Nature Does it Better: Biomimicry in Structural and Architectural Design

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements of the Renée Crown University Honors Program at Syracuse University

Michael Yacubov

Candidate for Bachelor of Science and Renée Crown University Honors

Spring 2020

Honors Thesis in Civil Engineering

Thesis Advisor: __________________________________ Dr. Sinéad Mac Namara, Associate Professor Thesis Reader: __________________________________ Joan V. Dannenhoffer, Associate Teaching Professor Honors Director: _________________________________

Dr. Danielle Smith, Director

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© Michael Yacubov, May 2020

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Abstract

The term “built environment” is used to describe any man-made physical object that provides a setting for human activity. All aspects of human society rely on the built environment for shelter, business operations, food production, health care, recreation, etc. From buildings to parks to vehicles and beyond, modern human civilization relies on the proper functioning of our built environment. However, newfound challenges produced by climate change, an aging infrastructure network, exponential population growth, and increasing standards of living globally are putting unprecedented pressures on the efficiency, resiliency, and performance of all components of the built environment.

Biomimicry, or the use of the natural environment as a source of inspiration for human activity, provides great potential for the creation of sustainable, long-lasting, and cost-effective solutions to these challenges. While it is important for all professions to tap into this potential, the construction industry is one of the best poised for transformation. According to the Environmental and Energy Study Institute, almost 40 percent of US carbon dioxide emissions are attributed to residential and commercial buildings (EESI, 2020). Buildings use energy and produce emissions in all stages of their life cycle including design, construction, operations, maintenance and demolition. The design of building infrastructure plays a large role in the efficiency and environmental and social consequences of its production and use. Thus, structural engineers and architects must work to incorporate biomimicry into the design of buildings to optimize their performance. By advancing principles of biomimicry and industry cross-collaboration, professionals in the construction industry have the potential to modernize built structures (buildings, bridges, dams, etc.), perhaps the most important portion of the world’s built environment. By introducing case studies of the application of biomimicry in structural engineering and architectural designs, this paper will highlight advantages derived in structural performance, sustainability, material efficiency, etc. Qualitative and quantitative modes of analysis will be presented to illustrate the various forms in which these advantages can manifest.

This project aims to introduce biomimicry as an integral tool in the design and construction of buildings and other structures, helping advance the construction industry into the standards set forth by the 21st century and changing the ways in which professionals in the industry work and collaborate to design the built environment.

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Executive Summary

According to the Biomimicry Institute, a US-based non-profit organization, biomimicry

is defined as “an approach to innovation that seeks sustainable solutions to human challenges by

emulating nature’s time-tested patterns and strategies” (Biomimicry Institute, 2020). This

approach works to imitate naturally occurring design strategies in engineering and invention

applications (Merriam-Webster, 2020).

Biomimicry is rooted in a fundamental understanding that the natural environment has

evolved over millennia to produce complex geological and life forms that are resilient in the face

of nature’s power. Whether it be extreme temperatures, powerful winds, or abrupt seismic

activity, many natural forms are well-prepared for the stimuli of the natural environment.

Humans have much to learn from the strategies developed by the natural world during the over

four and a half billion years of Earth’s history.

Biomimicry is applicable on many scales to all fields in STEM professions, including

applied mathematics, aerospace engineering, and biomedical engineering. However, it is

noteworthy to focus on the potential impacts of biomimicry on structural design processes. By

developing a working knowledge of the strategies used to develop natural resistance to nature’s

challenges, engineers and architects can design more sustainable, resilient, and efficient built

environments. Biomimicry is a holistic approach in reforming the structural engineering design

profession as it influences not only the shape and form of buildings but also has implications for

the various processes involved in a building's life cycle from construction to operations and

maintenance, as well as in the types of materials used to construct a building (Hunt et al., 2007).

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The application of biomimicry concepts to structural engineering and architectural design

cycles results in surprising advantages, if executed correctly. Such advantages include increased

material efficiency, increased design efficiency, increased design aesthetics, more competent

industry professionals, increased project sustainability, and increased connection to

psychologically-informed human scales and forms. This paper will highlight these advantages by

presenting case studies of the application of biomimicry in the construction industry, reviewing

relevant mathematical and engineering design analyses, and emphasizing the impacts on industry

cross-collaboration while exploring the social benefits involved.

This analysis has profound implications for the future of the construction industry. By

designing structures with biomimicry as a fundamental tool, engineers and architects will earn

the capacity to create stronger and longer-lasting infrastructure while using less materials and

executing simpler design processes. In addition to technical design advantages, however, the use

of biomimicry in structural engineering has important implications for the education of structural

engineers and the role of the engineer in modern professional workplaces. For example, the role

of the structural engineer will be expanded to include knowledge and expertise in

biomimicry-inspired creative design solutions that inadvertently optimize the structural

performance of a building. This will impact the types of collaboration expected amongst

structural engineers and architects, as engineers will be more heavily involved in early design

processes than ever before. Also, the way in which buildings are designed and built will be more

strongly influenced by natural principles, resulting in the use of new materials, the adoption of

more advanced design standards, and the introduction of new types of engineering analyses.

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Structural engineering and architectural design are severely separated in education and in

industry due to the common viewpoint that the two are completely unrelated. However, studying

biomimicry in structural design applications bridges the gap between these two practices,

promoting an exchange of ideas and greater collaboration in all stages of the design process,

from initial schematic design sketches to construction drawing production to construction and

operations and finally to project decommissioning. The ways in which the entire construction

industry runs today has the potential to be transformed with the application of biomimicry.

