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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

10th Inaugural Lecture

THE NEED TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND RECREATION, LEISURE AND TOURISM PRACTICES IN NIGERIA

By:

Professor Abubakar Garba Suleiman, School of Education,

National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), Lagos.

& Director,

Abuja Model Study Centre, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN),

Dutse Junction/Kubwa Expressway, FCT.

DATE: JULY 12, 2016.

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Introduction Advancement in technology the world over, including Nigeria decreased the number of working days and working hours, thereby providing more leisure time than ever before. This indeed has provided greater opportunities for participation in recreation, leisure and tourism activities. However, due to lack of awareness of the importance of recreation, leisure and tourism, very many people still continue to utilize their new found leisure either doing some work or doing nothing. There are no written records to show when Nigerians started to recreate and go on tour. The reason is that recreation and tourism activities are as old as man. However, the concepts ‘recreation’ and ‘tourism’ are still not understood by very many Nigerians. Many people just partake in leisure activities without knowing what they are or the scientific health benefits derived from them. Nigerians mostly partake in leisure activities in African traditional ways, before the coming of colonial masters to Nigeria, through celebration of agricultural seasons, harvesting of crops, crowning of traditional rulers, Obas, Chiefs and emirs. Before the invasion of Nigeria by the colonial masters, activities such as local wrestling (see plate 1), hunting, masquerade dance, Fulani festival activities, naming and marriage ceremonies, archery, swimming contests, horse racing, fishing, acrobatic displays and many movement activities were in place. Plate 1: Local Wrestling

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When people are not adequately informed and educated on the significance of recreation, leisure and tourism in the total development of an individual, they tend to develop negative attitude towards them. The importance of recreation, leisure and tourism does not seem to be adequately appreciated. Many people seem to attach more importance to their work or businesses than to recreation and leisure pursuits, let alone go on tourism. It is necessary here to emphasize that people can only struggle well and think properly when they are mentally sound and physically fit. It is important to remember that whatever people acquire and possess in this world is of little or no value to them when they do not have good health. It is possible for a person to be alive even when his/her health is poor, but life cannot be full and meaningful without good health (Suleiman, 2010). In our daily activities, we no doubt need some rest and relaxation; and during holidays, we would not mind travelling to enjoy nature, get acquainted with new environments, refresh ourselves, be physically and mentally fit again and to return to our work happy, refreshed and rejuvenated. Recreation, leisure and tourism activities have been shown to significantly contribute to optimum health and productivity. Furthermore, they have much to offer to individuals when utilized in worthwhile activities, especially in areas of mental, social, physical and psychological developments. They are very wide in scope. They range from active physical pursuits to passive activities. They may also be in the form of individual or group activities. The purpose of recreation, leisure and tourism activities is fundamentally to provide human beings with experiences that will assist them in achieving a better state of well-being. All such experiences are directed towards the individual’s total development. Despite the abundant leisure hours we have today, availability of tourism and recreational materials and facilities, coupled with numerous public

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holidays, only very few people actively participate in recreation, leisure and tourism activities regularly. It is therefore time for people to understand and appreciate the significance and roles that these wholesome activities play in the total development of an individual. If people understand the importance of these leisure activities and get actively involved in them, they will definitely widen their horizon, promote their health, enhance their human relations, improve their general fitness and their abilities to know new places and meet new people, in addition to having enriched, abundant and satisfying lives. Recreation It is a voluntary involvement in leisure activities, free from obligation and for the purpose of pleasure. Recreation is also an amusement of diversion, an activity that refreshes and improves one’s health and spirit by enjoyment and relaxation. It could also be understood as those activities in which a person participates in during hours other than work periods. Recreation is seen and perceived differently by different authorities. To Douglass (1975), recreation is any action that refreshes the mental attitude of an individual. It is also a wholesome activity that is engaged in for pleasure, and therefore, it is play. He further explained that recreation may take different routes, but the results are the same. It revitalizes the spirits, restores a person’s personality, initiative and perspective of life. Magi (1989) explained recreation as related to Seven Terms by the Zulus of South Africa which they perceive as having some authentic Zulu-equivalents, that is, play, rest, past time, entertainment, amusement, relaxation and idleness from work. For Kenyans, according to Burnett (1989), recreation is not only a way to keep mentally or physically in shape, but part of the social ritual that keeps them in touch with their culture. Ogunwuyi (1998) perceives recreation as substitutes for vices and evil pursuit, such as gambling, stealing, alcoholism, backbiting, etc. From these definitions, one can rightly conclude that

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recreation denotes activities such as music, drama, play, craft and dance, in which a person partakes voluntarily during his/her free time, after hard day’s work. To sum it up, it is necessary to know and understand that any activity that is to be considered recreational must satisfy or meet certain conditions and criteria such as:

i.) The activity must be done during leisure. ii.) The activity must be entirely voluntary. iii.) The activity must be consciously undertaken.

iv.) The activity should provide for acquisition of knowledge. v.) The activity must be that from which a person gains satisfaction. vi.) The activity should provide for freedom from emotional tension. vii.) The activity should be that which develops character and

personality. viii.) The activity should contribute to the development and

maintenance of positive health habits. In summary, there are three indicators of a recreational activity. They are satisfaction with leisure time, participation in sports and activities. Together, these indicators show a picture of how people feel about their free time and about what they do in their leisure time. The first indicator measures how people feel about both the quantity and quality of free time available to them. The second indicator measures participation of people in sports and active leisure. The third indicator measures involvement of people in cultural activities. Whether a person resides in a village or city, whether in a better residential area or a slum, wherever one finds himself in, there are always recreational activities he can engage himself in. They could be modern or traditional activities (see plate 2) and he can always find companion to play and have fun with.

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Recreation therefore, is the choice of activity or involvement in any activity, which is voluntary, free from compulsion or obligations. It is the act which is prompted by an intrinsic (internal) motivation and the desire to achieve personal satisfaction, rather than by extrinsic motives or rewards. It is widely regarded as activity that includes physical, mental, social, emotional involvement and psychological satisfaction, as contrasted with sheer idleness, complete rest, sleeping or just sitting down thinking. All these cannot in anyway be regarded as recreation. Plate 2: Traditional Recreation

Kinds of Recreation There are different kinds of recreation that exist and are functional in every community in Nigeria. Some people may not know the presence of these recreation and leisure activities, when in reality they exist at their very doorsteps. Some of them are as follows:

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i. School Recreation: These are mainly for students and children in the school set up, while the adults from the community can enjoy the activities available. For example, they can be observed in playgrounds, libraries, gymnasia, etc. These kinds of recreation are usually sponsored by the school authorities.

ii. Community Recreation: These are usually for villages, cities and towns and mostly organized by a committee, sponsored by the members of the village or town. It is usually open to everyone around, without necessarily paying any fees. For example: festivals, cultural displays, ceremonies, exhibition, etc, are such activities.

iii. Industrial Recreation: Companies, industries or private organizations usually sponsor these, mainly activities which are their employees and they are not open to everybody. The financing is usually by the company or organization, due to the realization of the values of keeping their workers re-creative, in order for them to be healthy, happy and productive. For example, staff clubs, swimming pools, tennis courts, libraries, etc, are places where they can be observed.

iv. Therapeutic Recreation: These are mostly for hospitals, motherless homes and managed by a physiotherapist, and are often sponsored and financed by the government. For example, physical fitness laboratories, television rooms, etc, are such places.

v. Family Recreation: especially in the nuclear type of home, family recreation is very important. This has to do with how family members spend their leisure hours. It could be by a way of going on a picnic (see plate 3), playing games (indoor or outdoor), and travelling, sightseeing, gardening or watching films. The head of the family mostly sponsors these activities.

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Plate 3: Family Recreation

vi. Commercial Recreation: These are usually set by the

government, private organizations or people in business, and are strictly for cash. They are also profit oriented. Examples of such places are amusement parks, zoos, wild-life parks, museums, game reserves, cinemas houses, football Matches (see plate 4), etc; where people go on their own according to their interest. However, the norms of the society could determine the kind of recreation that can operate within an environment (Suleiman, 2010).

Plate 4: A football (soccer) match:

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Leisure Leisure is an individual’s discretionary time, time not devoted to official assignment, but time judiciously used for recreational activities. It is also an unobligated time and a period not used for meeting the exigencies of life. It is time spent away from all kinds of work. Leisure is also a term that is understood and perceived in different ways, by different scholars. To Nash (1953), leisure is an activity which an individual may freely devote himself outside the needs and obligations of his occupations, his family and society; for his relaxation, diversion and personal development.

Havinghurst (1957) also explained leisure as a period that includes categories of activities. A person works in the gardens, helps around the house, does favors for the neighbors, work for the trade union, the party, the community centre, etc. These (according to him) are often called non-work obligations and they yield leisure like satisfaction. Ogunwuyi (1998) also sees leisure as free time from paid work, as well as from activities which are either obligatory, compulsory or which sustains life. Leisure according to him has always existed, and therefore, what is true is the fact that duration of free time has always been different for different people, thus free times come to different people at different times of the day, at specific times of the week and specific periods of the season or year.

Stebbins (1992) defines serious leisure as the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist or volunteer activity that is sufficiently substantial and interesting for a participant to find a career there in the acquisition and expression of its special skills and knowledge. He further posited that serious leisure is distinguished by six distinct qualities. First, significant personal effort is expended to acquire pertinent skills and knowledge. Secondly, the participant perseveres in spite of injuries, fatigue, bad weather and other destructors. Thirdly, participation is viewed as career. Fourth, it is a strong identification with the activity, demonstrated by excitement and frequent mention of it in conversation. Fifth, there is the development of subculture with its relevant values, beliefs, norms,

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events, moral principles, traditions and performance standards. Finally, several long lasting benefits such as self actualization, self-enrichment, self-expression, feelings of accomplishments and enhancement of self-image, social interaction and physical fitness are experienced.

Organized leisure programmes have been increasing in popularity and diversity, the world over. People mostly enter organized leisure activities and programmes for a variety of reasons. The most important are to have fun, develop skills, feel the excitement and challenges of competition, be with friends and obtain fitness, achievement and status. It is also for pursuing interest; and for others, leisure becomes an integral part of their lives.

The world leisure evokes different thoughts and images. Normative denotations of the word have been usually expressed in terms of free time of activity or state of mind. Other scholars, who are critical of this concept, related leisure from a critical perspective to emancipatory action, participatory democracy and community development. However, it should be noted that the definitions of leisure impact on how recreation practioners conceptualize and implement service.

