u  MATTER: the “stuff” of the universe. It’s anything that occupies space and has mass.

•  Matter exists in three main states:

•  SOLIDS: have a definite shape and volume.

•  LIQUIDS: have definite volume, but their shape conforms to the container

•  GASES: have no definite shape or volume

u  MATTER can undergo PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL CHANGES

•  PHYSICAL CHANGES: do not alter the basic nature of the substance

•  EX: changes in states of matter or cutting food

•  CHEMICAL CHANGES: do alter the composition of the substance

•  EX: digesting food

u  ENERGY: the ability to do work or to put matter into motion •  POTENTIAL ENERGY: when energy is inactive and stored

Potential Energy

•  KINETIC ENERGY: the ability to do work or to put matter into motion

Kinetic Energy

*Matter is the substance & energy is the mover of the substance

Forms of energy

•  CHEMICAL ENERGY:

•  is stored in the bonds of chemical substances

•  When these bonds are broken, stored (potential) energy is unleashed and becomes kinetic energy

u  ELECTRICAL ENERGY: results from the movement of charged particles

u  MECHANICAL ENERGY: is directly involved in moving matter, such as your legs moving a bike pedal.

FORMS OF ENERGY

u  RADIANT ENERGY: •  Travels in waves •  Includes:

•  X-rays •  Infrared •  Visible light •  Radio •  Ultraviolet

FORMS OF ENERGY

Electromagnetic Spectrum

ENERGY FORM CONVERSIONS

•  Generally energy is easily converted from one form to another

•  Energy conversions are not very efficient

•  Some of the initial energy supply is “lost” or unusable, and produces heat

Composition of Matter

Group 2

Elements and Atoms

u All matter is composed of elements: unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods

u Examples: oxygen, carbon, gold, copper, and iron

o  Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen make up 96% of body weight

Atomic Structure

u  The word atom comes from the Greek “incapable of being divided”

u  Atoms have 3 subatomic particles: u  Protons, which have a positive charge

u  Neutrons, which have a neutral charge

u  Electrons, which have a negative charge equal in strength to the positive charge in protons

u  A proton and a proton, as well as, an electron and an election will repel each other but a proton and an electron attract

u  Neutrons are neither attracted nor repelled

Subatomic Particles of an Atom

Planetary Model of an Atom

u The planetary model of an atom portrays the atom as a miniature solar system in which the protons and neutrons are clustered at the center of the atom at the atomic nucleus

Orbital Model of the Atom

u  The orbital model is a more modern model of atomic structure that has proved to be more useful in predicting the chemical behavior of atoms

Identifying Elements

u  Atomic Number

u  Each element is given an atomic number that is equal to the number of protons its atom contains

u  Atomic Mass Number

u  The atomic mass number of any atom is the sum of the protons and neutrons contained in its nucleus

Atomic Weight

u  The atomic weight of an atom is not equal to its atomic mass because there is more than one type of atom representing each element

u  Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons they contain

u  The heavier isotopes of certain atoms are unstable and tend to decompose to become more stable, these are called radioisotopes

u  The process of spontaneous atomic decay is called radioactivity

Molecules and Compounds Hadley Taylor, Kyle Berher, Trey Vaughan

When two or more atoms combine chemically, molecules are formed •  If two or more atoms of the same

element bond together, a molecule of that element is produced

•  For example, when two hydrogen atoms bond, the product is a molecule of hydrogen gas

•  H(atom) + H(atom) è H2 •  The product’s atomic makeup is

shown in a molecular formula •  The chemical reaction is shown by

writing a chemical equation

When two or more different atoms bind together to form a molecule, the molecule is more specifically referred to as a molecule of a compound •  For example, four hydrogen atoms and one

carbon atom can interact chemically to form methane:

•  4H + C = CH4 (methane)

Compounds always have properties different from those of the atoms making them up •  A molecule is the smallest particle of a

compound that still retains the properties of that compound

Chemical Bonds and Chemical Reactions By: Samantha Kocan, Alex Castanza, John Haynes, and Chase Stewart

u  Chemical reactions occur whenever atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms. When atoms unite chemically, chemical bonds are formed.

Bond Formation

u  A chemical bond is NOT an actual physical structure

u  It is an energy relationship that involves interactions between the electrons of the reacting atoms

Role of Electrons

u  Electrons occupy fixed regions of space around the nucleus. These regions are called… u  Electron shells

u  Energy levels

u  The maximum number of electron shells in any atom is 7

u  The electrons closest to the nucleus are those most strongly attracted to its positive charge, and those farther away are less securely held

u  As a result, the more distant electrons are likely to interact with other atoms u  Ex: Development of a child

u  During the toddler years a child spends most of its time at home and is shaped and molded by the ideas and demands of its parents

u  When the child goes to school he/she is influenced by friends and adults. The child is more likely to become involved with “outsiders” as it roams farther from home, just like electrons are more influenced by other atoms as they get farther away from the positive influence of the nucleus.