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Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………….……………….……………………………….3

Executive Summary………………………….……………….………………………………..4

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………....7

Preface……………………………………….……………….………………………………...8

Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………....9

Advice to Future Honors Students …………………………………………………………….10

Chapter 1: Introduction to Biomimicry ……………………………………………….……….11

Chapter 2: Structural Engineering in the Natural World ……………………………………....16

Chapter 3: Case Studies: Biomimicry in Structural Engineering & Architecture ……………..26

Chapter 4: Implications for Higher Education and Professional Practice in the Construction Industry ………………………………………………………………………………………...39

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………..42

Works Cited …………………………………………………………………………………....44

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………..48

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Preface

As a student majoring in Civil Engineering in the College of Engineering and Computer

Science at Syracuse University, I pride myself in using my resources to step out of my academic

comfort zone. Aside from my major, I have completed coursework in various academic

programs at Syracuse, including landscape architecture, graduate-level structural engineering,

architecture, ceramics, and unique Honors electives. Through these classes I have been able to

develop my personal academic interest both integrated with and beyond my major. Coupled with

personal interests in the natural environment, using biomimicry to advance architecture and

structural engineering systems as the focal point of my Honors Thesis seemed like a natural

completion of my academic programming. The position I have taken in this project is from the

point of view of an engineer challenging the conventional notions of an engineer’s expertise or

interest. Rather than focusing solely on the structural engineering-related benefits of biomimicry,

I have examined various aspects of the construction industry including sustainability,

constructability, economics, public health, and aesthetic appeal. This holistic approach reflects

the education I received at Syracuse University, as well as my outlook into my career and life

beyond college. After graduation, I will be joining the Infrastructure and Capital Projects

consulting team at Deloitte Risk and Financial Advisory, where I will further use my engineering

education to expand my knowledge in finance, social issues and the environment as they pertain

to the construction development industry. This thesis paper is an embodiment of this very

threshold between my academic and professional lives.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the various resources made available to me during my time as a

student in Syracuse University that have made the successful completion of my coursework and

this Honors Thesis possible. First, two critical faculty members in the department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering have helped me through this project as well as my academic career -

Associate Professor of Architecture and Civil Engineering Dr. Sinéad Mac Namara and

Associate Teaching Professor Joan Dannenhoffer, who are my thesis advisor and thesis reader,

respectively. I also would like to thank various staff and faculty members at the Honors Program

(Hannah Richardson, Karen Hall) who have helped me complete my honors requirements.

Lastly, I would like to thank my parents for supporting my education in every way possible, as

well as the friends who have helped me grow personally and academically over the last several

years. This project is the culmination of the hard work of all of these people, which I

acknowledge and value deeply.

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Advice to Future Honors Students

My advice to future honors students is to expand your academic presence on campus

outside of your major. Take electives in various departments (related to your academic and

personal interests) to foster unknown connections among them. Use your honors thesis as a

platform for expressing a related interest that might not be wholly encompassing your major’s

academic program. This broadens your knowledge and scope of expertise within your industry

and helps you stand out from your peers. Also use this as an opportunity to express yourself

academically. There is an expansive opportunity to make this project what you want it to be - use

that freedom to your advantage. Most importantly, work on a project that has real implications to

society, no matter how small or large the scale. Whether it be advancing a creative form of

expression to creating new connections among seemingly unrelated academic industries, follow

your interests and use your resources on campus to produce work you are truly proud of.

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Biomimicry

Rapid advances in standards of living and widespread economic growth in recent decades

have increased the need for more socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable

solutions to industries serving human civilization. Biomimicry, or the practice of imitating

elements and systems found in nature to solve complex problems, has been introduced as one of

the methods used to create such solutions. Also referred to by the terms bionics of biomimetics,

the method describes a set of both scientific and design principles that influence the processes

used to complete human activities (Hunt et al., 2007). Although humans have been applying

biomimicry for thousands of years, the field has only recently emerged as a cross-collaborative

industry, and there remains considerable untapped potential. The term biomimicry was coined by

biologist Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry - Innovation Inspired by Nature, where

she reintroduced the term to scientific literature and widely broadened its usage (Zazzera, 2020).

There is extreme diversity in the potential applications of biomimicry, and rapid technological

advances made since the pre-industrial era have emphasized this diversity. Applications of

biomimicry can be performed in any or a combination of three ways: forms, processes, and

systems (Zazzera, 2020). Forms describe the shape and geometry of a naturally occurring object,

processes describe an action or procedure carried out in nature, and systems describe complex

arrangements and the organization of multiple components. The types of applied biomimicry

further showcase the diversity of its potential. Nearly every industry globally has been (or could

be) impacted by the benefits of biomimicry applications, including energy, architecture,

transportation, agriculture, medicine, and communications (Biomimicry Institute, 2020).

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Japanese technology has dominated the world’s high-speed rail service industry since the

introduction of the first Japanese bullet train (shinkansen) in 1964 (Railway Technology, 2007).

Reliable high-speed train service provides consumers with a quicker and more energy-efficient

form of transportation, reducing personal dependence on automobiles and significantly

decreasing commute times. Recognizing the needs of the future, Japanese industrial designers

and railway engineers have since worked constantly to develop more efficient train models.

However, the increasing speeds of newer train models (released in the 1980s and 90s) resulted in

excessive noise pollution, disrupting the quality of life of humans and wildlife located near rail

lines. Although the Shinkansen Bullet Train was the fastest train in the world (at over 200 miles

per hour), air pressure changes when the trains emerged from tunnels produced loud noise,

inducing complaints from residents as far away as one-quarter mile (Biomimicry Institute, 2020).

Designers needed to meet noise reduction standards for environmental and human experience

considerations (Venton, 2011). To do so, they drew inspiration from the beaks of Kingfisher

birds to model the noses of the trains. The beaks of these birds gradually increase in diameter

from tip to head (see Figure 1), allowing them to dive at high speeds into water with hardly any

splash. By modeling the beak geometry on the bullet train noses (see Figure 1), the West Japan

Railway Company was able to produce the 500 Series trains with overwhelming functional

benefits. The new trains were quieter, ten percent faster, and used 15 percent less electricity than

previous models and comparable designs from similar competitors (Venton, 2011). The creative

application of biomimicry was able to increase standards of safety, environmental impact, and

functionality in one of the world’s most quickly growing modes of transportation.

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Figure 1: A Kingfisher Bird (left), the 500 Series Bullet Train (right) (Venton, 2011).

The medical field has also benefited from the impacts of biomimicry. One example is the

design of needles by biomedical engineers in Kansai University in Osaka, Japan. These

engineers desired to invent a needle that is less painful, and turned to the anatomy of mosquitos

for inspiration. Mosquitos’ proboscis (the elongated, tubular, and flexible mouthpart found on

many insects) are serrated, unlike the flat, smooth tubes of ordinary medical needles. This allows

the mosquito to inject the proboscis into its victim without inducing any pain or discomfort, due

to minimal contact with the skin. Conventional medical needles have a lot of contact with the

skin, triggering nerves and causing pain. By mimicking the form of this mouth piece, the

researchers produced a serrated needle that was found to be less painful (see Figure 2) (New

Scientist, 2011).

