factory
buildings and the greater is the outlay on raw
materials, whereas primitive businesses employ less
machinery, cheaper workshops, but a relatively greaternumber of workers. The relation between (c) and (v)
reveals at the same time the stage to which productionhas developed.
Thus, according to Marx, it is solely the variable
capital which creates surplus value, or, as it is
commonly expressed, profit. We have seen above,
in the explanation of the nature of wages, why variable
capital creates more value than it is paid for by the
capitalist ; the worker does indeed receive the exchangevalue of his labour power, but the use value of the
labour power functions, we have assumed, twice as
many hours as are necessary for its reproduction.
This surplus labour is embodied in surplus value.
While the worker receives, let us say, a daily wage of
three shillings, for the reproduction of which five hours
of work suffice, his labour power will be used for ten
hours. These five hours of surplus labour appear in
the exchange value of the commodity, so that the
value of the commodity is composed of the transferred
portion of the constant capital, the outlay on wages,and the added surplus value. Immediately before the
production process only constant and variable capital
existed, or, in brief (c) and (v) ; after the completion
104 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
of the production process, the commodity embodies
constant and variable capital and also surplus value,
or (c) and (v) and (s). This is the actual value of the
commodity, (c) or, shortly expressed, c+v+s.
The relation between wages and surplus value, or
between paid and unpaid labour, or, shortly, ^t
Marx calls the rate of surplus value : it expresses
the degree of the exploitation of labour.
If wages amount to three shillings, which can be
produced in five working hours, and if the worker
works in the factory ten hours for these wages, so
that he creates exchange value to the amount of six
shillings, then the rate of surplus value is 100 per cent.
The whole of the surplus value which arises in this
manner in the process of production is called the mass
of the surplus value, or shortly, m.s., that is to say,
the individual rate of surplus value multiplied by the
total number of workers engaged in an undertaking,
or the total amount of wages.
5. Profit.
The mass of surplus value appears to the capitalist
in the shape of profit. Surplus value is a Marxian
scientific term which exactly expresses the principle
of profit. Profit is a commercial expression which
describes surplus value as it appears in practical life
as a subject of experience, i.e., empirically.
The distinction between the Marxian theoretical and
the commercial empirical conception is, however, not
so simple : it arises from the different conceptions of
the influence of capital and labour in the economic
process. Let us explain it more distinctly.
As is known, Marx divided the capital embarkedin industrial enterprise into two parts : into constant
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 105
(technical means of production) and variable (living
labour power, wages). He assumed that only the
living labour power (wage labour) creates surplus
value, whilst the constant capital only adds its ownvalue to the new products.The capitalist divides his capital outlay otherwise :
into fixed (buildings and machines) and circulating
(raw materials and wages) capital. The fixed capital
is only used up slowly and only passes entirely into
production during a series of years let us say 15
years : thus of a fixed capital of 75,000, 5,000
would each year be consumed in the production of
commodities, and written off in the balance sheet.
On the other hand, the circulating capital (rawmaterials and wages) are wholly consumed in every
period of production, and must be renewed at the
beginning of a new period of production.
Suppose an industrial undertaking about to be
started requires a capital expenditure of 105,000 :
75,000 fixed capital (for buildings and machinery),
20,000 for raw materials, 10,000 for wages. For
convenience sake, we will suppose that the period of
production lasts a year, and that the rate of surplus
value amounts to 100 per cent., that is, the labour
power receives a payment of 10,000, and produces a
value of 20,000. At the end of the year, the capitalist
reckons an expenditure of 5,000 on account of fixed
capital, and 80,000 of circulating capital : the
commodities produced cost, therefore, a net outlayof 35,000. This is the cost price, without adding
profit. According to Marx, cost price signifies (c) and
(v), therefore without (s), (surplus value).
But the capitalist knows that the manufactured
commodities represent a greater value than the cost
106 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
price. According to Marx, the surplus value amounts
to 10,000 (as the variable capital of 10,000
creates surplus value at the rate of 100 per cent.) ;
but the capitalist adds to the cost price a profit
which includes the gains of the enterprise and
interest on the capital outlay. If the capitalist were
alone in the market, his profit might suck up the
whole of the surplus value of 10,000; but he
has to reckon with competition and the state of the
market. The cost price, plus profit, is the production
price as established by the capitalist. But according
to Marx, that is, in pure theory, the production price
is equal to the cost price, plus surplus value. There
is thus a quantitative distinction a difference in the
amount of money between the theoretical and
practical production price, as well as a qualitative
distinction between the notions of the capitalist and
Marx respecting the source of profit. The capitalist
believes that profit is the result of the portion of
capital which he has put into the process of produc-
tion, combined with his own commercial ability. Onthe other hand, Marx asserts that the capitalist can
only extract a profit because the wage workers (the
living labour power) create a surplus value in the
process of production for which they receive no
payment.We assumed that the surplus value amounted to
100 per cent, measured with variable capital, and
that 10,000 expended on wages produced 20,000.