Role of Electrons continued…

u  There is a limit to the number of electrons each electron shell can hold u  Shell 1 (closest to the nucleus): 2 electrons

u  Shell 2: 8 electrons

u  Shell 3: 18 electrons

u  The only electrons important when considering bonding behavior are those in the valence shell, the atom’s outermost shell. Its electrons determine the chemical behavior of the atom.

u  *Electrons of inner shells do NOT take part in bonding*

u  When the valence shell of an atom contains 8 electrons, the atom is completely stable and chemically inactive u  When the valence shell contains less than 8, the atom will gain, lose, or share electrons

with other atoms to reach a stable state

u  When any of these events occur, chemical bonds are formed

Chemically Inert and Chemically Active Elements (pg. 34)

Types of Chemical Bonds

u  3 types of chemical bonds

u  Ionic bonds

u  Covalent bonds

u  Hydrogen bonds

Ionic Bonds

u  Ionic bonds form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another

u  Atoms are electrically neutral, but when they gain or lose electrons during bonding, their positive and negative charges are no longer balanced, and charged particles called ions are formed

u  Negatively charged ions are called anions

u  Positively charged ions are called cations

u  *Hint: remember that cation is a positively charged ion by thinking of the “T” as a + sign

Covalent Bonds

u  Molecules in which atoms share electrons are called covalent molecules, and their bonds are covalent bonds

u  In some covalent molecules, electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule. These molecules are called nonpolar covalently bonded molecules

u  *Remember not all electrons are shared equally*

u  When covalent bonds are made, the molecule formed ALWAYS had a 3D shape

u  A polar molecule is a molecule with two charged poles

u  Polar molecules orient themselves toward other polar molecules or charged particles, and they play an important role in chemical reactions that occur in body cells

Covalent Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

u  Hydrogen bonds are extremely weak bonds formed when a hydrogen atom bound to one electron-hungry nitrogen or oxygen atom is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, and the hydrogen atom forms a “bridge” between them

u  Hydrogen bonding is common between water molecules and I reflected in water’s surface tension

u  The surface tension of water causes it to ball up or form spheres when it sits on a surface and allows some insects to walk on water!

u  Hydrogen bonds are also important intramolecular bonds. Meaning they help bind different parts of the same molecule together into a special 3D shape

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

u  Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of bonds between atoms.

u  The total number of atoms remains the same, but the atoms appear in new combinations

u  Most chemical reactions have one of these three patterns

u  Synthesis Reactions

u  Decomposition Reactions

u  Exchange Reactions

Synthesis Reactions

u  Synthesis reactions occur when two or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule

u  A+B-----AB

u  Synthesis reactions ALWAYS involve bond formation.

u  Because energy must be absorbed to make bonds, synthesis reactions are energy-absorbing reactions

u  Synthesis reactions are important for growth and for repair of worn out or damaged tissues

Decomposition Reactions

u  Decomposition reactions occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions

u  AB-----A+B

u  Decomposition reactions are synthesis reactions in reverse

u  Bonds are always broken, and the products of these reactions are smaller and simpler than the original molecules

u  As bonds are broken, chemical energy is released

u  Decomposition reactions underlie all destructive processes that occur in body cells. Meaning they are molecule-degrading reactions

u  Examples of decomposition reactions in the body include: digestion of foods, and the breakdown of glycogen to release glucose when blood sugar levels begin to decline

Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions (pg. 38)

Exchange Reactions (pg. 38)

u  Exchange reactions involve both synthesis and decomposition reactions. Bonds are both made and broken

u  During exchange reactions a switch is made between molecule parts, and different molecules are made

u  AB+C-----AC+B and AB+CD-----AD+CB

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Part One of Biochemistry: Saraelizabeth Parker, Anna Mills, and Geoffrey Myers

Water

u  Universal solvent u  Solvent- liquid or gas in which smaller

substances, solutes, can be dissolved or suspended

u  Salts, acids and bases dissolve easily in water

u  Water can act as a transport and exchange medium

u  Lubricant

Abundance

u  Most abundant inorganic compound in the body

u  Makes up 2/3 of body weight

Chemical reactivity

l  Water is an important reactant l  Helps break down food - hydrolysis reaction

Cushioning and High Heat Capacity

l  Water is protective - cerebrospinal fluid (brain) - amniotic fluid (fetus) l  Absorbs and releases a lot of heat l  Prevents sudden changes in body temperature