Although many scholars have addressed the meaning of leisure in people’s lives, the idea that leisure to people is what the public relations and advertising executives say it is. An average person does not care whether the activities are recreational, leisure expression, exercise play, or a state of mind. Therefore, any definition of leisure services should be on the basis of the public’s understanding of leisure and develop product and services that capitalize on the reinforcement of the public’s perception of leisure (Shantili, 2006).

Recreational experts recently suggested that leisure should be defined and operationalized as an objective phenomenon (Mannel & Kleiber, 1997). As an objective phenomenon, leisure is conceived as an activity or set of activities, a particular setting like a beach or specific time period, and is measured through time-budgets or activity inventories. As a subjective phenomenon, leisure is operationalized as mental experiences of an individual while engaged in leisure activities and the

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satisfaction or meaning derived from these involvements. As a subject phenomenon, the leisure also has been operationalized externally, as well as internally. From internal vantage point, scholars used the definitional approach to apply the criteria people use to define the experiences as leisure.

While discussing the challenges of accepting the definition of leisure as free time or activity, Howe & Rancourt (1999) proposed that while leisure certainly takes place in time and space, a state of mind definition allows researcher to focus on the relationship between leisure experience and concepts of self. They qualified leisure experiences as then personal, subjective experiencing of leisure.

Defining leisure as the state of mind or experience facilitated the psychologization of leisure research. What makes an activity to become leisure is the definition of action by the participant. It is more than just a state of mind. Some experts believe that, in addition to free time and activity, leisure may also be considered as state of mind or attitude, either transitory or as a way of life (Kraus, 1987). Rossman & Schlaater (2000) explained that some scholars defined leisure as an experience that is freely chosen for intrinsic satisfaction, inherent in participating in it. In this context services programmer is an experienced facilitator rather than simply an activity provider. In this regard, leisure should be viewed as an activity, free time, a state of mind, to provide opportunities not only for relaxation, self improvement, cultural and family stability and interaction, but also her for escape, novelty, complexity, excitement and fantasy. Leisure should also be considered as non-production, and consumption of time, because it is symbolic of high status as it does not create wealth. This use of leisure to show off wealth is what is called conspicuous consumption.

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Types of Recreation and Leisure Activities

Some of the general recreation and leisure activities that people can select in order to recreate actively or passively, individually or in group, irrespective of gender or age, include the following:

i. Active games and Sports: Cycling, polo, horse riding, etc. ii. Individual and dual games: Lawn tennis, table tennis,

badminton, squash, swimming, jogging, etc. iii. Team Games: Basketball, Soccer, Volleyball, Handball, etc. iv. Social Activities: Dancing, drafts, ayo, ludo, card games,

monopoly, partying, etc. v. Music: Singing, listening to music, going to musical concerts,

etc vi. Nature and outing activities: Driving for pleasure, excursion,

camping, raising animals, gardening, boating, etc. vii. Arts and Crafts: Woodwork, metal work, pottery (see plate 5),

basketry, knitting, sewing, photography, etc.

Plate 5: Pottery

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viii. Literary language and related activities: Debate, reading, listening to radio/television, public lectures, etc.

ix. Service activities: Red Cross, scouts, girls guide, etc (Ogunwuyi, 1998).

Boateng (1986) also identified the following as recreational the leisure activities that people generally engage in at will:

i. Arts and Crafts: Sewing, dying (see plate 6), weaving, silver smiting, etc.

Plate 6: Local Dying

ii. Communication: Writing, speaking, broadcasting, televising,

reading, etc. iii. Dance: Traditional dancing, modern dancing, etc. iv. Drama: Plays, puppetry, storytelling, etc. v. Music: Singing, or/and listening to traditional and modern music,

records, radio and television. vi. Social Recreation: Parties, clubs, association affairs, etc.

vii. Special Events: Festivals (see plate 7), carnivals, exhibitions, celebrations or ceremonies, like marriage, naming, burial, etc.

viii. Sports and games: Tag games, draught, swimming, tennis, basketball, wrestling, boxing, etc.

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Plate 7: Fishing Festival

Suleiman (1996) categorized the following into Nigerian tourism and recreational materials that attracts and motivates people to recreate and travel on tour:

i. Natural: Playgrounds, rocks, mountains, waterfalls, hills, rivers, oceans, forests, animals, bushes, spring, etc.

ii. Traditional: Drums, walls, mats, sticks, ropes, tents, wells, boats, hooks, shrines, etc.

iii. Modern: Stadia, parks, museums, hostels, hotels, halls, palace (see plate 8), markets, cinemas, theatres, gardens, etc.

iv. Publications: Books, magazines, journals, newspapers, mimeographs, pamphlets, etc.

v. Communication: Radio, television sets, videos, telephones, microphones, computers, cameras, etc.

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Plate 8: Emir of Zazzau’s Palace

Tourism Tourism is the desire to enjoy leisure in a different environment, one which is perhaps beautiful and which has a good climate. It is recreating outside a person’s usual environment, which is deliberate and planned for the purpose of pleasure. Business trips, trips made to visit friends or relatives are also part of tourism. The attraction of seeing famous paintings, places and buildings are also important factors of tourism. Davidson (1998) sees tourism as the movement of people outside their normal routine for business, pleasure or personal reasons. The World Tourism Organization (1997) also explains tourism as comprising the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year of leisure, business or other purposes. It is also an act of travel recreation and the provision of services for this act. Litton (1974) in Suleiman (1996) maintains that tourism is as old as rock, adding that it started with the early man, and that when Adam and

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Eve moved out of the Garden of Eden in search of shelter and food, unknown to them, they were involved in tourism. This is because tourism is movement of people in a quest for pleasure. In their own submission on what tourism is, Barhart and Modlik (1991) stated that tourism is multifaceted with the technical elements of movements or travel, stay, activities engaged upon and the psychological impact/experience. These, when measured, result in major significant effects which bring about generation of income, foreign exchange to help balance of payment problems, regional development, creation of goodwill, peace, socio-cultural promotion, enrichment and general development. A layman can simply define tourism as travel and service to travelers, but tourism is far more than that, as it includes relationships and interactions of tourist business the world over. The World Tourism Organization (2002) in a different form describes tourism as the temporal, short term movement of people to destinations outsides the places where they normally live and work and includes all movements that do not last more than a year. Therefore, tourism is about providing facilities and infrastructure for visitors from all over the world, whether they come for sports, meetings, conferences, leisure, etc. Furthermore, WTO (2005) explains that travel and tourism are synonymous. Travel agency is one of the tour organizations. It arranges travels by airplanes, ships and trains, also books accommodations in hotels, resorts, motels, etc; basically providing retail services to a tourist, on behalf of various wholesalers like airlines and tour packagers. The study of tourism is the study of people away from their usual habitat, of the establishments, which respond to the requirements of travelers, and of the impacts that they have on the economy, physical and social wellbeing of their hosts (Matheison, 1982). In addition, it involves the expectations and adjustment made by the residents of receptions and adjustment made by the reception areas and the roles

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played by the numerous agencies and institutions which intercede between them. Leadley (1992) also viewed tourism as a system involving the discretionary travel and temporary stay of persons away from their usual places of residence for one or more nights, except tours made for primary purpose of earning remuneration from an employer. The elements of the system are tourism, generating regions, transit routes, destination regions and a tourism industry. These five elements are arranged in social and functional connections. Having the characteristics of an open system, the six elements operate within broader environment, that is, physical, cultural, social, economic, political and technical, with which it interacts. The United Nations (1992) in its definition adopted tourism as the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the interaction of tourism, business suppliers, host governments and host communities in the process of attracting and hosting these tourism and other visitors. McConnell (1996), in his own way, focuses on the nature of the experience of a tourist, proposing that a condition is necessary to be a tourist, and it is the expectation of having some experience of “otherness”. Urry (1990) described otherness as experiences which are different from those typically encountered in everyday life. World Tourism Organization (1995) defined a tourist as any person residing within a country, irrespective of nationality, traveling to a place other than his usual place of residence for a period not less than 24 hours of one night, for a purpose other than the exercise of a remunerated activity in the place visited. The motive for such travel, such as further classified by WTO, may be:

i. Leisure: Recreation, holidays, health, studies, religion or sports. ii. Business: Family, mission or meeting.

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An analysis of the above definitions will reveal the following common basic elements:

i. Tourism is temporary and short. ii. It involves non-residents traveling along transit routes to and

from a destination. iii. A variety of impacts are made at the destination and the transit

routes. iv. It may be for a variety of reasons such as leisure or business. v. The character of the tourist may be influenced.

In a related development, the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2002), the major intergovernmental body concerned with tourism, has led the way in establishing a set of definitions for travel and tourism statistics in Canada, a set of resolutions and recommendations relating to tourism concepts, definitions and classification were adopted, as follows:

i. Tourism: The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.

ii. Tourist (Overnight Visitor): staying at least one night in a collective or private accommodation in the place visited.

iii. Same Day Visitor (Excursion): Visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the place visited.

iv. Traveler: Any person on a trip between two or more locations.

Unfortunately, there is still confusion over these very basic definitions. Just as there are different types of visitors, there are different forms and categories of travel which take place, varying by traveler, destinations and motive for travel, such as international versus domestic travel, intra-regional versus interregional travel, as well as inbound verses outbound travel.

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There are two forms of tourism at any level, in relation to a given area, for example domestic region, country or group of countries:

i. Domestic tourism: involving residents of a given area travelling (as visitors) only within that area.

ii. Inbound tourism: involving residents travelling as visitors in an area other than the given area.

Furthermore, WTO (1995) grouped the above into the following categories of tourism:

i. Internal tourism: This comprises of domestic and inbound tourism.

ii. National tourism: This comprises of domestic and outbound tourism.

iii. International tourism: This consists of inbound and outbound tourism.

Bhatia (2001) explains tourism as the sum total of operations, mainly of an economic nature, which directly relate to the entry, stay and movement of foreigners inside and outside a certain country, city or regions and that it further involves:

i. Short travel, at least for one day and not more than a year. ii. It covers expenditure on transport, accommodation, purchase

and services, from when the visitor-leaves home, until he/she returns.

iii. It also includes the impact of such visits and activities on the socio-economic, political and physical environment of the host communities and visitors themselves.