Figure 2: Anatomy of the Serrated Needle (New Scientist, 2011).

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In another case, medical researchers aimed to develop medical devices that developed

minimal bacterial growth in an effort to prevent infections and premature deterioration of such

devices. These researchers aspired to create surfaces for products like urinary catheters that

inhibit the growth of bacteria as a prevention strategy, as opposed to treating bacteria after it has

already formed. Treating bacterial growth with antibiotics runs the risk of developing resistant

strains, while applying chemicals often has undesirable environmental and health side effects.

Thus, they turned to the skin of sharks to develop a purely structural solution. Shark skin is

unique in that little scales called dermal denticles prevent the growth of algae or barnacles (see

Figure 3), unlike the skin of other marine mammals like whales and manatees (Venton, 2011).

Researchers at Sharklet Technologies developed surfaces that mimicked that of shark skin (see

Figure 3), creating an antimicrobial surface well suited to biomedical applications (Sharklet,

2020). The surface’s specific shape features uniform widths and a diamond pattern to naturally

provide antimicrobial properties.

Figure 3: Shark Skin (left) and a Sharklet Microsurface (right) (Sharklet, 2020).

Biomimcry has even helped advance tsunami warning systems. Tsunami warning

systems rely on sensitive pressure sensors located in the deep ocean, some in waters as deep as

6000 meters. However, the accuracy of data transmissions through long distances of water has

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long been found to be inaccurate. Although sound waves are often used because of their unique

ability to travel effectively through water, they often reverberate and destructively interfere with

one another as they travel. However, scientists found that dolphins’ unique

frequency-modulating acoustics allow them to effectively communicate and process sound

through water. Thus, a company called EvoLogics has developed tsunami warning systems that

mimic the acoustic systems used by dolphins to accurately transmit tsunami data through the

Indian Ocean (Biomimicry Institute, 2020).

Lastly, biomimicry has been used in architecture to create more energy-efficient

buildings. Architect Mike Pearce, who was commissioned to design Zimbabwe’s largest office

and retail building, found that the inside of a termite mound remains at a constant temperature

and humidity (no matter the external conditions) through a series of heating and cooling vents

that are operated by the resident termites. Pearce was able to mimic the structure of termite

mounds when designing the Eastgate Shopping Center in Harare, Zimbabwe, to reduce the need

for electrically powered air conditioning systems (see Figure 4). For such a large building in a

hot climate, this resulted in over 10% in energy savings compared to similar conventional

buildings, saving over $3.5 million in air conditioning costs in five years (Venton, 2011).

Figure 4: Termite Mound (left) and the Eastgate Shopping Center (right) (National Geographic,

2020).

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Chapter 2

Structural Engineering in the Natural World

Although the applications of biomimicry are widely varied, this paper will focus on the

advantages of biomimetics in structural engineering design, and its applications to the

construction industry (involving architects, construction managers, clients, etc.). However, this

analysis requires an understanding of the presence and origin of structurally efficient forms in the

natural world. Connections between mathematical principles and naturally built forms show that

biomimicry is highly applicable to structural engineering designs and systems.

Mathematical principles, which form the framework of statics and structural engineering

analyses, are deeply rooted in nature. Fractal geometry, for example, is used often in the design

of architectural and structural building systems (Groome, 2017). In mathematics, a fractal is a

shape that exhibits self-similarity on multiple scales, originating with a simple pattern. Fractal

patterns are infinitely self-similar and iterated, meaning that they can be scaled up or down and

will look the same (Mathigon, 2020). Many instances of fractal geometry are found in nature,

and thus mathematics can be used to better understand the formation and behavior of natural

shapes. Some naturally-occuring fractals include the shape of a fern leaf, the geometry of a head

of romanesco (self-similar conical protrusions), the structure of a snowflake (sixfold symmetry),

the branching structure of a mature tree, and the form of glacial river networks (small-scale

branching and recombination) (Cosmos, 2020). This has implications in medicine, biology,

geology, meteorology. In structural engineering, fractal geometry can be used to guide designers

on achieving efficient framing systems. Natural frame structures like trees, skeletons, and spider

webs can promote the use of fractal geometry in designing more efficient structural systems.

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Fractal structural forms, both in nature and in the built environment, efficiently distribute loads

and decrease cost by minimizing the quantity and size of structural members to the bare

minimum needed to support itself. Thus, by mimicking natural fractal shapes, structures can

become more lightweight, cost-effective, resource-efficient, environmentally-friendly,

open-concept, and aesthetically unique.

Because of the inherently physical nature of the construction process, mathematical

principles that influence structural engineering principles are often geometric in nature. Aside

from fractal geometry, Gaussian curvature is another important principle. It is the central

property of a geometric surface and helps describe several intrinsic properties of a surface,

notably strength and stiffness. To calculate the Gaussian curvature of a surface, the curvature of

the most concave path and that of the most convex path on the surface are multiplied. A surface’s

Gaussian curvature remains unchanged when bent, so a surface can be curved in one direction to

provide stiffness in the other direction (Bhatia, 2014). A simple way to demonstrate this concept

is to bend/fold a piece of paper to add stiffness and stability to an otherwise flimsy and weak

material. This principle can also be seen in natural materials. A blade of grass is often folded

along a central vein, providing stiffness and strength to a material often no thicker than one

millimeter. Naturally formed shell structures like coconut shells, tortoise shells, sea shells, and

egg shells use gaussian curvature to form structurally functional shapes. Structural engineers use

this concept to add strength to structures via the use of curvature. By applying the principles of

Gaussian curvature, structural engineers are able to design large-spanning curved surfaces that

perform well structurally and use less materials. Architects also make popular use of Gaussian

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geometry because of a curved surface’s elegant appearance, helping synthesize the structural and

architectural design goals.

The Fibonacci Sequence is a series of numbers long studied by mathematical and other

scholars because of its remarkable application to many areas of human society. For example, the

sequence accurately predicts the behavior and growth/decay of stock market indices.