The annual balance sheet, however, would show the
percentage of profit to the total outlay. Consequently,
we must spread the 10,000 surplus value over the
35,000 which have been expended. The surplus
value of an undertaking spread over the total capital
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 107
(c) Marx calls the rate of profit, or shortly,scS-mim^_ 28.58 per cent.
As a rule, the capitalist cannot sell under cost price
without becoming bankrupt, but he can quite easily
sell under the production price, and mostly does so.
In the example already given, his rate of profit
amounts to over 28 per cent. According to the degreeof competition, or by reason of other circumstances
which we will examine in the next chapter, he can
content himself with a rate of profit of 10, 15, or 20
per cent., which will serve him partly as an income
and partly be expended in the development of his
enterprise. The 28 per cent, profit generally forms
a circle within which he fixes his manufactured price.
Under favourable circumstances he can add the whole
28 per cent, to the price ; under less favourable, only
20, 15, or 10 per cent. Accordingly, several portions
of surplus value remain in the commodities which are
not yet realised. What happens to them? The
remaining portions of profit or of surplus value fall
to the large or small traders who are interposedbetween producer and consumer, or go in the form
of interest to the banking institutions, in the event
of the capitalist operating with borrowed money. As
the profit is only realised in the process of circulation
(in commerce and exchange) and there divided amongstthe various economic classes and sections, most peoplebelieve that profit arises in commercial transactions.
They do not know that the price of a commodity can
only be increased in trade because its manufactured
price was fixed below its price of production or its
value, that is, because the commodities contain
surplus value which is only gradually realised in the
process of circulation.
108 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
The social significance of this doctrine is far-
reaching. If it is correct, then all the social sections
which are not engaged as manual and brain workers
in the process of production, or in the transport of
raw material, lead a parasitical life and consume the
surplus value which is squeezed by the capitalist class
out of the proletariat and appropriated without
payment.Quite otherwise are capitalist ideas. According to
them, profit is the result both of the spirit of the
enterprise and the ability of the capitalist, added to
that portion of the capital which is put into the process
of production : the machines and buildings and raw
materials which are used up, and the labour power,all of which are bought at their proper exchangevalue. It is only fit and proper that the trader and
moneylender should receive a portion of the profit so
created, for they assist in realising the exchange value
by bringing the commodities to the consumer, and
thus rendering possible the process of production.
Surplus value or profit? Labour or Capital?Behind this question lurks the great class struggle of
the modern social order. No wonder the Marxian
doctrine of value and surplus value was the occasion
for an extensive controversy, in which the famous
problem of the average rate of profit played a great
part.
6. The Average Rate of Profit.
According to Marx's doctrine of value and surplus
value only variable capital creates fresh value and
surplus value. An industrial undertaking of a lower
organic composition, which thus employs muchvariable capital and little constant capital, must
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 109
consequently create a greater surplus value or more
profit than an industrial undertaking of higher com-
position which may employ the same total capital,
but composed of greater constant and smaller
variable portions than the former. Let us take two
industrial capitals of 35,000 each. One expends
15,000 on the constant elements (machinery, raw
materials) and 20,000 on the variable element (wagesof labour). The other shows 20,000 constant part and
15,000 variable part. With an equal rate of surplus
value 100 per cent. the first capital would pro-
duce 20,000 surplus value (profit) and the other
only 15,000 profit. Experience shows, however,that equal amounts of capital in spite of tem-
porary differences in profits tend to produce equal
profits. From this, it would appear that it is
actually the capital expended and not the labour
employed which determines the magnitude of the
surplus value (profit), that the concrete results of
the capitalist process of production do not confirm
the Marxian theory of value, that the facts directly
contradict the theory. It was Marx himself whodrew attention to this problem. After he had
constructed his theory of surplus value in the
form of a scientific law, he continued :
" This law
clearly contradicts all experience based on appearance.
Everyone knows that a cotton spinner, who, reckon-
ing the percentage on the whole of his applied capital,
employs much constant capital and little variable
capital, does not, on account of this, pocket less profit
or surplus value than a baker, who relatively seta in
motion much variable and little constant capital."
How, then, can the equal rate of profit in the case
of capitals of different organic composition be har-
monised with the theory of surplus value?
110 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
Marx concedes that equal capital sums whose
organic parts are unequally employed give an equalrate of profit, although the volumes of surplus value
created are different. Two capital sums of 50,000
each, one of which, for example, represents 40,000
constant and 10,000 variable capital, and with a rate
of surplus value of 100 per cent, gives 10,000 surplus
value, while the other is composed of 10,000 constant
and 40,000 variable capital, and with an equal rate
of surplus value gives an amount of 40,000 surplus
value, will nevertheless yield an equal rate of profit,
although theoretically they would be unequal if the
rate of surplus value directly determined the rate of
profit. In the first case, the rate of profit would
amount to 20 per cent, and in the second to 80 percent. In reality both undertakings yield an equal rate
of profit.