To sum it up, tourism is the sum of phenomena and relationships arising from travel and non-residents, provided the journey does not lead to permanent residency and is not connected with any earning activity. Tourism journey also is one that entails visit to places outside one’s home place, locality or country, for varied purposes such as vocation, interest in the history of the location, the architecture, cultural history,

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etc. Generally, a tourist is a person who undertakes a journey outside his/her place of abode during his/her free and unobligated time. The free time may include weekends, annual leave or public holidays, for duration of not less than 24 hours. During such a journey, the vacationer must not undertake any remunerative employment. Why do people travel? Travel is as old as mankind. It differs from tourism, though its evolution leads to tourism. Travel has also been associated with the Shulgi, ruler of the Romans and Greeks who were among the early travelers. The Romans published numerous itineraries and guide books giving routs, names of roads, distance between places and period required to travel (Ashamu, 2007). Pre-historically, people travel across paths, fields, landscapes and forests, in search of survival and basic necessities of life, like water, food and shelter. This travel was very vigorous and unsafe, yet people migrated over the boundless frontiers. In the early ages, specifically between 3000 and 4000 BC, when wheel and sailing vessels were invented and built in Egypt, travelling became easier. The primary motive for travel in the ancient time was essentially for merchandising and pilgrimage. Travelling was an adventure and all travels before the revolution were largely a matter of pilgrimage. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the growth of the private travel was basically for the purposes of religion, education and curiosity, to know how the inhabitants of other countries lived. Boswell recorded a journey undertaken by Samuel Johnson (a Briton) in 1776 to Italy, stating “A man who has been in Italy is always conscious of inferiority from his not having seen what is expected of a man to see. The grand object of traveling is to see the shores of Mediterranean”. Foreign travel was part of aristocratic education. Domestic travel began in 18th century in Europe with the emergence of fashionable era of spas and seaside resorts. Sea water was believed to be

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medical and beaches became places of leisure and entertainment (Ashamu, 2007). All of these attest to the fact that travel is as old as mankind and the evolution of tourism. Although the means of travel such as ship, airplane, etc, are connected with tourism but not all activities engaged in travel are tourism. Travel thus may be said to be the movement from the usual place of residence to another, irrespective of the motive, using a form of transport (Consgrove and Jackson, 1992). There are two types of travel. The domestic travel which relates to trips within one’s country and international travel which relates to trip from one’s country to another with the aim not connected with recreation and tourism activities. Who is a traveler? Before the advent of the use of the word ‘tourist’ in the 19th century, people have been involved in moving from one place to another. This act is also as old as humanity when the migration of the human race was recorded. The concept of “traveler” refers to any person or group of people on a trip moving from one locality to another, usually not their place of residence. A domestic traveler is any person on a trip within such a person’s home country despite the purpose or means of transport used. An international traveler is considered to be an individual who is on a trip outside his or her own home country, irrespective of the purpose of means of transportation used (Ashamu, 2007). There are two categories of travelers, visitors and other travelers or all categories of travelers who engaged in tourism activities and those who do not engage in tourism activities but still travel. They are termed as non tourists, as their purpose of travel is to engage in activities that are involved in daily living. Such people or travelers include:

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i. Persons arriving with or without a contract to work or engage in business activity in the country visited.

ii. Students or young persons in boarding establishments. iii. Diplomats, consular officers and members of the armed forces,

when traveling from country of origin to that of their places of assignment, including members of their households and dependants.

iv. Person on transit, example, air transit passengers (Ashamu, 2007).

So far, it has been established that travel is the bedrock on which tourism thrives. Thus one who is engaged in travel may be called as a tourist, as such, travel may require a stay in visiting country or place of more that twenty-four hours. A tourist is a pure consumer of time and energy as he or she is engaged in leisure activities such as sightseeing, sport or evening business activities with intent in or sub-intent of pleasure, for example, business conventions, training, etc (Bhatia, 1993). The basic reasons for people to travel and engage in tourism activities include the following, according to Bhatia (2002):

a. Pleasure: Getting away from routine daily life is perhaps the most important motive in all recent times. The desire and need for pure pleasure is very strong indeed. An individual likes to have fun, excitement and a good time whenever possible. The significance of the pleasure factor is widely utilized by travel agents and tour operators who are astute psychologists when it comes to selling the tours. Various brochures and folders particularly emphasize the please aspects of holidays and travel.

b. Relaxation, Rest and Recreation: Industrialization and urbanization have created great pressures on modem living. The stress and strain of life make it more necessary for people to take a rest and relax in a serene environment (see plate 9). Relaxation is important to keep body and mind healthy. There are various forms. To some, it is achieved by a change in environment, or sunshine

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and excitement at beaches or resorts, in seeing new places, seeking new experiences or meeting new people. However as a person recreates, relaxation is achieved to some extent.

Plate 9: Serene Environment

c. Health: Health benefits have been said to be gained from fresh air and sunshine. The development of ‘spas’ or ‘health resorts’ during the Roman Empire was as a result of the desire to seek good health. The subsequent establishment of sanatorium in Switzerland was the result of awareness of the benefits of good health. These Sans or Spas laid the foundation for resort establishments. Travel to spas and health clinics for cures and medical treatments increased, especially in countries like Italy, Austria, Germany and in the Soviet Union, along the coast of the black sea. There are numerous world famous sanatoria where a lot of tourists visit to take advantage.

d. Sports Participation: Areas or countries which are popular for events or have available recreational sports facilities, encourage and motivate travel. People keep on recreating in such activities to utilize these facilities.

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e. Curiosity and Culture: Especially in the case of history lovers. People who enjoy history or age long cultures and the stories behind them especially utilize the course of travel to satisfy their curiosity of knowing different lands and their culture, especially those having important historical or cultural associations with the ancient past or those holding special art, music, theatre or other cultural events or festivals of importance, like traditional durbar (see plate 10).

Plate 10: Traditional Durbar

f. Ethnic and Family: Interpersonal reasons stimulate this. People travel in order to visit friends and family and friends, meet or socialize with new people resident in other countries. This travel created new friendship as a result of holiday acquaintances.

g. Spiritual and Religious: Travel for spiritual reasons has been taking place for a long time. Visit to religious places has been one of the earlier motivators of travel. A large number of people have been making pilgrimages to holy places. For example, Christians visit Jerusalem or Rome (the Vatican) and that is considered to be

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very auspicious. The Muslims also visit Saudi Arabia (Mecca) on pilgrimage or some other holy places that are considered a great act of faith.

h. Status and Prestige: this is basically egocentric and for personal development. People like to undertake travel with a view to talk about their journeys to friends and families and to impress them with their new experiences or recently acquired knowledge about foreign lands. Also because it is fashionable especially if the trip is to a popular country and to show they can afford it.

i. Professional or Business: Attending conventions and conferences related to professions, industry or commerce or to some organizations to which the individual belongs, has become very popular. The conventional travel has made great advances in recent times. Many countries in order to attract tourists, have established grand convention complexes where all kinds of modern facilities are provided for business meetings, seminars and conventions, as a large number of people travel for business and professional reasons. Conventions and conferences associated with education, commerce, industry, politics and various other professions are increasingly being held in various parts of the world. Although some people travel strictly for business purposes, the majority link business travel with pleasure (Bhatia, 2002).

In pleasure travel, the reasons for travelling are varied and not always evident. Though it may be seen that the primary reason to go on tour or be involved in tourism is to be elsewhere and to escape for however short a time from the routine, stress and strains of everyday life. Rogers (2004) identified the following three essential conditions for travel to take place:

i. Enabling conditions, time and money, which are very essential requirements for travel to happen.

ii. Motivation for travel, people need either to have the desire to travel or to have a reason, such as attending a business meeting or conference.

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iii. The availability of some forms of transport For tourism travel to be embarked upon within a particular society, Rogers (2004) further suggested that:

i. A reasonable level of political stability must be observed. ii. There should be a minimum basic standard of transport and

accommodation, especially for holiday makers. iii. There should be an enabling environment that is attractive in

some way, for example, in order to see beaches or enjoy warm climates.

Classification of Tourism Tourism is a phenomenon with many dimensions. These dimensions are based on the subject and object of tourist movements. The subject of tourist relates to conditions on which the tourist flow is based, while the object of tourist is the reason or objective for which journeys are made. Classification of tourism therefore embodies both types of tourism and different modes of movement. Types of tourism are based on journey motives and the sphere such a journey covers. Basically, there are two types of tourism, namely, Domestic and International (Adejuwon, 1993). Domestic tourism is a journey within the territory of the country but outside one’s usual place of abode. Such journeys could have different objectives, such as vocation, visit to relatives, excursion, etc. International tourism on the other hand is a journey which takes one outside the borders of his country to another country for purposes other than employment. International tourism could be sub-divided into active and passive tourism. Active tourism is related to the in-bound foreign tourist to any country. In other words, the active tourist to Nigeria is that a foreigner who comes to Nigeria for the specified purpose of tourism and who within the time spent in Nigeria expends currency. Passive tourism is related to outbound tourists, that is, Nigerians traveling abroad and who through such journeys export foreign currency to their destinations.

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Domestic and International tourisms are however sub-divided into the following forms according to Travel Research Journal (1980):

i. Individual Tourism: This involves travelling alone, under either an organized or unorganized arrangement. The organized individual tourist is confined to his own plan and he travels within a calculated budget, while the unorganized is engaged in an adventure which, in most cases has no definite budget and goal. An example of such tourist is the “hippie” who depends on hitch hiking in most of his journeys and spends the night in any manner he finds himself, whereas the organized individual tourist travels for a specific purpose either on holidays, business or for health reasons. He makes his arrangements through travel agent or tour operator, before he/she undertakes the journey. He/she also makes himself comfortable during the journey.

ii. Constant and seasonal Tourism: These are associated with the general flow of tourists to a destination. In some cases, where condition permit and development of tourism has reached a very high level with varied tourist developments, the tourist flow to flow such destinations is constant throughout the year. To the western world, holiday is a compulsion; total rest and pleasure during the holidays are imperative. There is usually the family budget and the family yearly holiday itinerary taking them to different parts of the world for a minimum of one month. Africans have not developed the attitude to holiday, leisure and recreation yet. That is why the tourist market in Africa will continue to depend on foreign market that is the in-flow of foreigners or otherwise international tourists. Problems such as poor income, illiteracy, extended family, lack of basic infrastructure and motivation account for the poor participation of Africans in tourism.

iii. Weekend Tourism: This is always associated with domestic tourism or very short distance. Weekend tourism is any tourist motivated journeys, which takes place only during the weekend breaks, but is not involved in the annual holiday breaks or

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vacation. It is the characteristic of the western civilization to move out of the urban for the rural areas on weekends for a short rest. This is done in camps, caravans or in a country side houses and villas. African weekend tourism is usually associated with migration from the rural to the urban areas to attend parties, visit friends and relatives. Basically, such journeys are undertaken without any purposeful consciousness for tourism unlike in the European countries

iv. Transit Tourism: Transit tourists are those who pass through the borders of other countries to their main destinations and spend a period, not up to 24 hours or do not keep a night during such tourist. Thus an American tourist traveling to Ghana marked a brief stop-over in Lagos for not less than six hours, is classified as transit tourist.

v. Health Tourism: This involves journeys with mixed medical intentions of holidays and rest. It is different from absolute hospitalization and it is usually associated with holidaying in centres and resorts that provide therapies and utilize mineral waters for curative purposes or mountain top resorts for recuperation and rejuvenation.

vi. Sports Tourism: This is a leisure activity associated with the watching of sports such as football, volleyball or basketball; boxing and wrestling competitions. The football fans who left Kano to Benin to watch match between Kano pillars and Enyimba football clubs, are undertaking sports tourism. Sports tourism is a sphere fast growing all over the world (see plate 11).