Interestingly, the sequence is often found in the geometric structure of natural forms including

nautilus sea shells, sunflower seed pods, and hurricanes (SOM, 2011). This phenomenon

showcases the structural integrity of shapes modeled using the Fibonacci Sequence, and can be

applied to the design of building structures. The Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland,

California is a stunning example. The building’s structural system is inspired by the sequence on

several scales: the two interlocking spheres comprising the building’s principal geometry, the

multi-dimensional spans of the building, walls defining the interior volume, and even the Great

Doors that provide access to the cathedral (see Figure 5) (SOM, 2011).

Figure 5: Structure of the Cathedral of Christ the Light (SOM, 2011).

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The Fibonacci Sequence has also been applied to the design of skyscrapers, a testament

to its ability to inform complex structural behavior. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), a

global architectural, urban planning, and structural engineering firm, used this knowledge to

design their submission for the Transbay Tower (now Salesforce Tower, located in San

Francisco, California) Competition. The structural grid of the tower was developed using a

Fibonacci Sequence-inspired scaling factor that is most concentrated at a point and then spirals

outward (see Figure 6) (SOM, 2011). This system was designed to withstand the significant

seismic activity recorded in the area. The most concentrated areas of the spiral (at the corners)

would resist the structure’s highest lateral loads while the most open areas (at the top) would

resist the lowest loads. The design also took wind loading into account; knowing that the applied

wind load increases with height, the designers reduced the span of the building with increasing

height in order to reduce the surface area subjected to wind. This design uses biomimicry to

create an expressive, functional and unique structural form while using less materials.

Figure 6: Transbay Tower Structural Grid Design (SOM, 2011).

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The relationship between mathematical and geometrical principles with structural forms

is the basis of the construction of structures in the natural world. Mother nature is an experienced

and efficient structural engineer, developing the efficiency of natural forms over billions of years

of evolution. Interestingly, many common forms in nature showcase both basic and advanced

principles in structural engineering.

Trees, one of the most common structural forms built by nature, possess a variety of

structural systems. At first glance, trees have obvious structural forms to prevent damage and

falls in weather conditions like strong winds, heavy snowfall, and roaming animals. Their fractal

form, using a repeated branching pattern to maximize sunlight exposure while simultaneously

acting as a functional structural system, work to meet the basic biological and mechanical needs

of the tree (Asayama et al., 2018). However, trees are also equipped with complex forms of

structural resistance. Studies have shown that trees grow bark at different rates to develop

prestressing forces against strong winds (Mattheck, 2004). Also, the growth pattern of trees

minimizes critical shear stresses by arranging wood fibers along force flow paths to reduce shear

force development between wood fibers. Meanwhile, underground root systems anchor the tree

and perform similar functions to a building’s foundation by taking advantage of soil’s ability to

support bearing pressures.

Similarly, bamboo is able to respond effectively to lateral loads as a result of the natural

structural properties of its fibers and the geometric proportioning of its form. Interest in the

unique growth patterns and remarkable strength of bamboo inspired the design of SOM’s

submission for the China World Trade Center (located in Beijing, China) competition (SOM,

2011). Many structural properties present in bamboo were translated to the design of this

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high-rise building. Long, narrow stems provide support for foliage, while the form responds

efficiently to lateral loading induced during tsunami events. Additionally, the nodes present

along the height of a bamboo stem are not evenly spaced - they are closer at the base and top but

further apart in the mid-section - preventing buckling of the thin walls of the stem when

subjected to gravity and lateral loading. The relationship between the stem wall thickness and

diameter also provide stiffness against buckling. It was even found that the equations relating

bamboo geometries are quadratic, and that the relationship between the stem diameter and height

closely resembles the bending moment diagram of a cantilever acted upon by uniform lateral

loads (SOM, 2011). These properties provide maximum material efficiency when subjected to

bending loads, and were applied to the design of the tower (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: China World Trade Center Design (SOM, 2011).

Human skeletons also utilize both basic and advanced structural mechanisms. In fact,

these mechanisms are so varied and complex that an entire subfield converging biomedical and

structural engineering has emerged: biomechanics. This field is helping reveal many applications

of biomimicry in structural engineering. Structural connections, for example, are an integral

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component of structural framing systems that help distribute loads and stresses between

structural members, provide stability and rigidity against buckling, provide shear force and

bending moment capacity, provide or inhibit rotation, etc. Connections and supports in structural

systems are designed to withstand various types of stimuli including bearing and shear stresses.

Interestingly, joints connecting bones in the human skeletal system experience similar stresses to

those in structural framing systems. The pivot joint like the one found in the neck allows for

rotational movement, while hinge joints allow for a swinging motion. Plane joints allow for

sliding, while ball-and-socket joints allow for spherical movement. Similarly, different types of

structural supports like rollers, pins, simple and fixed connections allow for specific types of

movement. By studying the structure of human skeletal joints and issues they face, engineers can

design better-performing structural connections. For example, it was found that the anatomy of a

human shoulder joint allows for pivotal movements that can be emulated in the design of

structural connections in regions of high seismicity (SOM, 2011). Earthquakes create unique

challenges for structural connections by introducing shear forces that require sufficient elasticity

to be resisted, possibly compromising the rigidity of a structural framing system. The patented

Pin-Fuse joint is modeled off a human shoulder joint to work with these shear stress forces (see

Figure 8). This type of connection allows engineers to specify a certain coefficient of friction,

allowing the joint to remain fixed except under high seismic loads when it slips to provide

localized flexibility (SOM, 2011). This joint effectively dissipates seismic forces to minimize

damage to a structure.

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Figure 8: Pin-Fuse Joint (SOM, 2011).

Similarly, the design of a three-story tall rocker mechanism in the New Beijing Poly

Plaza was modeled off of the multi-directional rotational capabilities of the human arm. This

mechanism was designed to prevent overstress in the 295-foot-tall atrium space’s diagonal cables

under seismic activity. The mechanism remains fixed under static loading, but moves during an

earthquake, similar to a giant pulley system (SOM, 2011).

Although it is possible to analyze specific objects in the natural world, the applications of

biomimicry can be expanded to include the behavior of entire ecosystems/geologic formations.