How is this explained, according to Marx? Bymeans of competition, the different rates of profit are
levelled to a general rate of profit, which is the averageof all the various rates of profit. Thus the capitalists
do not realise the surplus value as it is created in any
particular factory, but in the form of average rate of
profit as it is produced by the operations of the total
capital of society. The average rate of profit maybe lower or higher than the individual rate of profit,
for the " various capitalists," as Marx explains,** so
far as profits are concerned, are so many stockholders
in a stock company in which the shares of profits are
uniformly divided for every 100 shares of capital, so
that profits differ in the case of the individual
capitalists only according to the amount of capital
invested by each of them in the social enterprise,
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 111
according to his investment in social production as a
whole, according to his shares."
While thus the individual rates of profit do not pro-
portionately coincide with the rates of surplus value,
i.e., while the degree of exploitation of the worker in
the individual factory, and the volume of surplus value
thus individually created, do not directly determine
the individual rate of profit, it is the total mass of
social surplus value which is the source of the averagerate of profit. If the mass of the surplus value be large,
the average rate of profit will also be great. Marx
says :
"It is here just the same as with average rate
of interest which a usurer makes who lends out various
portions of his capital at different rates of interest.
The level of his average rate depends entirely on howmuch of his capital he has lent at each of the different
rates of interest." The higher the various individual
rates of interest, the higher will be the average rate of
interest at which his capital has been put out.
The individual price of production signifies, there-
fore, cost price plus the average rate of profit, and
not plus surplus value : it does not necessarily cor-
respond with the total amount of the constant and
variable portions of capital employed in an individual
enterprise, plus the mass of the surplus value : the
prices and magnitudes of value of commodities are not
manifestly equal, as Marx has often pointed out. Of
course, the total profits of the capitalist class coincide
with the total surplus value extracted from the working
class, provided, of course, that the supply of com-
modities corresponds with the social needs.
Thus the law of surplus value, in spite of all
deviations and refractions, holds good in the last
resort." In theory," observes Marx,
"it is assumed
112 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
that the laws of the capitalist mode of production
develop freely. In reality, there is always only an
approximation.' *
And the more capitalist production develops, the
greater will be the degree of approximation in par-
ticular cases, for the progress of Capitalism signifies
a continuous increase of constant capital, a more
mechanical character being given to industrial pro-
cesses, and a reduction of variable capital to the
necessary minimum, so that the differences in the
organic composition of capitalist undertakings become
less, thus bringing the average rate of profit and the
rate of surplus value nearer to each other.
This indirect and difficult method of realising profits
involves the fact that the capitalist does not distinctly
observe the exploitation of wage labour practised by
him, but he believes that the profit is owing to his
own commercial ability.
This difficult section of the outlines of the economic
doctrines of Marx can be most fitly concluded by
quoting the comprehensive observations of Marxhimself upon this subject, which he gives at the end
of his book. (" Capital"
(German), Vol. III., 2, pp.
855-6.)" In a capitalist society, this surplus value or this
surplus product (leaving aside accidental fluctuations
in its distribution and considering only the regulating
law of these fluctuations) is divided among the
capitalists as a dividend in proportion to the per-
centage of the total social capital held by each. In
this shape the surplus value appears as the average
profit, which in its turn is separated into profits of
enterprise and interest, and which in this way mayfall into the hands of different kinds of capitalists.
Just as the active capitalist squeezes surplus labour,
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 113
and with it surplus value in the form of profit out
of the worker, so the landlord in his turn squeezes
a portion of this surplus value from the capitalist in
the shape of rent. Hence when speaking of profit as
that portion of surplus value which falls to the share
of capital, we mean average profit. . . Profits of
capital (profits of enterprise plus interest) and groundrent are merely particular constituents of surplus
value. . . If added together, these parts form the
sum of the social surplus value. A large part of profits
is immediately transformed into capital." In this
way, capital grows, or, as Marx says, accumulates.
7. Surplus Value as Social Driving Force.
It has been said already that capital is that portion
of wealth which is devoted to the object of increasing
wealth, of gain, the extraction of profit or surplus
value. This object dominates the capitalist class ; the
desire for surplus value is the leading impulse and
principle motive of their activity. Goaded by this
desire and exclusively occupied with their special
interests, this class unconsciously and unintentionally
develops the entire capitalist system and leads it to
ever higher and more comprehensive stages.
Surplus value is thus the driving force of the history
of modern capitalist society. This principle is rigidly
followed out by Marx in his theoretical system, which
aims at showing the rise and growth of Capitalism.