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Plate 11: Sports Tourism

vii. Cultural and Scientific Tourism: These are associated with educative excursions, scientific journeys or conferences and meetings (see plates 12a and b). Thus a conference of Geographers Association in Nigeria or the Annual Conference of the Association of International Scientific Experts in Tourism, are aspects of cultural and scientific tourism.

Plate 12a: Cultural/Educative Tourism

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Plate 12b: Cultural/Educative Tourism

viii. Religious Tourism: These are associated with journeys like

pilgrimages to Jerusalem by Christians and Saudi Arabia (Mecca), by the Muslims (see plate 13). These travels are seasonal in nature and are organized.

Plate 13: Religious Tourism

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ix. Social Tourism: This is a form or organized tourism for the less privileged such as pensioners or low income workers. Special and subsidized facilities are provided for this group of tourist in the form of accommodation or holiday packages.

Generally, it is accepted that a tourist is a temporary visitor who spends at least one year in a country other than his/her own for the purpose of business. An international day excursionist is a visitor who does not stay overnight but who visits a country other than his/her own, for the purpose of business (Mill, 1990). A domestic tourist is defined by WTO (1981) as any person residing within a country, irrespective of nationality, travelling to a place within his own country other than his usual residence for a period of not less than 24 hours or one night. A domestic excursionist on the other hand is someone who meets the above definition but does not stay overnight. Holloway (1994) divided tourists into three categories, according to the main purpose of their visit, as:

i. Holiday tourist. ii. Business tourists. iii. Other tourists

i. Holiday tourists: These comprise people who travel to engage

in a touristic experience in their leisure time including visits to friends and relatives.

ii. Business tourists: These include those who travel as part of their work obligation. They resolve the complication of considering business visitors as tourists, by analyzing the “degree of freedom” each purpose-of-visit category implies. The holiday visitor is relatively free to choose both time of departure and destination, while the business traveler is usually highly constrained in terms of where and when to travel.

iii. Other tourists: Comprise those who travel for miscellaneous reasons, like study, religious pilgrimage, etc.

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The inclusion of non-holiday (business) category as a legitimate form of tourism, has a distinct advantage, so far as this text is concerned, since it permits the inclusion of professional sports players, their coaches, team officials and media personnel who engage in business tourism, for a wholly sport oriented purpose. Other tourist are not generally concerned with sport, except students on educational sport exchanges, and therefore excluded. Knop (1999) in his discussions of kinds of tourist generally known, maintains that two types of sport activity holidays exist:

i. The single activity holiday, where a specific sport is the overriding objective of the holiday.

ii. The multiple sport activity holiday, where participation in several sports forms an important part of the holiday experience, for example, a holiday taken at sports clubs, camp or festival.

Furthermore, he explained that sport tourist may be active or passive. Active sport tourist may be engaged in sport activity holidays in which sport is the main intention of the trip, or in holidays sport activities, where sport is incidental. Passive sport tourists can also be grouped according to how important sport is to the purpose of their trip.

Seth and Bhat (2005) explained that anyone who travels has a motive of his/her own and on the basis of that, they divided tourism into the following distinct categories:

i. Recreational Tourism: For holiday or leisure. People want to get away from the hum and rum of everyday life, to beaches, mountains and scenic countryside.

ii. Cultural tourism: People are motivated to travel in order to see the cultural heritage of their own country or those of foreign countries, that is, visit ancient historical monuments (see plate 14), places of religious interest, museums, art galleries, etc.

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Plate 14: Tomb of Umaru Nagwamatse

iii. Adventure and Sports Tourism: This is for people who play

golf, soccer, tennis, skiing, trekking, mountaineering, etc. iv. Conference and Conventions Tourism: A large number of

people now travel within their countries or abroad to attend conferences, conventions or meetings related to their business. The purpose is to gain knowledge through other people’s experience.

v. Incentive travel: To motivate people to do a better job, companies or business corporations offer to good workers, sales executives, retailers or wholesalers rewards of free holidays within or outside their countries, which include holidays, hotel meals and transportations, as a reward. Some people prefer the above to material rewards or gifts like television, fridge, etc.

In Nigeria, there are various types of tourism that people usually take part in for recreation, utilization of leisure periods and for their betterment. These include:

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i. Eco-tourism: This has to do with nature based tourism, including national parks, Game Reserves, Sanctuaries and Wetlands. These are found in Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State, Old Oyo National Park in Oyo state, Cross River National Park, Kamukku National Park in Kaduna State, Kainji Lake National Park in Niger State, etc. All these attractions have been encouraging and motivating tourists from both within and outside the country. This has contributed immensely to the development of tourism in Nigeria.

ii. Heritage/Cultural Tourism: Various forms of cultural assets, especially the festivals, are amongst the fascinating the world over. The country is a land of several dances, with museums of finest collections of arts and crafts, palaces, heritage sites and monuments. Examples could be found in Argungu Fishing and Cultural Festival in Kebbi State, the new Yam Festival in Imo State, the Eyo Festival in Lagos State, the Ojude-Oba Festival in Osun State, the Sallah Durbar Festivals in Kaduna, Sokoto, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Borno States, etc. Sharo Festivals in Sokoto, Taraba and Adamawa States, etc. These festivals have truly helped in the promotion of Nigeria as a cultural tourism destination. Tourists are attracted to Nigeria because of the country’s diverse and vibrant cultures.

iii. Sports Tourism: Nigerians are sports lovers and many have excelled in various sporting activities like soccer, athletics, golf, professional and traditional wrestling. Various stadia of international standards are scattered all over the country, for example, the National Stadium, Abuja; Ahmadu Bello Stadium, Kaduna; National Stadium Surulere, Lagos; etc. Sports lovers can now engage in recreational sports activities during their leisure time.

iv. Conference/Business Tourism: Nigeria has emerged as one of Africa’s centres for business and conferences in cities like Abuja, Kaduna, Kano, Lagos and Port-Harcourt. Various conferences are now held in Nigeria, most especially at the

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International Conference Centre, Abuja; drawing large number of tourists from different parts of the world.

v. Beach Tourism: Nigeria has over 700km of coastline, covered with unpolluted sandy beaches, ready for investment. Prominent areas and sites are Lagos Encravos, Port-Harcourt, Bonny and Ibeno beaches among others. Various recreational activities now take place at these beaches, for examples, horse riding, picnicking, sunbathing, beach soccer, volleyball, boating, rafting, etc.

vi. Holiday Resorts: These are leisure and holiday resorts developed around natural physical attractions, like Obudu Cattle Ranch Resort in Cross River State, the Farin Ruwa Waterfalls in Nasarawa State, Ikogosi Warm Spring in Ondo State, Matsirga Waterfalls in Kaduna (see plate 15), the whispering palms Beach Resort in Lagos State, as well as Port-Harcourt Tourist Beach in Rivers State.

Plate 15: A waterfall

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vii. Adventure Safari: This has to do with mountains or plateau experiences, rock climbing, trekking, etc. A very good instance is that of Wase Rock in Plateau State, Zuma Rock in Niger State, Olumo Rock in Ogun State, the Three Sister Rocks in Adamawa State, Gwoza Hills in Borno State, etc. All these serve as forms of recreational activities and sceneries.

viii. Rural Tourism: These are types of tourism that have to do with village life-styles, farm houses, ranches and plantations, hunting historic districts, gardens, etc. Various tourist villages are now found in Nigeria, for example, the Abuja tourist village, located some few Kilometers away from Abuja, the Mado Tourist Village in Plateau State among others. Places of historical interest are found, for example, Nok Terracotas (see plate 16) and Turunku in Kaduna State.

Plate 16: Nok Terracotas

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Travel Motivation Human behavior can be understood by determining the motives or concerns, which are satisfied by the action and secondly by the attitude and information that persons uses to decide what response they should make in a given situation. Motivation, according to Mayanchi (2008) are those processes, both instinctive and rational, by which educators seek to satisfy the basic drives, perceived needs and personal goals which trigger their behavior. Motivation therefore is a driving force behind a person’s action.

Without people’s motivation to travel, there would be no tourist industry. The prospective traveler’s selection of a destination is sometimes likened to a trip to a supermarket, where the shopper walks in and selects the destination from any one of the thousands of choices. Several studies concerning psychology of motivation for tourism have shown that individuals normally travel for more than one reason. Tourism is the outcome of a combination of motives or motivators.

Travel motivators can be defined as those factors that create a person’s desire to travel. Motivators are the internal psychological influences affecting individual choices. Motivations operate on individual’s travel purchase choices within the framework already set by the determinants of demand. Several attempts have been made to examine why people wish to travel or become tourists. Motivation or reasons for travel To understand behavior, some useful concepts are important to note and understand. The concepts are:

i. The motives, drives or concerns which are being satisfied by the action.

ii. The attitude and information used by the person to decide on what response to give in a certain situation.

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The motive behind why people travel is what one is trying to understand in the traveler’s behavior. Motive may be defined as a person’s basic predisposition to reach for or strive towards a general goal. This motivation may be based upon biological needs and desires acquired through an extended period of past experience. The question of motivation is basically the question of “why”? For example:

i. Why does Mr. A. want to travel? ii. Why does Miss C enjoy travelling?

The answers to these questions are usually in terms of individual’s motivation, such as:

i. Because Mr. A seeks to satisfy this curiosity about other cultures.

ii. Because Miss C enjoys the relation from her daily activities. In understanding behavior, one needs to start with reference to some kinds of active driving force the individual seeks, wants or fears. This force needs an object specifically to which it is directed and thus the relationship between this force and the specific object is the study of motivation. The principles accounting for the motivation behind an activity, however complex or simple, is the same. These principles must seek to answer questions as to why or what induces the driving forces of wanting, seeking or fear in an individual. What determines the specific nature of the objects towards which these forces are directed for different individuals? How does the individual in achieving this goal sometimes carry out series of acts that are interwoven? The answers to these questions bring forth other more important questions which are: does every person seeks, want or fear the same things? Can these be changed for another or substituted by something else to yield the same satisfaction? The question of motivation is the question of “why” do some people travel and others do not? Why does one member of a family undertake travel and others do not?