This type of analysis allows designers to make the most out of the applications of biomimicry. A

coral reef, for example, provides valuable lessons in structural engineering design on five scales:

material, component, system, spatial and regional (Chen et al., 2015). The material scale focuses

on the composition and material properties of the reef substrate, namely coral skeleton. Coral

skeleton has a strength comparable to that of common engineering materials like concrete while

using less material per unit volume. It also has a low ultimate strain and is a linearly elastic

material, meaning the stress-strain relationship remains linear. Structural engineers should use

coral skeleton as motivation in designing better construction materials that are stronger, have a

lower density, and exhibit linear stress-strain behavior. By doing so, building materials can be

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made to be more lightweight, more environmentally friendly, and easier to construct. On the

component scale, mechanical properties of the coral skeleton are studied. Coral holds a

remarkable adaptive nature, in which it can increase skeletal growth in locations that experience

higher localized stresses in order to increase the material’s strength in these regions. By doing so,

areas of coral under higher mechanical stresses are built with more material, giving them lower

porosity and higher strength (Chen et al., 2015). Structural engineers can apply this mechanism

to the design and placement of building materials, matching certain materials to their structural

functions while appropriating the density of building materials as a parameter of its position in a

structure. In this application, areas of a structure under higher stresses could be built with

higher-density versions of a building materials, allowing for the optimization of the amount of

material used in a construction project, saving money and resources. On a system scale,

components of a reef behave synchronously in order to help the overall structure adapt to

changing stimuli over time. Structural engineers can apply this concept to produce adaptive

materials that allow routine improvements to a structure based on its evolving loading

conditions. By doing so, a structure will remain resilient and functional in the face of

urbanization, climate change, and other stresses. On the spatial scale, the mutualism of reef

components can be applied to structures. In a coral reef, material is constantly being recycled and

reused based on changing conditions. In the built environment, adaptive reuse of building

materials and components can be applied to reduce unnecessary demolitions and reduce resource

consumption. Lastly, on the regional scale, the ability of a coral reef to absorb tsunami impact

energy is studid. Significant analysis has been performed to understand parameters like reef

width, offshore distance, and health in impacting the effectiveness of its use as a natural tsunami

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buffer. It has been found that broader and shallower reefs provide the best coastal protection,

while those too close to the shore become largely ineffective (Chen et al., 2015). This analysis

provides guidelines on the design and placement of marine structures like piers, jetties, and storm

protection systems. By analyzing all components of the reef on several scales, it becomes

apparent that the natural world holds valuable lessons and a holistic approach to innovation for

contemporary designers of the built environment.

By studying and acknowledging the connections between mathematical principles,

structural engineering analyses, and naturally built forms, it becomes clear that applying

biomimicry to structural engineering and architecture is a sensible step in designing more

efficient and resilient structures.

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Chapter 3

Case Studies: Biomimicry in Structural Engineering & Architecture

For millennia, human societies have understood and respected the power of nature.

Perhaps nowhere was this more prevalent than in the design and construction of early structures.

Many early buildings were designed with biomimicry in mind, whether or not this was done

intentionally. The low-lying clay houses constructed by the Puebla Native Americans in the

American Southwest aimed to shelter inhabitants from the relentless desert sun while cooling

interior spaces in a time without electric air conditioning systems (source). Log cabins

constructed by early European settlers in the American colonies worked well to insulate interior

spaces from harsh Northeastern winters while ensuring the structure of the house would not

topple in a fierce wind storm (source). Pyramids built by Ancient Egyptians and Mayans are

nods to the monumental mountains that surrounded them (source). Clearly, natural materials and

design principles were built to withstand the tests of time and nature.

Even in the modern world, biomimicry has been applied, intentionally or not. Tall

skyscrapers with complex plumbing and electrical networks closely mirror the physiology of a

tree, laterally compact but tall and with similar systems for transporting nutrients and water from

the roots to the leaves. Human activity has a natural tendency to mimic the time-tested strategies

of nature, and expanding biomimicry as a tool to do so is the next step in taking advantage of

such strategies.

The application of biomimicry in structural engineering practice challenges the notion

that structural engineering is purely mathematical, showcasing the scientific and artistic

dimensions of the construction engineering industry. This challenges the idea that engineering

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work is not creative and that structural engineers should be wholly separated from the initial

design process. These outdated mentalities lead to ineffective collaboration with more “creative”

design professionals (architects, landscape architects, interior designers, etc.) and an inefficient

design process. Because many architects are not sufficiently competent in the fundamentals of

structural engineering, their initial designs are often unrealistic in terms of constructability and

budgetary considerations. For example, when designing the striking Heydar Aliyev Center in

Baku, Azerbaijan, architect Zaha Hadid failed to consult structural engineers. The most striking

component of the design that won the design competition for the project is the dramatic curves of

the facade on the left side of the building (see Figure 9). However, this geometry was found to be

unrealistic by the structural engineers who were tasked with designing the building.

Consequently, the completed building features a much less dramatic curve (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Architectural Rendering of the Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, Azerbaijan (left) (IMSD,

2012), the Completed Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, Azerbaijan (right) (Arch Daily, 2013).

Clearly, a lack of collaboration in the design of the building decreased the design process

efficiency. Although this example does not particularly relate to the application of biomimicry in

structural design, it does show that an important implication of increased cross-industry

collaboration is efficiency of the design and construction process. By integrating biomimicry in

27

structural design and promoting industry collaboration, there is an opportunity to redefine the

construction design industry for the better.

As discussed, biomimicry can be applied to the construction industry through three main

avenues: shape, processes, and materials. While all three are vital to the proper execution of a

building project, the influence of biomimicry is perhaps most prominent in the design of a

building’s shape. Many contemporary architects have used biomimicry to design futuristic,

organic facades and building canopies. Inspiration taken from naturally-occuring forms (like

fractal geometries) can also have a psychological explanation. People often associate natural

forms (like leaves, trees, and river networks) with beauty and tranquility. Thus, it is no surprise

that similar forms applied to architectural and structural designs are well-accepted and

aesthetically pleasing. While there are clearly aesthetic benefits to biomimicry in building forms,

a focus on the engineering-related advantages of biomimetics in the construction industry

showcases benefits on structural behavior, material use, design process, etc.

Besides informing engineers on structural systems, biomimicry has an impact on all

aspects of the industry, including building materials. The manufacturing of building materials

worldwide produces about 12 percent of all carbon emissions (Mortice, 2016). Concrete, the

most widely used material in construction, is particularly harmful: one ton of concrete produces

about one ton of carbon dioxide emissions. Aiming to reduce these emissions, North

Carolina-based masonry producer bioMASON uses bacteria to allow calcium carbonate to grow

and bind aggregate materials together. This process produces little to no carbon emissions and is

similar to that carried out by microorganisms in building coral reefs, according to founder and

CEO Ginger Dosier (Mortice, 2016).