The capitalist is no scientific investigator : he is not
clear himself whether profit is created by a portionof the capital, or is the result of personal productive
forces, but he knows one thing without living labour
power, without the wage worker, his whole capital
remains dead and does not increase; all the fixed
114 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
capital and raw materials are of no use to him so longas they are not set in motion by living labour powerand transformed into commodities. His efforts are,
therefore, primarily directed to making proper use of
the living labour power. Historically considered,
little constant and relatively much variable capital was
employed in the primitive stage of the large scale
industry : there was as yet little machinery, and the
chief thing was the living labour power. The workers
were not yet factory proletarians in the modern sense,
but artisans who had lost their independent existence.
The capitalist harnessed them and utilised their
labour power and special ability. Consequently, he
strives to lengthen the working day, in order that as
many commodities and as much profit as possible maybe produced.
If previously the wage worker had laboured ten
hours, of which five were devoted to the productionof the value of his wages and five to surplus value,
he is now obliged to work for twelve hours, which
increases the period for surplus labour to seven hours.
The surplus value which is extracted through the
lengthening of the working day is called by Marx" absolute surplus value."
Meanwhile, the capitalist learns by experience that
if the workers are so organised as to co-operate with
one another, the productivity of labour increases.
From this arises the mode of labour which Marx calls
Co-operation, or a reorganisation of the workplace,which raises the entire production of commodities to
a higher level. The co-operation of the workers in
the process of production soon leads to the discovery
that, if the worker does not himself create the whole
product, but only a part thereof, he loses less time
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 115
and becomes quicker and more skilful in his work and
produces more than previously. This discovery leads
to the " division of labour," which indeed reduces
the worker to the position of an automaton, or a
living machine, but considerably augments commoditywealth. Division of labour again demands finer tools ;
mechanical problems arise to be solved by mechani-
cians and engineers. This favours the progress of
mechanics. The growing commodity wealth, and the
pressure to realise it profitably, renders necessary moreextensive markets ; the need for extension comes upagainst transport difficulties; transport problems
arise, to be solved by road and canal engineers.
The increasing variety of the labour process and the
categories of commodities which are produced results
in new metallurgical, physical, and chemical problems.Natural science flourishes.
Meanwhile, things are not so peaceful in the places
of manufacture. The lengthening of labour time and
the closer strain on their nerves and muscles, as well
as the arrangement of the work, cause the workers
to combine and struggle for improved conditions of
labour. This struggle, together with the progress of
natural science, of technology, and the expansion of
markets, result in the discovery of machine technology,
of steam and electricity, the foundation of large-scale
industry.
The capitalist is impelled, on the one hand, to makehimself as independent as possible of living labour-
power; on the other hand, to increase the volume
of his profits. The means thereto are offered him bythe new technical discoveries. Those workers who still
possessed some pride in handicraft, or as expropriatedsmall peasants were not able to submit to factory
116 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
discipline, and showed themselves rebellious, were
partly replaced by the labour of women and children,
and partly curbed and made pliable. The labour time
is repeatedly lengthened, and the exploitation of the
labour of women and children assumes terrible pro-
portions. The wage worker, who entered into the
manufacturing premises of the employer full of the
pride of his calling and often with his own tools,
became then a small cog in a gigantic, relentless piece
of working machinery.In this extensive and hitherto unprecedented social
transformation the old forms of handicraft disappear :
whole sections of society, which are the representatives
of the disappearing forms of handicraft, sink into
poverty, and augment the class of proletarians. The
progress of the industrial revolution extends also to
agriculture : the greed for surplus value (ground rent)
leads to enclosure of common lands by the great
landlords, the independent yeomanry is decimated,
the small proprietor and small tenant are made pro-
letarians. A transmutation of social classes takes
place ; the urban population grows rapidly, the countrydistricts are depopulated : out of the revolutionary
process the outlines of two classes become more and
more distinct : Capitalist and Proletarian.
Both the factory proletariat and the other social
sections which adopt a hostile attitude towards
Capitalism react against the health-destroying exploi-
tation, and struggle for a normal working day.The working time is curtailed and bounds are set
to the efforts of the capitalist to lengthen the working
day and obtain surplus value, but soon the progressof machine technique compels the worker to labour
more intensely in the shorter working time : the
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 117
accelerated movement of the machine determines the
pace and necessitates a sharper straining of the
nerves. Henceforth, the worker must compress into
a working hour as much effort as was previously
expended in an hour and a half. The surplus value
which is extracted in this way Marx calls"
relative
surplus value." The struggle of the workers to secure
a shorter working day is a powerful incentive to the
manufacturers to perfect their machinery, in order to
increase the amount of relative surplus value. Theintensification of work or the creation of relative
surplus value is one of the most immediate effects
and one of the most striking features of advanced
Capitalism. The understanding of this new phase is
a preliminary condition to the comprehension of the
Marxian system. In this matter, Marx goes con-
siderably beyond the anti-capitalist theoreticians whofollowed upon Ricardo.
What happens when the capitalist observes that the
extraction of absolute surplus value comes up against
an insurmountable obstacle ? He sets himself to fit uphis enterprise with the newest and most costly
machinery, in order to supplant living labour-powerand to work more intensively the living labour-powerwhich he employs.