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Various studies of tourism psychology and motivation show that individuals normally travel for more than one reason, and for many, even the majority, tourism is the outcome of a combination of motivation or reasons. Before the advent of mass tourism, since the First World War, the growth in tourism was as a direct result of certain sets of influences observed more especially in the western world. Industrialization gave rise to new towns and cities to accommodate increase in the work force. Transportation via rail and water ways were introduced which cheapened the cost of travel locally and intentionally, thus leading to increase in tourist activity. Travel became more organized with the emergence of travel organizers, literature and other services. The influence of these developments in western society soon spread across other countries and elsewhere (Bhatia, 1993). The basic motives to engage in travel of tourism as may be the case even before the 19th century can be said to be curiosity, seeking wealth by engaging in trade, commerce, education and health. Apart from these, another motive may be recreation, which most certainly is as a result of industrialization. These are by no means the only basic motivators, there can be many more reasons or motives. Basic travel motivators With the beginning of mass tourism, various attempts have been made to study why people wish to become tourists. It has been stated that the basic travel motivators may be grouped into four categories:

i. Physical Motivators: These are related to physical relaxation and rest, sporting activities and specific medical treatment, all connected with the individual’s bodily health and well-being.

ii. Cultural Motivators: These are connected with the individual’s desire to travel, in order to learn about other countries, their people and heritage, expressed in art, music, literature, folklore, etc.

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iii. Interpersonal Motivators: These are related to a desire to visit relatives, friends or to leave one’s family, colleagues, neighbors, or to meet new people, make new friendships, or simply to escape from the routine of everyday life.

iv. Status and prestige Motivators: These are identified with the needs of personal esteem and development, related to travel for business or professional interests, for the purpose of education or the pursuit of hobbies.

Safety and Security in Tourist Destinations in Nigeria The issue of security of lives and property in Nigeria is very significant in tourism and recreation and indeed has been a matter of interest to those concerned with the development of tourism in the country. Tourism and recreation do not grow in areas of insecurity. We therefore need to take more urgent steps to turn the tide of things, like armed robbery, politically motivated attacks on individuals and communities on our demand. It has been observed that police and general security check-points in Nigeria’s highways have not really improved general security situation, but rather has made road travels uninteresting and uncomfortable. Countries and places that have so much to reap from tourism, must give thanks and credit to history, location, topography and their resource base. The same applies to places and countries which can trace their histories, establish facts and give aesthetic value to their environments. The beauty attracts people and other businesses, which yield profit with tourism in place. In view of this, security measures become inevitable. As tourists and tourist centres are protected, other businesses are also protected in terms of investment and what they yield. Security in Nigeria is all about protecting the lives and properties of public, as well as arranging public activities based on laid down rules and regulations, to maintain law and order. There are indeed several methods of doing that in virtually all tourist destinations in Nigeria.

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In most tourist destinations and recreational centres for examples, Daula Hotel in Kano city, blockage is used at the gate, to control and check outgoing peopled, including checking the trunk of each car passing out of the hotel and monitoring of movement of people in and out of the hotel. This usually provides some security personnel. During wedding ceremonies, parties, conferences or seminars, detachment of security personnel is assigned to make proper arrangement, to protect dignitaries and their vehicles, until they finally leave the hotel premises. The diverse nature of leisure and tourism organizations means that different industries have their unique and specific requirements in terms of safety. These may include the following:

i. Arts and Entertainment Centres: Theatres, concert halls, race tracks, parks, etc.

ii. Sport and Physical Activities: Sports centres, running track, stadia, gymnasia, fitness centres, swimming pools, etc.

iii. Heritage Centres: Historic sites, working and industrial museums, attraction centres, etc.

iv. Travel Services: National and regional tourist boards, tourist attractions, currency exchange, accommodation, catering, transport, etc.

The range of activities or facilities presented above clearly explain that safety and security are important issues to private, public and voluntary sectors in Nigeria, without which, no come will be free to engage in any worthwhile tourism and leisure pursuits in Nigeria.

Understanding the nature of crime Crime is an inevitable phenomenon. No society can thrive without crime, because there is no society of saints. Crime only becomes dysfunctional when it is too high or too low. Crimes are embodied by two components according to Oyenuga (2008), that is, “mens era”

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and “actus reus” where “mens era” is the psychological component or the motive (drive), the “actus reus” is the physical component, that is, the “act” itself. Crime is only experienced when these two components blend. Oyenuga further explained that the “mens rea” is the most important component, because without a motive, crime is considered as unintentional. As such, the punishment is milder. The belief is that the though precedes the act, and that in crime, there must be will and opportunity to escape. In crime, the existence of an easy target establishes the will to commit crime. No criminal wants to get caught. As a result, criminal are motivated when the reward is greater than the risk. This is called “hedonic calculus” or “instrumental reasoning”. Most crimes require little preparation, but leave few lasting consequences. Crimes tend to occur late at night or early in the morning, against strangers in the city, and can be committed by young and poor, who may not specialize in any particular type of crime. The main argument here is that crime requires little preparation, training or skill. The existence of an easy target is the major crux. Regardless of the type of crime there must be as easy target, without hindrance and the reward must outweigh the risk (Oyenuga, 2008).

Crimes in Tourist Environments Tourist centres all over the world attract many people. As such, there are FOUR targets for a potential criminal to choose from. The country, the visitor/tourist, the properties of the tourist and the properties of the tourist centre. In all these cases, little or no criminal skills are required. The types of crime that committed in the tourist areas include sabotage, robbery, vandalization, murder, terrorism, kidnapping and other related crimes. Out of all these crimes, terrorism comes concomitantly with loss of lives and property (Oyenuga, 2008).

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Essence of Security in Tourist Environment The maxim in the tourism industry asserts that tourist go to places that are safe and to avoid risk, whereas terrorism is mostly fatalistic, soft target to attack very vulnerable, low risk, high visibility from a media point of view, so that the attacks gain wide spread publicity for a cause, and the bigger the attack, the better. Certain national governments are destabilized by attacks undermining national economics and terrorists may seek retribution by using tourists as convenient targets. Apart from terrorism, there are other crimes as mentioned earlier, like stealing, robbery, kidnapping, assault, vandalization, murder and possible assassination. These forms of crime can be controlled by using several techniques. This is not to say that these crimes can be totally eradicated, but the situation can be reduced to the barest minimum. In murder and assassination, there is usually a primary target. In the case of killing one individual, many people may be involved by becoming victims who may not only suffer from physical injuries but also psychological injuries. As such, these two crimes secondarily result in loss of lives and properties (Awoseyin, 2005). The culprits of stealing, assault, robbery and vandalization are the easiest to identify. Vandalization is committed by the tourist themselves as an intentional act by the employees. Stealing and robbery are attributable to the closet neighbors to the tourist centres. In Nigeria, terrorist attack is not common. This is because the country has not attained the status of countries like United States of America, United Kingdom, Germany, China and others, but attacks on tourist centres can be internally generated, through internal insurrection of people who have been ill-treated by the government or the system. As such, the attack becomes an opportunity for their voice to be heard or registered. Chukwudum (2001) asserted that crime afflicting the major tourist destinations include the following: i. Director robbery of persons in city streets or parks:

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ii. Attacks on vehicles between airports and hotels. iii. Attacks on tourist vehicles on roads and highways. iv. Attacks on tourist visiting national parks. v. Acts of corruption on the part of officials at the point of entry. vi. Effects of plane crashes on the people and economy of the

country. vii. Exploitation by insincere employees of both transportation and

tourist industry. viii. Lack of power supply that is not constant which influences

crime at the tourist destinations. Identifying hazards in tourism and leisure pursuits The health and safety of any facility and event is very essential. Although many leisure and tourism events are temporary, accidents do happen at the events. Fortunately, most of the accidents are minor problems, like cuts, scratches, etc. It is true that in most cases, accidents do not just happen, but are actually caused due to carelessness of bad planning. Specific hazards have been identified with particular or specific events by Suleiman (2007), as listed below:

a) Problems with consumers: i. Dropping litters which other people could fall on and which

can cause injury. ii. Failure to comply with safety signs, for example, refusing to

obey instruction to certain areas in either parks or zoos. iii. Running in swimming pool areas. iv. Offensive behavior at events, etc.

b) Problems with staff: i. Failure to follow instruction or favoritism. ii. Inadequate training. iii. Lack of concentration due to fatigue. iv. Failure to report hazard, noticed immediately. v. Failure to follow laid down procedure, etc.

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c) Problems with buildings:

i. Damaged floors or stair-cases. ii. Unsafe or damaged doors iii. Inadequate parking spaces iv. Inadequate security. v. Accessibility to buildings by outsiders, other than consumers

or animals, etc. In addition to hazards occurring within the above categories, Suleiman (2007) listed the following external factors that may be experienced:

i. Bad Weather ii. Sea condition iii. Theft iv. Violence v. Problems with animals like bird, snakes, squirrels, etc, which

may affect machinery and cause hazards. General Ways of Protecting Tourists and Enhancing Safety and Security in Tourism Destinations in Nigeria Sustaining and enhancing safety in tourism and leisure pursuit in Nigeria is one thing that both government and public should join hands. In managing safety and security, both of them should protect visitors and residents, respond to tourist complaints and give them guidance appropriately, help protect cultural monuments and preserve the environment, combat religious crime, ensure that tourists refrain from remunerative work and provide information and guidance to them, when they are pursuing their tourism activities.

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Specifically, the following are important in ensuring security at the tourists’ destinations in Nigeria:

i. Government should provide adequate security and safety personnel that will reduce fear in the minds of tourists willing to participate in tourism in Nigeria.

ii. There should be adequate development of at least feeder roads to tourists’ sited.

iii. Provision and improvement of railway system and extension to all parts of the country.

iv. Cooperation with private airlines operators to provide air services to other states capitals and some other cities in Nigeria.

v. City drivers of vehicles should be careful of the way they handle tourists, in order to project good image of the country.

vi. Vehicles for public use should be clean and road worthy. vii. Commercial vehicle operators should have good knowledge of

tourists’ attraction in the locality and in the state to enable them attract visitors.

viii. State governments in Nigeria should maintain some degree of protective roles, because leisure and tourism are interwoven and are beneficial to all their participants.

ix. At the local government level, there should be local council tourism committee that should oversee the development, control and security of tourism activities in their localities.