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An interesting application of biomimicry in structural system design is by the use of

fractal geometry. As discussed, fractals are efficient shapes often seen in nature. When applied to

structural and architectural forms, surprising benefits take shape. This has been particularly

successful in the design of spatial structures like shells and grid-shells. These stand-alone

structures obtain structural stability and strength from their shapes. This allows for the design

and construction of forms that are both purely architectural and structural in nature. This is

highly distinctive from ordinary structures which house completely separate architectural and

structural systems. Thus this application allows for the design of unique, exciting

structural/architectural forms that perform well while often using less resources. An example is

the canopy structure of Terminal 3 at Germany’s Stuttgart Airport. As Germany’s sixth busiest

airport and growing, the new terminal was constructed in 2004 to accomodate an additional four

million passengers annually (SBP, 2020). Designed by renowned German structural engineering

firm Schlaich Bergermann Partner, the terminal is centered around 18 tree-shaped columns

supporting a large pitched roof (see Figure 10). By using tree-shaped columns, the design invites

open space and elegance into the large interior space of the terminal by reducing the amount of

structural steel needed to support the structure’s roof. Traditional designs for such a large

structure would have likely implemented large, imposing columns spaced closer together to

create a functional load path from the roof to the foundation of the building. However, by

mimicking the branching nature of tree canopies, the engineers and architects were able to merge

their visions to produce an innovative yet simple design. They found that implementing fractal

geometry into the design was much more effective than traditional grid-shaped framing systems.

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Figure 10: Tree Canopy Structure in Stuttgart Airport, Germany (SBP, 2020).

Perhaps one of the most unique and notable architects in modern human history, Antoni

Gaudí used the idea of fractal geometry and its natural occurrence to influence some of his most

famous designs. Gaudí’s design process was unconventional as he preferred modeling his

designs rather than drawing them. To create his models, Gaudí implemented a parametric design

process that allowed him to visualize changes to his models after changing various parameters.

Similar to contemporary computer modeling softwares, he was able to automatically update

models of his designs to explore various alternatives in the search for the most optimal (in his

case, the most aesthetically pleasing) option. To construct his models, Gaudí used materials that

used gravity to show the most efficient form. Many of his models utilized chains hung from a

ceiling or strings with weights attached (see Figure 11) (Gomez-Moriana, 2012). By changing

parameters like the location of ceiling supports or the location and mass of weights, he was able

to experiment with designs very efficiently. Inadvertently, Gaudí implemented the use of fractal

geometry through this design process, as his hanging materials created fractal forms. By doing

so, he was able to create naturally structurally sound designs that showcased unique and

innovative construction techniques. In order to turn his models into realities, he simply had to

flip the design over. The application of fractal geometry in this case (and biomimicry through the

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use of gravity) created a unique yet surprisingly efficient design process, merging the

architectural and structural design processes into one streamlined system.

Figure 11: Gaudí’s Weighted String Model for La Sagrada Familia (Gaudi Designer, 2020).

The internationally famed Eiffel Tower in Paris, France is a surprisingly expressive

example of the use of fractal geometry in influencing a structure’s form. Built in the late 19th

century, it is one of the earliest contemporary examples of the use of expressive fractal geometry

in structural engineering. What many people do not realize about the tower is the use of fractal

geometry and curvature in designing its joint structural-architectural framing system. The design

of the tower’s curved form is influenced by the mathematical analysis of its structure; it is almost

an identical recreation of the bending moment diagram, a mathematical curve describing the

distribution of bending on the structure based off of its loading and support conditions. Aside

from the curved form, however, the less-prominent cross-bracing pattern also follows

mathematical principle in its expression of fractal geometry. When inspecting the truss members

composing the tower’s structure, self-iterated fractal patterns emerge. The tower is composed of

large trusses, a rigid assembly of interconnected structural members that deform adjacent

members. Trusses are significantly lighter than traditional cylindrical beams of identical material

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and strength (Mandelbrot, 1982). However, the design of the Eiffel Tower is unique in that each

truss sub-member is itself a smaller-scale truss (see Figure 12). This self-repeating pattern is

indicative of fractal geometry and helps the structure achieve an even lower self-weight while

increasing material efficiency and structural performance. Although its unique form gave the

tower a negative reception, it has become a global landmark and inspiration for the design of

more expressive and efficient structures.

Figure 12: A Truss Sub-Member in the Eiffel Tower (Mandelbrot, 1982).

The application of Gaussian curvature is another case in which mathematical principles

can beneficially influence structural engineering designs. As discussed, Gaussian curvature

provides engineers and architects with a design option that optimizes structural performance with

resource efficiency. Many modern membrane structures, commonly used for stadium roofs and

canopies, behave similarly to cell walls by creating tension zones to gain strength. For example,

Spanish structural engineer Eduardo Torroja took advantage of Gaussian curvature when

designing the concrete roof of the Zarzuela racetrack in Madrid (see Figure 13). Although

spanning over 100 feet and covering a wide area, Torroja designed an innovative roof that was

just a few inches thick. By designing a more lightweight structure, engineers were able to take

advantage of a lower self-weight load acting on the structure’s foundation. In doing so, the

foundation system was designed for less severe loading conditions, simplifying the design

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process and inducing even greater material and cost savings. In this case, benefits were realized

structurally, architecturally, environmentally, intellectually, and economically.

Figure 13: Zarzuela Racetrack Roof (Europa Concorsi, 2020).

The application of Gaussian curvature to construction design influences the design of

shell structures like grid-shells and continuous shells. Grid-shells are lightweight space structures

that derive strength from their double curvature, highlighting the structural efficiency of

parabolic surfaces. Paraboloids offer several structural performance benefits. For instance, under

uniformly distributed vertical loading, bending stresses are confined to the boundaries of the

curved surface and are very small (Asayama et al., 2018). This allows for the design of thinner

members. Additionally, experimenting with the curvature of surfaces helps resolve their

sensitivity to buckling; increasing the curvature of a curved shell increases its buckling capacity.