As, however, less living labour-power brings forth
less exchange value and less surplus .value, he is
obliged to multiply production, in order to cover the
fall in surplus value by a larger mass of commodities :
if the single commodity brings him less profit, he
produces it in such large quantities that the profit
thereon is the same, or even greater, than formerly.
The more complicated machinery, the greater quan-tities of raw materials consumed, and the relatively
118 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
smaller amount of labour-power signify obviously an
alteration in the organic composition of capital : the
constant portion (machinery, raw materials) prepon-derates more and more over the variable portion. If,
previously, the composition was 50 per cent, constant
and 50 per cent, variable, it becomes now somethinglike 80 per cent. : 20 per cent. At the same time,
the initial capital is also increased greatly, as machines
and large quantities of raw and auxiliary materials
demand such increase of capital. If, for example, the
initial capital previously amounted to 100,000,
divided into 50,000 constant and 50,000 variable
capital, it would now amount to 500,000, comprising
400,000 constant and 100,000 variable. This
organic composition signifies : that relatively smaller
masses of labour set in motion large masses of tech-
nical means of production ; labour is more productivebecause more intense; the sum total of commodities
is increased ; the profit on single articles is smaller,
but the total profit is greater; the reconversion of
profits into capital proceeds rapidly.
The scale of production is more and more extended,
and the amount of initial outlay becomes ever greater,
because only large capitals are capable of creating
relative surplus value in sufficient sums to assure a
profit on the enterprise and payment of interest, and
thus assist the accumulation of capital.
The more extended scale of production is not
possible to the less powerful capitalist undertakings.
They partly disappear and partly combine in joint
stock companies. The first alternative gives rise to
the concentration of the means of production in fewer
hands, and the second to the centralisation of the
means of production. This is the effect of the new
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 119
organic composition of capital on the capitalist class.
The effect on the working class is not less profound.
As long as the hand-worker still played an important
part in the works premises, as long as the variable
part was superior or equal to the constant part in
the organic composition of capital, as was the case
prior to and at the beginning of large-scale industry,
the accumulation of capital meant an increased
demand for wage-labour. The position was changedas Capitalism developed, in the manner just described.
Although the mass of capital grows, there is a relative
decrease in the demand for workers. For this growthof capital refers chiefly to the constant part
(machinery and raw materials), while there is a
relative shrinkage in the variable part; that means
the worker is obliged to consume a much greater
quantity of raw material than formerly.
And whereas the prices of commodities fall duringthe phase of the high organic composition of capital,
the period of necessary labour (the hours needed for
the reproduction of wages) becomes shorter, while the
period of surplus labour becomes longer. The great
industrial development therefore signifies for the
worker : intensive exploitation and relative over-
population, a reserve army of labour-power, which is
absorbed by industry in times of prosperous trade,
and is speedily demobilised when the slump comes.
In times of good business the reserve army serves to
check the wage demands of the workers regularly
employed, and in times of bad trade it serves to
depress wages. The outcome for the workers is as
follows :
" Within the capitalist system all methods for
raising the social productiveness of labour are brought
120 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
about at the cost of the individual labourer; all means
for the development of production transform them-
selves into means of domination over, and exploitation
of, the producers; they mutilate the labourer into a
fragment of a man, degrade him to the level of an
appendage to a machine, destroy every remnant of
charm in his work, and turn it into a hated toil ; they
estrange from him the intellectual potentialities of
the labour-process in the same proportion as science
is incorporated in it as an independent power; theydistort the conditions under which he works, subject
him during the labour-process to a despotism the more
hateful for its meanness; they transform his life-time
into working-time, and drag his wife and child
beneath the wheels of the Juggernaut of Capital. Butall methods for the production of surplus value are
at the same time methods of accumulation ; and everyextension of accumulation becomes again a means for
the development of those methods. It follows,
therefore, that in proportion as capital accumulates,
the lot of the labourer, be his payment high or low,
must grow worse. Accumulation of wealth at one
pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of
misery, agony of toil, slavery, ignorance, brutality,
mental degradation at the opposite pole, i.e., on the
side of the class that produces its own product in the
form of capital." ( Capital"
(German), Vol. I.,
pp. 660-1.)
The result of the capitalist social order is the
unfolding of the productive forces, the efflorescence of
science, the expansion of material civilisation, the
dividing of society into antagonistic classes, the
conferring of economic power on the few, and the
enslavement and degradation of the many.
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 121
8. Economic Contradictions. Decay of Society and
its Reconstruction.