In addition to the above, Suleiman (2007) suggested the following as safety measures in Nigerian tourism:

i. Staff Training: A responsible and efficient management team will have staff training as a priority. All staff should receive health and safety education training as part of their induction training.

ii. Implementing Legislation: Legislation, regulations and code of practice which cover leisure and tourism events and facilities are many and cover diverse areas. All organizations should be

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familiar with the legislation applicable to their organizations and implement them accordingly.

iii. Regular maintenance: A detailed and efficient routine maintenance programme will contribute significantly to reducing the safety hazard within the event. This is essential because it serves as an early warning system of problem that may occur, if left unattended.

iv. Corrective maintenance: Any equipment or fitting that is faulty during events should be reported to the manager, who should take appropriate steps to rectify the problem. If it is not possible to do so, it should be withdrawn immediately. If it cannot be removed or withdrawn, there should be large notice attached to it, advising consumers not to use it.

v. Gate Checks: People generally should be thoroughly searched when entering night clubs, for offensive weapons or illegal substances. This will reduce the occurrence of violent attacks.

vi. Employment of security personnel or posting them to all entrances and exists. The security should monitor the activities of consumers inside and outside facility areas.

vii. Security of Consumers’ Vehicle: Some of the measures may include: a. Effective lightening b. Regular security patrol c. Use of close circuit monitoring devices.

viii. Security of consumers’ possessions: some of the measures may include: a. Use of lockers b. Use of safes/deposit boxes c. Warning notices of theft d. Use of close circuit, monitoring devices.

ix. Terrorist attacks within tourist attractions are very possible, as explained earlier. This frequently occurs unexpectedly and very quickly. Some of the measures to curb them may include: a. Police/security surveillance of attraction sites. b. Security fences/boundaries.

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c. Extra vigilance d. Employment of bomb disposal experts. e. Use of close circuit monitoring devices.

x. Risk assessment inspection: It is no longer necessary or good to react to problems of hazard after it has occurred. Every organization must try to anticipate problems which could happen, by undertaking risk assessment and implementing possible corrective measures.

Constraints to Recreation, Leisure and Tourism Participation in Nigeria Constraints of participation in recreation and leisure are very important, because they will educate people on the reasons preventing others from regular participation in leisure activities. Leisure constraints can be conceived as the barriers to activity participation, and can best be viewed as a subset of reasons for not engaging in a particular activity. Constraints can help us to understand broader factors and motives and influences that shape people’s daily behaviors. Leisure constraints if well understood can help us to explain the changing trends in leisure preferences over time and to understand the variations in leisure choices and experiences. Crawford and Godbey (1987) classified constraints into interpersonal and structural. Interpersonal are internal constraints related to individual psychological states and attributes; interpersonal constraint result from interpersonal interaction and include constraints related to the unavailability of resources required to participate in leisure activities.

Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) presented a classic model of leisure constraints. This model indentified the Primary Sources for leisure barriers: namely structural and Interpersonal. According to the authors, structural barriers are factors which intervene between leisure preferences or choice and actual participation. These include

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financial resources, available time and climate. Interpersonal barriers involve the interactions and relationships between individuals. For example, the inability to locate a suitable partner for participation is an interpersonal barrier. Interpersonal barriers reflect psychological states and individual attributes, such as stress, anxiety, depression and socialization into (or away from) specific activities.

Alexandris, Grouios and Greece (2002) indentified the following as some of the constraints that may discourage people generally from taking active part in recreation, tourism, and leisure activities:

- Exercise makes me feel tired - Afraid of getting hurt - Feel tired to exercise - Health problems - Not fit enough - Not feel confident - My time is for work and studies - My time is for my family - My time for social commitment - Leisure interrupts my daily schedule - Time table does not fit - Do not know where to participate - Do not have anyone to teach me - Do not know where to learn it - Not skilled enough - Poor quality of facilities - Do not like the activities offered - Facilities are crowded - Transportation takes time - No opportunities near my home - Not having transportation - Cannot afford it - Nobody to participate with - Friends do not lie participation

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- Not interested - I participated and did not like it - Do not like social situation.

In addition to these constraints, the following specifically hinders participation in recreational and tourism activities by people from different communities in Nigeria, and if adequately taken care of, there may be a shift from sedentary living to active involvement in recreational activities:

i. Inadequate Information: Most people in the local communities are willing to participate in recreation and tourism but have no information on the best recreation to take part in and most times are focused on the cost implication (thinking it can only be achieved with plenty money), others take part in recreation and do not even know it since they have no idea of what recreational is all about.

ii. Inadequate Awareness: Most people enlightened on any recreational and tourism activity to take part.

iii. Poor Management: Some of the local people made attempts to take part in tourism but because of the mismanagement of the attraction centres, negative impression is created. For example, a tourist from southern part of Nigeria who visited Yankari Game Reserve for the first time was bitten by rats in his room. He may never visit the north because of bad management that could have averted that incident happening. Poor management can also lead to deformation of tourist sites.

iv. Economic Factor: Many Nigerians may like to take part in recreation and tourism but because they are faced with the problem of low income, they will rather use their money on some other necessities like food, shelter, etc.

v. Time factor: Most people have the problem of effective time management, for example, annual leave, weekends, public holidays and even off work hours that are used for other activities rather than for recreation and tourism.

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vi. Inadequate Security of Lives and property: Nigerians are in constant fear for their lives and property. For example, a tourist who was robbed on his way to a particular tourist destination may not only get a bad impression about the place, but will also discourage other people from participation in any form of recreation and tourism. Our security personnel are not effective enough and most times have little or no regards for a tourist life or his or her property.

vii. Psychological Factor: Some people in Nigeria believe that recreation and tourism are only for the rich and influential people in the society and therefore psychologically they restrain themselves from taking part in any form of recreation.

viii. Ill Health: Due to sickness and outbreak of some diseases, the ill people are discouraged from participating in recreation and tourism. Absence of good health no doubt discourages lots of people from engaging in any recreation and tourism activity.

ix. Age Factor: Some workers after getting old and retiring with little or no income become incapacitated to do any form of recreation and tourism.

x. Social Factor: If the relationship that exists between one community and another is not cordial, it will lead to crisis and disagreement between them and therefore may cause lack of interaction between the two communities. Thus no form of recreation or tourism can take place in such environment.

xi. Religious Factor: One of the major problems affecting the recreation and tourism industry in Nigeria today is religious crisis and ethnic differences. This does not allow free movement of tourists.

xii. Unstable Government and Government Policies: In the past, particularly before the democratic government came into power, people lived in fear of unstable government, not being sure of the safety of their lives and properties and therefore tried as much as possible to avoid travels and recreation, away from their environment.

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Suleiman (2004) also gave the following as some of the constraints hindering people’s participation in recreation and tourism in Nigeria:

i. Physical Limitation: People with physical disabilities such as amputated limb and loss of sight, may find it difficult to participate in recreation and tourism because of their special need and care.

ii. Personal Health Reasons: These factors are closely related to the first. For some with ailment like bronchitis, heart problem, cancer, etc, traveling and indulging in recreation is an impossible task.

iii. Lack of Time: Recreation and tourism cannot be engaged in except there is available time for it. In the fast growing world with economic hardship, a lot of people will prefer to use their recreational and tourism periods to earn money, rather than to take a break from their normal routine.

iv. Lack of Disposable Income: It is important to note that participation in tourism and recreation depends on individual’s disposable income. If other needs of the individual overlap with the disposal income, participation in recreation and tourism will be constrained.

v. Lack of Awareness: Inadequate information about the benefit that may be derived from recreation denies so many people from participation recreation. Some people are not aware of the areas to visit to enjoy recreations and tourism facilities.

vi. Psychological Reasons: Some people hate travelling and some others have phobia for flight, and therefore may not indulge I in any recreational activity that involves flying. They may not fly to get to the destination to participate in tourism. For others, the fear of water may deny them the opportunity to visit seaside resort and traveling on water bodies.

vii. Inadequate Facilities: Some areas in Nigeria, lack recreational facilities, especially in the semi-urban and rural settings. People in such areas may find it difficult to participate in recreational activities of their choice. Most cities in Nigeria lack parks and sporting complexes and those available, are poorly maintained.

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Very recently, there have been challenges to the assumption that leisure constraints necessarily restrict of inhibits recreation and tourism participation. Those studies suggest that threats to participation are often successfully overcome. If that is so, perceived constraints may not prevent actual participation in an activity. The suggestion that people can confront and negotiate leisure constraints implies that constraints are not static and stationary; they actively shape and transform our recreation and leisure expression by interacting with preference and patterns of behaviours.

Therefore constraints to recreation, tourism and leisure pursuit are areas of research for scholars and writers. Serious emphasis should be given on this line and continuous research in the above area is strongly encouraged.

Ways that Local Recreation and Tourism can be encouraged in Nigeria

The following are some of the very best ways in which recreation and tourism can be encouraged among different communities in Nigeria.

i. Awareness: this is the act of enlighten, giving knowledge and information to the public about recreation and tourism. This can be achieved through the following means.

a. Advertising and Public Relations: Within the context of marketing communications, advertising is defined by the American marketing association as any paid form of non-personnel presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services (to a targeted audience) by an identified sponsor. Advertising and Public Relations (PR) are two of the most important promotional tools or marketing functions, used in the implementation of marketing campaigns, to make the people in the Nigerian Community aware of marketing, communications, advertising, PR are considered together, because they are primarily interested to influence people

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away from the place of production, delivery and purchase of products. This influence is achieved through the use of press, television and other mass media, making advertising and PR the most pervasive and visible elements of what the consumer sees of marketing effort. But it is sensible to interpret marketing communications broadly, to include the other promotional activities of personal activities of personal selling and rate of literature, which is partly distribution and must be included in marketing communications.

b. Sales Promotion and Merchandizing: This is a short-term, non-regular, incentive nature of sales promotion. It extends beyond consumer to distribution networks and the sales. For example, local attraction can do sales promotion every time it gets 50% discount. Merchandizing is often used specifically to mean sales promotion at the point of sales.

c. Brochures and other Printed Materials: This is any form of printed tourism advertising materials paid for, out of marketing budgets, designed to create awareness among existing and prospective tourist, to stimulate demand for specified products and facilitate their purchase, use and enjoyment. So this form of awareness is good because this printed material will give more information and thus encourage them to participate in recreation and tourism. Examples of printed materials are, tour operators’ brochures, conference centre’s brochures, etc.

d. Distribution Channels in Travel and Tourism Creating Access: Distribution channel is any organized and serviced system, created or utilizes to provide convenient points of sale and/or access to consumers, away from the location of production and consumption, and paid for out of marketing budgets. Marketing channel is not limited to distribution of physical goods only. Producers of service (i.e. tourism attraction) also face the problem of their output available accessible to target population. So when our local attraction has a proper distribution channel put in place in our local communities in Nigeria, it will encourage participation in recreation tour to Obudu Cattle Ranch is a package given to a