The study of grid-shell structures involves a synthesis of fractal geometry and Gaussian

curvature analysis. When using fractal geometry to construct grid-shells, it is important to note

that the weight of the structure increases with further iterations (see Figure 14). Thus, engineers

and architects must find an optimal design to create a structure that meets strength and stiffness

requirements while remaining reasonably lightweight under various loading conditions. This

analysis requires the use of finite element analysis, an advanced structural analysis technique. In

33

one study, it was found that using fractal geometry in a grid-shell structure increased its buckling

capacity, giving greater structural stability.

Figure 14: Iterations of a Fractal-Based Grid-Shell Structure (Asayama et al., 2018).

Through similar analyses, parametrically curved grid-shell construction has increased in

recent decades. One of the most striking applications is the newly opened Jewel Changi Airport

in Singapore. Designed by Safdie Architects and BuroHappold Engineering, the central elliptical

toroid structure utilizes complex structural systems to span over 200 meters on its long axis with

the minimal use of columns. The structure exceeds the functionality of traditional steel

grid-shells by supporting out-of-plane forces that bend the shell in addition to the compressive

and tensile stresses in the plane of the shell (Correa, 2019). To do so, the design includes deeper

structural elements at locations of higher loading. By designing a structural shell that is

expressive of its loading state, the engineers and architects were able to create a shell that

minimizes the use of excess material. For example, steel members located in the central zone of

the structure experience tensile stresses with the most minimal risk of buckling and lowest

bending moments, so they are the shallowest in the building at eight inches (Correa, 2019).

Meanwhile, the outer section of the grid-shell structure experiences compressive stresses and

steel members located there are designed to resist buckling at a depth of 12 inches. Most

significantly, bending demands are highest in the area surrounding the structure’s supports where

34

the compressive and tensile fields converge, and steel members there are almost 30 inches thick.

Thus, the structure’s form is expressive of the different stresses it experiences and allows for the

removal of material where it is not necessary. This design offers several functional benefits

including increased usable unobstructed interior space and ample natural lighting (offered by

glass panels installed within the grid shell structure). Conventional structural framing systems

would have likely included the regular use of interior columns without allowing for access to

natural light sources, while utilizing standard structural members not expressive of different

loading conditions throughout the structure.

A much earlier application of biomimetics in the design of curved roofs is the

construction of the Pantheon’s famed domed roof in Rome, Italy. The structural behavior of the

roof is similar to that of sea shells, gaining strength through its multi-dimensional curvature. Like

similar shell projects, the adoption of the curved form of sea shells in this structure resulted in it

not needing extra reinforcing members. Thus the roof is much lighter and spatially open than

conventional reinforced concrete or masonry spanning structures (Hunt et al., 2007).

Of course, structural engineers design structures of many different types. Aside from the

building’s discussed, biomimicry has provided useful benefits for the design of bridges, facades,

and dams, among others. In constructing long-spanning suspension bridges, for example,

designers have studied the structural principles present in spider webs. Researchers at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology have studied the molecular ability of spider silk to survive

heavy damage, particularly the ability of the macrostructure to retain stability even when

individual strands of silk are torn (Fitzgerald, 2012). Spider silk is a polymer fiber with

surprising versatility. Spider’s are able to “design” the behavior of their silk based on required

35

function by adjusting its water content (Ryan, 2002). Depending on their location within the

web, different strands of silk must perform different tasks. Fibers anchored to external objects

(oriented radially from the center to the outer edge of the web) must be rigid and load-bearing,

while cross-members that hold the web together must be more flexible and impact-absorbing to

prevent collapse of the web upon impact from insects. Interestingly, the structural design and

construction of suspension bridges use similar techniques. Suspension bridges often use steel

cables to support the load of the bridge itself as well as the traffic it supports. Similar to the

structure of a spider web, rigid load-bearing cables are anchored to the ground/deck while

thinner, more flexible cables support the road platform (Ryan, 2002). The design of cable-net

supported glass walls, which allow for ample natural lighting and visual exposure, also take

inspiration from the structural behavior of spider webs. The world’s largest such wall is located

on the facade of the The New Beijing Poly Plaza building and moves considerably when exposed

to dynamic wind loading, much like a spider web (SOM, 2011). The flexibility of this system

prevents fracturing under large loads.

While these examples effectively showcase the beneficial applications of biomimicry to

the shape of a structure, there are also important applications to the processes that govern the life

cycle and the materials used to construct our built environment. Biomimicry is most obviously

applicable to shape and form, but mimicking natural processes and materials allows for a holistic

approach to innovation through biomimetics. In education and industry, structural engineers and

architects are often less concerned with the processes and materials that govern the built

environment, instead focusing on form, but it is important to analyze all aspects of a project in

order to optimize benefits.

36

Processes carried out by nature that should be more effectively designed for in the built

environment include methods of construction, sources of power supply, climate

control/ventilation, and lighting, among others (Hunt et al., 2007). By imitating natural processes

of power generation and material use, many environmental hazards produced by the

construction, operations, maintenance and decommissioning of the built environment could be

eliminated, as natural forms have existed as minimum energy systems for millenia. Interestingly,

there is significant overlap among the benefits induced from biomimicry. Many case studies

analyzed in this paper provide benefits to structural behavior through form, and in turn also

provide benefits to building processes. The Eastgate Shopping Center, for example, mimics

natural ventilation procedures while the Jewel Changi Airport drastically improves access to

natural lighting sources, all through the implementation of naturally-occuring structural forms.

Similarly, the use of naturally-occuring materials holds significant potential in improving

the functionality of structures in the built environment. Applying biomimicry by using natural

materials in innovative ways introduces an opportunity to reduce the use of non-biodegradable

synthetic materials invented since the industrial revolution. While synthetic materials used in

construction are often stiffer, stronger, and more uniform with better controlled properties than

their natural counterparts, the future consequences of their use outweigh the benefits (Hunt et al.,

2007). Thus, material scientists have recently begun to imitate natural materials at both the

macroscopic and molecular levels. The design of photovoltaic cells to make them more efficient

and less expensive is an interesting case study. Current models are inefficient and expensive

when compared to photosynthesis in vegetation, but scientists are currently working on

developing models that molecularly imitate natural photosynthesis through the use of

37

naturally-occuring materials. This research holds incredible potential in revitalizing power

supply infrastructure to widely implement renewable energy sources.