As the ripening of the capitalist social order to its
highest point proceeds, its innate contradictions
develop, and announce distinctly the fact that
Capitalism has outlived its usefulness, while new life,
a higher form of society, is emerging from its womb.The most important contradictions are :
The driving force of the capitalist is to obtain the
largest measure of surplus value or profit. The latest
stage of Capitalism is, however, marked by the fact
of the high organic composition of capital, which
means that living labour-power, the source of surplus
value, has relatively decreased. The decrease of
variable capital signifies manifestly a lower rate of
profit. Capitalism in normal times exhibits a tendencytowards a lowering of the rate of profit. Therefore
it gives rise to a phenomenon which contradicts the
aim of the endeavours of the capitalists. The capitalist
strives to accumulate capital, but as variable capital
and the rate of profit relatively decrease, a tendencytowards the depreciation of capital is revealed. The
capitalist endeavours to counteract this tendency, and
to achieve his object by extending the scale of
production, so that the mass of commodities will
compensate him for what he loses on them singly.
But while he furthers this object by resorting to a
higher organic composition of capital, he squeezes out
the middleman, reduces the numbers of workers in
employment, and creates a relative over-population,
a reserve of those who are only employed inter-
mittently; there is a substantial shrinkage in the
demand for commodities, as the impoverished masses
of the people have obviously less purchasing power.
122 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
The capitalist extends production, and at the same
time contracts the market. The upshot is over-
production, under-consumption crisis : wasting of
capital, restriction of production, paralysis of the
productive forces. And if Marx lived to-day he would
add : the developed economy of large-scale capitalism,
that is, the high organic composition of industrial
capital, requires enormous quantities of raw materials,
which, in part, are only to be had from tropical and
sub-tropical countries, and also from eastern Asia;
the struggle for these sources of raw materials, and
for access to them, leads t.o wars in which capital
sums of unprecedented amount are destroyed. Since
1894 these wars over raw materials and trade routes
have broken out every few years. Economic crises
and imperialist wars; immeasurable destruction of
capital and productive forces. This is a consequencewhich stands in sharp contradiction to the historical
task of the economic order of Capitalism, and to the
immediate aims of the individual capitalists.
Further, the capitalist tries from the beginning to
create docile and unresisting masses of workers, and
yet unites and combines them by the creation of
large centres of production; the factories become
centres for the organisation of the workers, and for
the welding of the individual wills of the proletarians
into a class will; they abolish the scattered and
antagonistic interests of single sections of the workers,
and consolidate them into a unified class interest.
Finally, the whole economic process, which began by
resting on individualist principles, has assumed a
common character ; thousands upon thousands of hand
and brain workers engage in production in economic
undertakings upon a single and uniform plan, with
OUTLINES OF ECONOMIC DOCTRINES 123
the aid of productive implements which can only be
used in common.The significance and tendency of these contradictions
are sketched by Marx in the great finale, which
properly belongs to the concluding chapter of the third
volume :
" As soon as this process of transformation has
sufficiently decomposed the old society from topto bottom, as soon as the labourers are turned into
proletarians, their means of labour into capital, as
soon as the capitalist means of production stands on
its own feet, then the further socialisation of labour
and further transformation of the land and other
means of production into socially exploited, and
therefore common means of production, as well as the
further expropriation of private proprietors, takes
a new form. That which is now to be expropriatedis no longer the labourer working for himself, but
the capitalist employing many labourers. This
expropriation is accomplished by the action of the
immanent laws of capitalist production itself, by the
centralisation of capital. One capitalist always kills
many. Hand in hand with this centralisation, or this
expropriation of many capitalists by a few, developon an ever-extending scale the co-operative form of
the labour process, the conscious technical application
of science, the methodical cultivation of the soil, the
transformation of the instruments of labour into
instruments of labour only usable in common, the
economising of all means of production by their use
as the means of production of combined, socialised
labour, the entanglement of all peoples in the net of
the world market, and with this, the international
character of the capitalist regime. Along with the
124 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
constantly diminishing number of the magnates of
capital, who usurp and monopolise all advantages of
this process of transformation, grows the mass of
misery, oppression, slavery, degradation, exploitation ;
but with this, too, grows the revolt of the working
class, a class always increasing in numbers, and
disciplined, united, organised by the very mechanism
of the process of capitalist production itself. The
monopoly of capital becomes a fetter on the mode of
production, which has sprung up and flourished alongwith it, and under it. Centralisation of the means
of production and socialisation of labour at last reach
a point where they become incompatible with their
capitalist integument. This integument is burst
asunder. The knell of capitalist private propertysounds. The expropriators are expropriated."
(" Capital," Vol. I. English edition, chap. 84.)
CONCLUSION.
ANappreciation of Maix can only be arrived at
by adopting the Marxian method. We must
judge him in the same way as any other
towering figure in the realm of thought or of action.
Marx was a child of his time, and his system is a
logical conception of certain economic and social
phenomena of his age, owing something to the pioneerwork and thinking of some of his predecessors.