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distributing agent or a travel agent in either in Kaduna or Kano to take part in the tour for recreation.

ii. Development of Infrastructure: According to Bhatia (1982), the growth and expansion of basic facilities by the government or high authority of a country is done in order to encourage development of economy. In other words, it is to develop recreation and tourism. The infrastructures include the following:

a. Accessibility: This has to do with the development of different means of transportation in order to encourage local recreation and tourism among different communities. These means of transport are good road network, local airport, boats or any form of local water transport. For example, if the local community of state in Nigeria has good connecting roads from Abuja to Kaduna and Kano, have over the years encouraged recreation and tourism within the states and Abuja.

b. Electricity: For any economy to function properly, it needs stable power supply. Therefore when the government of Nigeria work on the development of the economy, and thus people will be empowered and take part in recreation and tourism. It will also lead to the development of more tourist attractions and better service.

c. Sewage and Disposal System: This is the process of removal of refuse from the environment, in a manner that it does not cause hazard to the environment and does not affect people’s health. Once a clean environment is created, automatically people will be interested in travelling from one place to another, outside their homes for recreation, knowing the environment is conducive, safe and adequate for relaxation.

d. Telecommunication: In the world of today, where everything is becoming a smaller (the world is fast becoming a global village), people want to be in touch with their families and business partners while on recreation and

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tourism. Therefore, the telecommunications infrastructure, that is mobile Phones (GSM), Fax, other types of Phones, etc, gives people that pleasure of holidaying and being informed on other things. For example, if a Nigerian businessman in the city of Lagos wants to take a holiday on Mambilla Plateau in Taraba State, he wants to be sure he can call and be called.

iii. Development of Superstructure: This is the development of facilities within the attraction centre or tourism destination by the owner, being either government or private individual. When government or the private individuals put the basic infrastructure in place, that alone will encourage recreation and tourism. Where facilities exist at the attraction centre, they need to be upgraded to good quality in order to give a tempting offer to the tourists. These facilities may include the following:

a. Accommodation: Tourist accommodation includes all establishments offering overnight accommodation on a commercial or quasi-commercial basis to all categories of visitors. The market of catering is therefore excluded from the discussion. Also excluded are all forms of privately, such as second homes, caravans or chalets in private boats and wholly owned apartments in condominiums. Since people will pay for accommodation, structures and facilities should be put in place to encourage tourist to leave the comfort of their homes and get value for their money. For tourists in Nigeria to be encouraged to take part in recreation, they need to be sure that leaving the comfort of their homes is worth it.

b. Attraction: The attraction has to be attractive enough to attract tourists, that is, there should be lots of recreational activities within the attraction eg an electrically operated swing and horses in a park. A hotel with a good gymnasium will also attract the local residents to participate in tourism.

c. Accessibility within the Attraction: This is to make the movement of tourist within the attraction centre easy by

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having a good road network and signposts all over to indicate where everything is located.

d. Security: Everybody will always want to be assured that their lives and properties are safe. Once this is guaranteed in a place, tourist will feel safe and thus willing to participate in recreation and tourism.

e. Good Service and Packaging: Traditional and cultural festivals or activities of the locals of place should be packaged tours and presented nicely with good advertisement. This will encourage local recreation and tourism because people will be familiar with the activities and thus willing to be part of it. Therefore more recreational activities should be created (Anyanwu, 2000).

iv. Concession and Easy Access to Land: State governments should provide without any hindrance, land for recreation and tourism development at a subsidized rate and condition favourable to investment and realization of investment thereon. This should include the abolition of annual ground rent within the period of construction and development, for orderly development of recreation and tourism zones and their products from other usage, to avoid undue pollution.

v. Fiscal and other Incentives: In order to boost the level of private sector investment in recreational and tourism, government should treat recreation and tourism like agriculture, as a preferred sector. Government should also introduce such incentives as tax holidays, tax rebate and soft loans with long period of repayment to potential investor’s investor in recreation and tourism projects.

vi. Joint venture by the State and other Partners: Government should have equity interest in recreation and tourism projects in their areas of jurisdiction in order to lend support to such projects. Where other private business people are interested in joining hands with government to create and develop tourism, they should be encouraged.

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vii. Control and Regulation of the Industry: Government from time to time should enact laws and regulations which govern the conduct of practitioner within the industries. For example, the conduct of people who work in hotels, travels agents, tour operators, car hire operators, etc. this is to ensure that their conduct is not detrimental to the objectives of recreation and tourism industry and the security of the nation.

viii. Project Development Philosophy: In order to maximize the benefits accruable from recreation and tourism, Nigeria has been divided into major tourism zones. In view of this, government encourages private sector investment in major holiday resorts throughout the country. The local government is responsible for the development of parks, recreational centres, and beautification of localities, museums, promotion of cultural festivals and provision of support services such as within the localities. The local government in collaboration with appropriate security agencies within their areas of jurisdiction is to ensure the safety and comforts of tourists in the localities. The use of local architecture, do not only deplete the aesthetic nature of Nigerian cultural heritage but also save costs. Government has also established National Tourism Festivals on rotational basis among the states at a given period, in order to accelerate promotion of domestic tourism.

ix. Tourism Facilities: In order to facilities the growth and development of recreation and tourism, government has to:

a. Embark on a massive and aggressive publicity campaign both in print and electronic on the potentials and significance of tourism in our national development at home and abroad.

b. Simplify the issuance of visas to intending visitors by lessening the difficulties associated with it.

c. On regular basis, organize training for the purpose of re-orientation in the discharge of their duties, so as to eliminate the inconveniences faced by the visitors entering the country (Julius, 1979).

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Nigerian Tourism Policy In Nigeria, Government’s first active involvement in tourism development was on September 15th, 1962, when the Nigerian tourist Association (NTA), a quasi-government organization was established with the primary responsibility of developing and promoting tourism in Nigeria. In 1976, government in realization of the dynamic nature of tourism and the need to cope with emerging challenges, through Decree 54 of 1976, established the Nigerian tourism Board (NTB), to take over the functions of NTA (Adejuwon, 1976). The clamour for a government tourist agency with bias for commercialization, later led to the establishment of the Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation (NTDC) by Decree 81 of 1992. The main functions of the NTDC are as follows:

i. To encourage Nigerian to take holidays ii. To encourage foreigners to visit Nigeria iii. To give advice and provide information services iv. To render technical advice to States and Local Governments v. To register, classify and grade all hospitality and tourism

enterprises, travel agencies and tour operators vi. To assist in the development of tourism facilities.

The decree establishing NTDC provided for the creation of tourism boards in all states of the federation and tourism committees in all Local Governments throughout the federation. In 1999, for the very first time, Federal Government of Nigeria established a Federal ministry, dedicated to tourism matter, which is the Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In 1990, the Federal Government prioritized tourist development within the country and launched a National Policy, with the wealth of the nation and its citizens through foreign exchange generation and the creation of employment.

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Policy Objectives i. To encourage domestic and foreign sector investment in tourism

development through the introduction and implementation of incentive schemes.

ii. In conjunction with private sector investors, to identify, designate and plan areas of tourism potentials including rural enterprises and urban regeneration.

iii. To promote a favorable environment for international visitors. iv. To establish effective organization for the phasing development

and marketing of tourism, both within Nigeria and internationally.

Policy Thrust The policy is to develop sustainable tourism, by capitalizing on our heritage diversity for the promotion, development and opening up of Nigeria as a major tourism destination in Africa; to encourage Nigerians to spend their holidays in Nigeria and to know more about their country. The policy is further aimed at developing Nigeria into the regional airline main hub, with a view to coordinating and facilitating air travels to all parts of Africa and integrating all blacks, especially and particularly those of Nigerian origin (NTDC, 2001). Scope of the policy Tourism industry was accorded priority in 1990, when the national policy was launched. The scope includes:

i. To generate foreign exchange earnings. ii. To encourage and create employment opportunities. iii. To promote rural enterprises. iv. To accelerate rural/urban integration and cultural exchange. v. To ensure economic liberalization through investment

opportunities in various areas such as establishment of museums and preservation of monuments, wildlife tourism resources,

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building of tourist lodges, establishment of holiday resorts along the coast, etc.

vi. Promotion of favorable environment for foreigners to visit Nigeria (Nigeria High Commission, 2006).

Goals of the Policy Goals of the National Policy on Tourism in Nigeria were spelt out for implementation as follows, according to Etim (2008):

i. Development and promotion of non-oil export in Nigeria. ii. Development and promotion of tourism and other services. iii. To increase inflow and foreign exchange through the promotion

of international tourism iv. Encourage domestic and foreign private sector involvement on

tourism development by putting a package of incentives capable of attracting such investments.

v. To identify and designate centres of attraction for tourism by the three tiers of government in planning and promotion of such centres.

vi. To encourage even development of tourism based enterprises. vii. To accelerate urban-rural integration. viii. Promotion of favorable environment to foreigners to visit

Nigeria. ix. To foster socio-cultural unity among various groups in the

country through the promotion of domestic tourism. x. To encourage and promote private sector participation in

tourism development through the provision of incentives.

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Tourism Investment Opportunities in Nigeria Due to the importance the Nigerian government attached to the tourism industry, the following strategies as enumerated by Etim (2008) were adopted:

i. Infrastructure: Government would ensure the provision of basic infrastructure facilities, namely, good roads water, electricity, communications and hotels to centres of attraction, in order to accelerate their development for the purpose of exploiting fully their touristic value. In furtherance of their goal, the appropriate government agency responsible for tourism promotion and development shall establish and maintain close liaison with their government agencies responsible for the infrastructure.

ii. Concession of Land: State governments will provide land without any hindrance for tourism development at concessional rates and conditions favorable to investment and the realization of investment thereon. This will necessarily conclude the abolition of annual ground rent within the period of construction and development of tourism. It is mandatory for all the state governments to demarcate potential tourism zones and their products from other usage to avoid undue pollution.

iii. Fiscal and other incentives: In order to boost the level of private sector investment in tourism, it is treated by government as a preferred sector, like agriculture. Government has also introduces such incentives as holidays tax rebate and soft loans with long period of grace to potential investors in tourism.

iv. Control and Regulation of the Industry: The government has enacted laws and regulations, which govern the activities of the categories of people, involved in the industry, like hoteliers, travel agents tour operators, car hire services. This is to ensure that their conduct is not detrimental to objectives of the industry and the security of the nation, as well as tourists.