Clearly, while current case studies show promising results, extensive research must be

done to further study the benefits of biomimicry to the built environment.

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Chapter 4

Implications for Higher Education and Professional Practice in the Construction Industry

The impacts of biomimicry in structural engineering and architecture go beyond those

technical and aesthetic. There are also important implications to be considered in the higher

education and professional practices of structural engineers and architects, as well as others

involved in the construction industry. By understanding and implementing the possible beneficial

changes promoted by these implications, the industry is poised to become more productive,

efficient, and collaborative.

Traditional higher education curriculums completely separate technical and creative

aspects of construction industry expertise. Structural engineering students rarely get any form of

education in form or aesthetic, often told that such expertise is reserved wholly to students in

disciplines like architecture and interior design. However, this norm exemplifies an outdated

mindset and fails to showcase the collaborative nature of the construction design industry.

Structural engineers and architects work closely together and rely on each other’s expertise to

influence their design decisions. Removing the idea that engineering work is not creative can

help create a more inclusive and collaborative environment in both education and industry. By

recognizing that biomimicry is an important link between work in structural engineering and

architecture, and that both professions should study its benefits, there is potential to break down

the longstanding barriers that separate them.

Integrating biomimicry in the higher education of structural engineers and architects is an

effective tool in making this happen. Preliminary inclusion of biomimicry in education

curriculums highlights the growing recognition of biomimicry as a method beneficial to both

39

professions. Syracuse University’s Sustainable Construction course, for example, introduces

biomimicry as a tool available to structural engineers in their problem-solving approach

(Syracuse University, 2017). The Savannah College for Art and Design (SCAD) offers a

Biomimicry: Collaborative Nature-Inspired Innovation course in its Design for Sustainability

minor program. Some institutions have even developed entire programs of study devoted to the

cause. Arizona State University’s Biomimicry Center offers a Master’s of Science degree in

Biomimicry as well as a Graduate Certificate in Biomimicry. Clearly, several institutions are

beginning to notice the importance of biomimicry in the design of the built environment.

However, in order for the full potential impacts of biomimicry in the construction industry to be

recognized, applications on an international scale have to occur.

Professional practice is also poised for transformation. Integrating biomimicry as a design

tool in both architecture and structural engineering firms allows for the widespread recognition

of its benefits on building systems. There remains significant untapped potential, as most firms

currently do not take biomimetics into account when designing structures. Aside from the

technical benefits, however, the role of industry professionals will also be impacted. By

introducing biomimicry into structural engineering as a design tool that ultimately benefits both

the architectural and structural systems of a building, the role of the engineer can be expanded to

become more involved in the early design stages of a project. Structural engineers can use

biomimicry to design structural systems that function aesthetically as well, expanding their role

in a project while integrating their work with the architectural design process. Increased

collaboration and productivity will result, as less compromise will need to occur between the

structural and architectural designs in a project.

40

The use of biomimicry in structural engineering as a sustainability-driven tool also allows

engineers and architects to use their knowledge to reduce the ecological footprint of construction

projects worldwide. Biomimicry-driven designs often reduce material and resource needs when

compared to conventional forms and materials. Although seemingly novel, the effort to reduce

unnecessary construction material has been applied for centuries, but is now being refined and

improved with biomimicry. Perhaps the most obvious example is the use of wide-flange sections,

one of the most common structural member shapes used in construction. These shapes optimize a

section’s moment of inertia, a property of a shape used to predict deflection, bending and stress

in structural members. Also called “I” sections, this shape resists the major stresses acting on a

member, namely bending moment on the flanges and shear stress on the web, without the use of

excess material. By introducing even more efficient structural shapes, biomimicry has the

potential to create new and more advanced universally used member shapes.

Lastly, applied biomimicry in the construction industry is an effective tool in accelerating

project scheduling. By integrating the structural engineering and architecture design cycles while

providing “free” designs inspired by nature, biomimicry holds the potential to streamline the

design process of the construction industry.

Some internationally recognized professional service firms in the industry have already

begun to take advantage of these benefits. SOM recently released a report outlining case studies

of biomimicry used in their design work. As an already incredibly collaborative firm, their work

serves as important inspiration for others in the industry. Hopefully, the increase in successful

applications of biomimicry and technical evaluation of the benefits achieved will further work to

define biomimicry as a fundamental tool in improving the construction industry.

41

Conclusion

While it is impossible to discuss all of the cases in which biomimicry has beneficially

impacted the construction industry, it is important to analyze the different impacts resulting from

its applications. By allowing for the design of more lightweight structures, for example,

biomimicry brings unexpected benefits in the constructability of certain structures. Building

components that are more lightweight are easier to transport, assemble, and produce (both on and

off-site).

It is also important to recognize the relatively short history of biomimicry as a recognized

tool in the industry. Although used for thousands of years by humans, the term biomimicry was

adopted by material scientists in the 1980s after first appearing in scientific literature only twenty

years prior (Hu, 2017). Since then, rapid acknowledgement of the power of biomimicry in

construction has taken place, but there remains much to be done. Biomimicry is still a niche topic

in structural engineering and architectural circles, rather than the widely recognized tool it should

be. Moreover, the widespread application of biomimicry in structural design faces significant

hurdles. Effective application requires technical testing of the benefits of biomimicry including

model testing, structural analysis, mathematical and computational modeling, fluid dynamics

testing, and life-cycle analysis (Hu, 2017). Of course, education is an important tool in this

testing - biomimicry must be more heavily introduced into the higher education of engineers to

begin the generations of study and practice needed to establish it as an integral design tool in the

industry. Recent innovative projects completed worldwide with the application of biomimicry

are a testament to the growing acknowledgement that biomimicry is an important construction

design tool (see Appendix I for a sample list of such projects). Additionally, a growing

42

consortium of researchers are working to test the vitality of biomimicry in construction, helping

promote the use of biomimicry (see Appendix II for a sample list of such research endeavors).

The integration of biomimicry into the construction industry and particularly into the

design cycles of structural engineers and architects is an important and vital step in creating a

sustainable, resilient, efficient and functional built environment for present and future

generations of human society.

43

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Appendices

Appendix I

(Hu, 2017)

48

Appendix II

(Hu, 2017)

49