Two important events dominated his thinking : the
French Revolution and the English Industrial Revolu-
tion. Even apart from the statement of Arnold Rugethat in 1843-44 Marx had collected a vast amount
of material for a history of the French National
Convention, we know from the work he did between
1844 and 1852 how profound was the influence of the
French Revolution on his intellectual life. Still
deeper, however, were the traces left upon his mind
by the studies he made on the economic transforma-
tion of England during the period 1760-1825. Both
events are obvious, catastrophic expressions of class
movements and class conflicts, in which the middle
class, as the representative of a higher economic order,
gains the victory over autocratic forms of feudal
authority and oligarchic systems of organisation
through State regulation, in which, however, at the
same time, a new class the working class raises its
head and begins to make a stand against the victor.
Marx was led to interpret these events in this wayand to make them the basis of his conception of
125
126 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
history chiefly through the influence of Hegel, Ricardo,
and the English anti-capitalist school following uponRicardo. To the end of his life he clung to the opinionthat dialectic, as Hegel had formulated it, was indeed
mystical but, when materialistically conceived, con-
tains the laws of the movement of society." The
mystification which dialectic suffers in Hegel's hands
in no wise hinders him from presenting in a com-
prehensive and intelligible manner its general pro-
cesses." (Preface to second German edition of"
Capital," 1873.)
The splitting up of the concept into contradictories,
and the attainment of a higher positive through the
negation of these contradictories, that was what, to
Marx's mind, constituted the essence and the deepest
meaning of the French Revolution and of the English
Industrial Revolution. Society, the positive, split upinto feudal and bourgeois, into two sharply divided
contradictories, the bourgeoisie appearing as the
negation, to be supplanted by the proletariat and so
to make room for a Communist society, the higher
synthesis.
What he got from Hegel in a mystical form found
an economic expression in Ricardo and the anti-
capitalist school. Ricardo's writings, which belong to
the second decade of the nineteenth century and
which formulate, in the guise of a system of economics,
the antagonisms and the conflicts between industry
and landed nobility, presented themselves as a
practical demonstration of the validity of dialectic.
The fundamental idea of Ricardo's system may be
expressed as follows :
Capital is the motive force of society and the creator
of civilisation, but the fruits of its activity are enjoyed
CONCLUSION 127
not by capital but by the landed nobility. That is
the thesis; now for the proof. The value of all
commodities which can be made in any quantitydesired consists in the quantity of labour which is
expended for the purpose of producing them. The
value is expressed in the costs of production, the most
important components of which are wages and profit.
Wages and profit stand in opposition to one another :
if wages rise, profit falls, and conversely. Wagesconsist in a definite quantity of the necessaries of life,
sufficient to keep the worker effective. Wages must
obviously rise whenever the cost of living rises. The
facts show that this is actually the case. The follow-
ing reasons make this clear. In consequence of the
civilising effects of capital, there is an increase in the
opportunities for work and in population, resulting
in an increased demand for the necessaries of life.
Agriculture must be extended, but agricultural land
is limited and of varying quality. The extension of
agriculture brings into use the inferior kinds of land,
which demand a greater amount of labour for their
cultivation. And as the amount of labour determines
the value of the commodity, the cost of living
increases, and there is a rapid rise in ground rents.
The workers demand higher wages, whereby the
profits of the employers are diminished. But there
is still another circumstance to be taken into
consideration. Whereas the prices of agricultural
products rise, those of industrial products fall, since,
in consequence of the invention of machinery and
of the superior division of labour, smaller quantities
of labour are required to produce manufactured goods.
The result of the entire working of capital for the
civilised community is accordingly the reduction of
128 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
profits, the depreciation of capital, and the increase
of wages. This latter, however, is of no advantageto the workers, for food prices rise higher and higher ;
on the contrary, the whole advantage falls to the
landed nobility, who do nothing for the furtherance
of civilisation, but who, through ground rents and
protective tariffs, receive everything.We have, then, in Ricardo a system of economic
contradictions between profit, wages, and rent, or
between bourgeoisie, proletariat, and nobility, in
which the antagonism between bourgeoisie and pro-letariat is still undeveloped.The year of the publication of Ricardo's " Prin-
ciples"
(1817) is the year which witnessed the rise
of English Socialism. In that year, Robert Owen, in
a public meeting in the City of London, declared
himself a Socialist. Three years later appeared the
first criticisms of Ricardo's political economy. In
these it was argued that, according to Ricardo, labour
is the source of value, yet he considers capital as the
creative factor of society and the working class as
a mere appendage of capital. It must be the reverse ;
for the workers create values together with the surplus
products which are appropriated by capital. In 1817,
Robert Owen openly declares himself a Socialist ; four
years later appears the anonymous letter to Lord John
Russell ; Percy Ravenstone publishes his" Criticism of
Capitalism," John Gray his Lecture, and Hodgskinhis pamphlet on the unproductive nature of capital,
in which he establishes the existence of a raging class
struggle.