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v. Joint Venture by the State: Government takes equal interest in tourism projects in their jurisdictions in order to lend support to such projects.

vi. Project Development Philosophy: In order to maximize the benefit accruable from tourism, Nigeria has been divided into major tourism zones. In view of this, government encourages the private sector investment in major holiday resorts throughout the country. Local government is responsible for the development of parks, recreational centres and provision of sport service such as guide within the localities and to collaborate with the appropriate security agencies to ensure the safety and comfort in their localities.

vii. Tourism Facilities: To ensure the growth and development of tourism to international standards, government has put in place the following: a. Embarked in a massive and progressive publicity on the

potentials significance of tourism in the country. b. Publicized and marketed the nation’s tourism potentials

abroad. c. Simplified issuance of visas/entry permit to intending visitor

in way that they can get it immediately on application. d. Security agencies, including customs and immigration, have

been oriented to discharge their duties promptly to eliminate inconveniences.

Institutional Arrangement of Tourism Nigerian government has put in place instructional frame-work in order to implement the tourism policy strategies at national, state and local government levels, as explained below:

i. Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism: The Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism had assumed full responsibilities for policy initiation and monitoring and maintain direct links with state governments on all tourism matters.

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ii. State Ministries: State Ministries implement policies and directives from the Federal Ministry of Culture and tourism, initiate projects and control land allocations and development of tourism in their respective areas.

iii. Local Government Tourism Board: These local organs are established to locate and identify potential tourist attractions in their areas. They serve as information centres, provide tourist guide and maintain movements and museums in their areas of jurisdiction.

iv. Presidential Council on Tourism (PCT): This is the highest decision making body on tourism related matters in Nigeria. It has at least eight (8) state governors as members and the president as chairman.

v. National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism (NIHOTOUR): This is an apex infrastructure on professional career ladder for hospitality and tourism in West Africa. The agreement for its establishment in 1987 was signed between the Federal Government of Nigeria, United Nations Development Programme and International Labour Organization. Its key mandate is to develop manpower in the tourism industry (Ibru, 2004).

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Some Tourist Attractions in Nigeria

STATES CAPITALS ATTRACTIONS

Abia Umuahia - Arochukwu Caves -National war Museum -Akwette Weaving Centre -Long Juju of Arochukwu -Azumini Blue River - Museum of colonial History.

Adamawa Yola - Gashaka Gumti National Park -Sukur (UNESCO Heritage site) -Lamurde Hot Spring -Three Sister Rocks -Mandara Mountains -Kiri Dam. Akw-Ibom Uyo -Le Meridien Ibom Hotels & Golf Resort -ibeno Sand Beach/Mobile Oil Treatment -Ekpo Masquerade Festival -Oron Museum, Oron -MarySlessor House/Tomb. Anambra Awka -Ogbunike caves -Rejony Tourist Village, Oba -Agulu lake/Gully -Aguleri Game Reserve -Igbo Ukwu Archaelogical Excavation. Bauchi Bauchi -Marshal Caves, Yankari Park -Wikki Warm Spring, Yankari Park -Yankari National Park -Tafawa Balewa Tomb -Lams/Bura Game Reserve Geji Rock Painting

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Bayelsa Yenagoa -Oloibiri Oil Museum -State Transit Hall -Ogidi Shrine. Benue Markudi -Ushongo Hills -Ikwe Holiday Resort -Enemabia Warm Spring, Okpoga

-Kwag-hirPuppet Festival, Gboko/Markudi -Dajo Pottery, Makurdi -Tiv Anger Weavers, Ajikpo -J.S Tarka Foundation Centre, Markudi -Tiv Day Celebration -Montane Game Reserve -The Rare Manatee, Katsina-Ala River. Borno Maiduguri -Lafty Falls, Kuya LGA -Chad Basin National Park -Abba Kyari Zoo, Maduguri -Gwoza Hills -Sambisa Game Reserve -Kyarimi Amusement Park. Cross-River Calabar -Kwa Falls -Agbokim Fall, Ikom LGA -Obudu Cattle Ranch -Coercopan Ishie Close, Calabar

-Drill Ranch, Calabar -Cross-River National Park -Ekpe Masquerade -National Museum -Rock with Foot Print -Tinapa.

Delta Asaba -Chief Nana’s Palace -Koko Port -Escravo’s Beach. Ebonyi Abakaliki -Umuana-Afikpo Golden

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-Sand Beach -Copper Mines -Salt Lake. Edo Benin -Fugar Caves -Okomu Wildlife Santuary -Igwe Festiva, Benin -Igun Broze Casting, Benin -Ramat Park -Sakpoba Holiday Resort -Asoro Shrine -Samorikat Hills. Ekiti Ado-Ekiti -Erinta falls -Olosunta Hills, Ikere -Ikogosi Warm Spring. Enugu Enugu -International Conference Centre -Mmanwu Festival -Nike Holidays Resort -Ezeagu Tourist Complex -Nkalagu Silcon Sand -Uza-Uwani Natural Paint -Iva valley Coal Mine. FCT Abuja - Abuja Amusement Park, Wuse -Abuja Gardens, Central Area -Abuja Zoological Garden,Garki -ECOWAS Sectariate -Women Development Centre -Abuja Plant Nursery -Aso Rock -Usman Dam -IBB Golf Course -Jabi Dam& Holiday Resort Gombe Gombe -Tula Highlands/Hills -The Famous tangole Dome, Shaped Rock/Hill Formations -Dadin Kowa Dam/Tomatoes

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Factory Farm -Buba Yaro Tomb -Ashaka Cement factory. Imo Owerri -Oguta Lake Holidays Resort -Ikeji Festival, Arandizogu -Palm Beach Holidays Resort, Awo-Amana -Zooloigal & Botanical Garden, Nekede -Amusement Park, Owerri. Jigawa Dutse -Hadejia/Nguru Westland & -Bird Sanctuary, Jigawa -Birnin Kudu Rock Painting -Ringim Dyeing Pits -Baturiya Birds Sanctuary -Woman Rafi Lake. Kaduna Kaduna -Lugard Hill -General Hassan Usman -Park, Kaduna -Nok Terra Cottas -National Museum, Kaduna -Emir of Zazzau’s Palace -Jakaranda Pottery, Kaduna -Kajuru Historical Monument. Kano Kano -Roxy Amusement Park,Kano -Cooky Amusement Park, Kano -Hill & Valleys

-Dawakin Kudu Junction -Bagauda Lake -Tiga Dam -Tourist Camp, Kano -Audu Bako Zoo, Kano -Sallah Dubar, Kano -Gidan Makama Museum -Emir of Kano’s Palace -Kofar mata Dyeing Pits -Bagauda Lake Resort & -Conference Centre.

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Katsina Katsina -Gobarau Minaret, Katsina -Kusugu Well, Daura -City Walls/Seven Gate, Katsina -Jibia Holiday Resort. Kebbi Birnin Kebbi -Argungu Fishing Festival -Kanta Museum, Argungu -Gimace Shrine, Zuru. Kogi Lokoja -Ita-Okueta Weaving, Okene -Ala Gala’s palace, Idah -Inikpi Shrine/Statue, Idah -Kpata Rock, Bassa -Confluence Zone, Lokokja -Lord Lugard’s Residence -Warlord War Cenotaph -Iron of Liberty. Kwara Ilorin -Owu Water Falls, Owa -Wreckage Fall, Owa -Owe Cojita Falls -Owu, Water Falls, Owu -Tombs of Past Emirs, Ilorin -Ubo Aiyegunle Lakes. Lagos Ikeja -Bar Beach, Lagos -Badagry Beach, Lagos -Kalyetora Maiyegun Beach -Elako Beach -Tarkwa Bay, Lagos -Water Parks, Ikeja -Apapa Amusement Park -Frankid Leisure Park, Festac -Whispering Palm, Badagry -Shop Right. -Lekki Conservation Centre

-National Museum, Onikan -Slave Relics, Badagry -First Storey Building, Badagry

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-Muson Centre, Onikan -Civic Centre Victoria Island -Silver Bird Galleria -National Conservation Foundation -National Theatre, Iganmu -Oba’s Palace -Tafawa Balewa Square.

Nassarawa Lafia -Peperuwa Lake -Late Captain Maloney Tomb -Oku Akpa Picnic Centre -Ogan Fishing & Cultural Festival -Akin Warm Spring with Curative -Power, Awe LGA -Akin Salt Village -Doma Dam -Dyeing Pit & Calabar Carving -Hunid Ox-Bow lake Awe LGA -Farin Ruwa Water -Keana Salt Village -Numan Rocks, Akwanga -Ara Rocks/Festival -Eggon Hill & Caves -Keffi Hunting Festival. Niger Minna -Gurara Water Falls -Zuma Rock, Suleja -Kainji Lake National Park -Brass/Glass Work, Bida -Shiroro Dam Tourist Resort -Mayanka Water Falls. Ogun Abeokuta -Management Training Centre -Adire Market, Itoko -Olumo Rock, Abeokuta -Birikisu Sungbo Shrine -Obute-Oni Tourist Beach -Ancient Palace of Alake of -Egbaland -Ogunde Theatre Centre.

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Ondo Akure -Idanre Hills, Idanre -Own Museum -Ipale Iloro Water Fall. Osun Osogbo -Mat Weaving, Ipetu-Ilesha -Ooni’s Palace, Ile-Ife -Ife Museum, Enuwa -Osun Osogbo Festival/Shrine -Ife Bronze, Ile-Ife -Oranmiya Staff, Ile-Ife. Oyo Ibadan -Igboti Hills -Trans-Amusement Park -Captain Bowers Tower, Ibadan -Agodi Gardens, Ibadan -University of Ibadan Zoo -Aloofin of Oyo’s Palace -Calabar Carving -Ado-Awage Suspended Lake -Aso-Oke Weaving, Iseyin. Plateau Jos -Assop Falls, Riyom LGA -Shere Hills -Riyom Rock Formation -International Youth Centre -Kurra Falls -Rayfield Resort, Jos -Haleena Farms -Liberty Dam -Jos Zoo & Museum -Naraguta Leather Works -Solomon Lar Amusement Park . Rivers Port-Harcourt -Isaac Boro Park -King Jaja of Opobo Monument -OkrikikaAquatic Stadium -Ifoko Beach -Tourist Beach, P/H. Sokoto Sokoto -Tombs of Usman Dan-Fodio & the Shehus

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-Sultan’s Palace, Sokoto -Sokoto Museum. Tarabo Jalingo -Mambilla Holiday Resort Gembu -Gashaka Gumti National Park -Mamara Crocodile Pond -Kpambo & Fikiyu MysteriousRock. Yobe Damaturu -Duluna Canoe, Damaturu -Hadejia/Nguru Wildlife Project -Gujba Forest Reserve -Fika Ancient Town -Bula Tura Oasis -Mai Madrinama’s Palace. Zamfara Gusau -Kalele Hippo Pools, Maru -Kwatarkwashi Rock.

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