Salts

u  Salts of many different metals can be found in the body.

u  EX. Iron u  The most common salts are Calcium and

Phosphorus u  Both can be found primarily in bones and

teeth

Salts

u  Salts easily separate into their ions through a process called Dissociation u  Since Salts are made of Ions, they are made of charged particles.

u  A salts ability to hold an electrical charge makes it an Electrolyte

Acids and Bases

u  Measured on a pH scale u  Both electrolytes- they ionize, detach in

water, and conduct electricity u  Ionization-a process in which an atom

or molecule loses or gains electrons, acquiring an electric charge or changing an existing charge

Characteristics of Acids

u  Have a sour taste and can dissolve many metals u  Lemon juice, coffee, tomato juice

u  Defined as a substance that releases hydrogen u  Also known as proton donors u  Essential acids in the body are hydrochloric, acetic, and carbonic u  Strong acids- ionize completely, weak acids- incomplete ionization u  Examples of acidic equations: HCl (hydrochloric acid)à H+ (proton) + Cl- (antion) H2CO3 (carbonic acid)à H+ (proton) + HCO3- (anion)

Characteristics of Bases

u  Bitter taste and feel slippery u  Ammonia, bleach, and seawater

u  Proton acceptors u  Common and inorganic u  Hydroxyl ions are strong bases u  When acids and bases interact, called a neutralization reaction, water

and a salt are always formed u  Example of neutralization: HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) à H2O (water) + NaCl (salt)

Acid-Base Concentrations

u  Measured on the pH scale u  Invented by Danish biochemist Sorenson

u  Based on number of protons per liter in terms of a mole u  Runs from 0-14 and one pH unit represents a tenfold change in H ion

concentration u  Acids are lower than 7, bases above, 7 is balanced

u  Distilled water and human blood is right at 7 u  Acid-base balance is regulated by lungs, kidneys, and buffers

u  buffers are chemicals present in body fluids u  Blood is the most critical thing to regulate because of its function

Organic Compounds By Parker Drummond, Michael Ester, and Cole Dixon

Organic Compounds

u  A compound containing carbon.

- ex. 1. Carbohydrates

2. Proteins

3. Fats

Carbohydrates

u  Carbs include sugars and starches

- these contain 1.Carbon 2.Hydrogen

3.Oxygen

u  Carbohydrate means “hydrated carbon”

u  Carbs are classified by size

- these sizes include 1.Monosaccharides

2.Disaccharides

3.Polysaccharides

-monosaccharide's are the “building block” of

carbohydrates

Carbs continued….

u  Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are vital for body function

- glucose is a monosaccharide and is the

universal cellular fluid

u  Disaccharides, or double sugars, are formed by a process called dehydration synthesis

- ex. 1.Sucrose (found in sugar cane)

2.Lactose (found in milk)

3.Maltose (malt sugar)

- these double sugars are broken down by the body to simple sugars (glucose)

Carbs continued…

u  Polysaccharides, or many sugars are branching chains of linked simple sugars.

- ex. Starches and Glycogen

- these lack the sweetness of the other two

sugars because of their size

Proteins

• 50% of organic matter in the body • Some play different roles • They contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sometimes nitrogen and sulfur atoms

Amino Acids

u Building blocks of proteins -they are join together in chains to form large protein molecules u All have amine groups u Acids groups u All are the same except the r-group

Fibrous and Globular Proteins

u  Proteins are classes as either fibrous or globular

-this is based overall shape and structure

u  Appear most often in body structures

-in order to provide strength in body tissues

u  Globular proteins are mobile

-play a role in all biological processes

-also called functional proteins

Adenosine Triphosphate

u  ATP- provides a form of chemical energy that is usable energy by body cell

-without it molecules can not be not be made

-without cells cannot maintain their

boundaries

-all life processes would come to a halt

Lipids

u  Are a large and diverse group of organic compounds

u  Most abundant lipids in body are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids

- triglycerides are composed of 2 types of building blocks fatty acids and glycerol

- phospholipids are a phosphorus-containing group is always part of molecule and takes place of one of fatty acids chains

- steroids are flat molecules formed of four interlocking rings

Nucleic Acids

u  They make up genes, which provide the basic blueprint of life

-they determine what organism you will be

-They direct growth and development

u  Nucleotide is a building block of nucleic acids

u  Nucleic acids-the 2 major types are DNA and RNA