The deep impression which these writings made on
Marx is clearly seen in the second and third volumes
of his** Theories on Surplus Value." And he links
CONCLUSION 129
on to them. He completed what Ricardo hinted at
and what the anti-capitalist school deduced from
Ricardo. How Marx continued and elaborated these
deductions we have already seen in Chapter 8," Outlines of Marx's Economics," and Chapter 7,"
Surplus Value as the Motive Force of Society/'where capital is shown to be the mass of surplus value
of which the workers have been deprived.
The deductions made by the English anti-capitalist
school from Ricardo signified, politically, the first
awakenings of the English workers to class-
consciousness, to the struggle against capital. Just
as Ricardo's theory of value and rent was the battle-
cry of capital against the aristocracy a battle-cry
which created the free trade movement and shattered
the economic power of the landed nobility, so the
theory of value and surplus value was to become the
battle-cry of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie,
the declaration of independence, so to speak, of the
working class. The English proletariat lacked a
philosopher who could work out the idea to its logical
conclusion, until Marx applied himself to the problemand solved it, so far indeed as philosophical problemscan be solved, by a science which places itself at the
disposal of a class movement.
For it is impossible to set aside the view that
Marx's theory of value and surplus value has rather
the significance of a political and social slogan than
of an economic truth. It is for Marx the basis of
the class struggle of the workers against the middle
class, just as Ricardo's theory of rent was the basis
of the class struggle of the bourgeoisie against the
aristocracy, or as the doctrines of the social contract
and of the natural rights of man formed the basis
130 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
of the struggle of the middle classes against autocracyand divine right. Such militant philosophies need not
in themselves be true, only they must accord with
the sentiments of the struggling mass. It is with such
philosophical fictions that human history works.
Marx's theory of value explains neither the vast and
unparalleled accumulation of wealth nor the move-
ment of prices during the last sixty years. Wealth,
measured in values, has, in the last few decades,
increased by many times the increase in living labour-
power. In this connection the old formula can be
reversed : wealth increases in geometrical, living
labour-power in arithmetical progression. The
greatest difficulty in Marx is that the inventors and
discoverers, the chemists and physicists, the pioneers
and organisers of industry and agriculture, are not
regarded by him as creators of surplus values.
Thinkers, who by chemical researches and discoveries
double the productive capacity of the soil and
conjure forth values in millions from the waste
products of industry ; physicists who place new sources
of power and new means of production at the disposal
of mankind and multiply the productivity of labour;
organisers who co-ordinate the forces of productionand introduce new methods of working all this
creative and directive work, demanding, as it often
does, an infinite amount of intensive intellectual
effort, is not considered to increase the total sum of
exchange values of the nation.
However, as far as the distribution of products is
concerned, Marx's theory is, generally speaking,
correct; distribution is carried out under the capitalist
economic system not according to the amount of
productive work done, but in proportion to the outlay
CONCLUSION 181
of capital and the skill in commercial manoeuvringwhich obtains in the sphere of circulation.
Unique as an investigator of the laws of the
proletarian movement, eminent and even a great
pioneer as a sociologist, Marx is, in respect of
economic theory, predominantly an agitator. His
system, more than any other system of Socialism or
of political economy, is the revolutionary expressionof proletarian thought and feeling. His doctrines of
value, surplus value, the economic determination of
history, the evolution from Capitalism to Socialism,
the political and economic class struggle, will for longhave the force of truth for the masses and will
continue to move them.
Marx's heart must have been filled with joy and
gladness when, out of the elements of Hegel, Ricardo,
and the English anti-capitalist school, out of his studies
of the French Revolution, of the English Industrial
Revolution, and of French and English Socialism there
arose a unified system whose destiny it was to lead
mankind out of the earth-bound history of the pastinto the new world wherein a spiritual civilisation
should fully blossom forth. Man is to quit the realm
of necessity and to enter into that of freedom, where
he shall cease to be a tool for the profit of others
and shall rise to have a purpose of his own, freely
associating himself with his fellow men to work in
the service of all.
" The realm of freedom, indeed, only begins there
where work conditioned by necessity and external
utility ceases. According to the nature of the thing,
therefore, it lies beyond the sphere of actual material
production. Just as the savage must struggle with
nature for the satisfaction of his needs, for self-
182 LIFE AND TEACHING OF KARL MARX
preservation and self-reproduction, so too must the
civilised man, whatever be the form of society or the
methods of production obtaining. Side by side with
his own evolution develops this constitutional
necessity, because his needs increase ; but, at the same
time, the forces of production which satisfy these needs
likewise increase. Freedom in this sphere can only
consist in this that men in their social relationship,
the associated producers, should regulate this material
exchange with Nature in a rational manner and bring
it under their united control, instead of being governed
by it as by some blind power; it should be carried
on with the minimum expenditure of energy and
under conditions most adapted to and most worthyof human nature. Yet it remains all the same a realm
of necessity. It is beyond this where that developmentof human power, which may be called independent
purpose, begins, the true realm of freedom, which,
however, can only flourish upon the basis of that
realm of necessity." (" Capital," Vol. III., 2, p.
855.)
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