Manajemen Lingkungan Ok

8/10/2019 Manajemen Lingkungan Ok

1/23

Living in

an Exponential

Age

Two

ancient kings enjoyed

playing

ches. The winner

claimed

a

prize

from

the

loser"

After

one match, the winning

king

asked

the

losing king

to

pay

him

by

placing

one

grain

of wheat

on

the

fir5t

square

of the chessboard,

two

grains

on the second

square,

four

on the third,

and so on, with

the

number

doubting

on each

square

until all 64

squares were

filled.

The

losing king,

thinking

he

wa:

getting

off

easy,

agreed

with-delight.

lt

was

the biggest mistake

he

ever

made. He

bank-

ruptifo

his

kingdom because

the number

of

grains

of wheat he

had

promised

was

probably

more

than

sll

the wheat

that

has

ever been harvested

This fictisnal

story

illustrates

the

concept of

exponential

growth,

by which

a

quantity

increases

at a

fixed

percentage

per

unit of time,

such

as

2%

per year.

Exponential

growth

is

decep-

tive. lt starts off

slowty, but

after only a

few

doublings. it

grcws

to enormous numbgrs

because each

doubling

is

more than the

total

of all earlier

growth"

Here

is another example.

Fold

a

piece

cf

pa-

per

in hall

to double its

thickness-

li

you

could

continue

doubling

the

thickness of

the

paper

42

times"

the

stack

would

reach

frorn

the earth ts

the

moon*386,400

kilometea

{240,000

mits}

away. tf

you

could double it 50 times,

the folded

paper

would

almost

reach

the sun*149 million

kilometers

(93

million

miles)

awayl

Because

of exponential

growth

in

the hu-

man

population

{Figure

1-1}, in 2008

there were

6.7

billion

people

on the

planet.

Collectively,

these

people

consume

vast

amounts of

food,

water, raw

materials,

and

energy and in

the

process

produce

huge

amounb

of

pollution

and wa5tes.

Unles5

death

rater

rise

sharply. there will

probably

be

9.3 billion

of us by

2050

and

perhaps

as many

a5

10 billion

by the

end

of

this century.

The

exponential

rate

of

global population

growth

has

declined since 1963.

[ven ro, each day

we add an

average of 225.000 more

people

to

the

earth's

population.

This is roughfy

equivalent to

adding a

new

U.5. city

of

Los Angeles.

Califarnia,

every 2 months,

a

new France

every

9

months,

and

a

new

Urited States-the warld's

third

most

popu-

lous

country*about

every 4

years.

No

one

kncrrt's

horv rnany

pecple

the

earth

can

support,

and at what level

of

resource

consump

tion or

affluence.

without

seriously

degrading the

ability of

the

planet

lo

nuppsrt us and

other

forms

of

life

and

our

economies. But

there

are

some disturbing warning

rigns. Biolo-

gists

estimate that, by the

end of this

{entury, our

exponentially

increasing

papulation

and

resource

consumption

could

qause

the

inwersible

lors

o{ one-third

to orre-half

of

the world's known

dif-

ferent

types

of

plants

and

animals.

There

is

also

growing

evidence

and concem

that

continued

exponential

growth

in

human

activities

such as burning fcsnJ

fuefs

(carbon-based

fuels

such

as

coal,

nalurai

gas,

and

gasoline)

and

clearing

forsts

will change the

earth's

climate during this

century.

This

could ruin

some

areas

for

farming, shift

water

sup-

plies,

efiminate

rnany

of

the earth'5 unique forms

of

life,

and

disrupt economigs in various

parB

of the

world.

6reaf

news;

We

have

soiutions to these

prsblems

that

we

could

implerfiEnt

within a few

decads,

as

you

will learn

in

this book.

t-6 riilli$t

years

20m

21&

.


2/23

Key

Questions

and

Concepts*

r-r What

is

an

environmentally

sustainable

society?

corucEpr

r-rn

Our lives

and

economies depend

on

energy

frorn

the

sun

{solar

capfali

and

on natural

rescurces

and

natuial

services

(natural

capital)

provided

by the earth.

colrcEpr

r-rs Living

sustainably

means living

off

the earth's

natural

income

without

depleting

or degrading

the natural

capital

that

supplies

it,

t.2

HoLt'

can

environmentally

sustainable

societies

grow

economically?

coilcEpr

r-z

Societies

can

become

more

environmentally

sustainable

through

economic

development

dedicated

to improving

the

quality

of life

for

everyone

without

degrading

the earth,i

life

-

support

systms.

1.3

How are

our ecological

footprints

affecting

the

earth?

corucEpr

r-t

A5

our

e{ological footprints grow,

we are

depleting

and

degrading

more

of

the

earth's natural

capital.

r-c

What

is

pollution,

and what

can we

do about

it?

comcEpr

r.+

Preventing pollution

is

more

effective

and

less

costlythan

cleaning

up

pollution.

t.5 tllhy

do we have

envirounnentat

problems?

corucEpr

r.sn Major

causes

of environmental

problems

are

population

growth,

wasteful and unsustainable

resource

use,

poverty.

exclu$on

of environmental

costs

of

resoutce

use

from

the

market

prices

of

goods

and services,

and attempts

to manage

nature

with

intufficient

knowledge.

coircEp?

r.se

People

with

differnt

environmental

worldviews

often

disagree

about

the seriousne:s

of environmental

problems

and

what

we

shouid do

about them.

i.o What

are

fsur

scientific principles

of sustainabilit;r?

coitcEp?

1.6

Nature

has

sustained

itself

for

billions

of

years

by

using

solar

energy,

biodivemity,

population

control,

and nutrient

cyclingi---lessons

from

nature that

ws

can

apply

to our |ifestyles

and

economies.

'Thi5

E a

corEep

corucEpr

r.tB

living

surtainably

means

living

off

the earth,s natural

income

without

depleting

or

degrading

tha natural

capital

that

eupplies it

Environmental

Science

Is

a

Study

of

Connections

in

Nature

The environment

is

everything

around

us. It includes

all of

the

livilg

and

the nonliving

things with

which

we

interact.

Arrd it

inclucies

a

complex web of

relation*

ships that

connect

us witlr

one

another

and with

rire

world we live in.

Despite

our many

scientific

and

technological

ad-

yances,

we are

utterly

dependent

on the

environrnent

for

air, water, food,

shelter,

energy,

and everything

else

we

need

to

stay

alive

and healthy.

As a result,

we

are

part

of.

and

not

apart from,

tbe rest

of nature.

This

textbook

is

an

in[oduction

to enrrironmen-

tal

science,

an interdi*tiplinrrry

srudy of how

hunrans

interact

with

the

environment

of living

and

nonliving

5

r-inrr,

$ffi,

refert

tc the

core case

study.

S'-$%1

,"t"ru

to

rt

e

uook's

sustainability

the**.

fftr

indl.utes

tinks

to

key

concepts in

eartier chapters.


3/23

Table

1-1

Major Fields

Subfields

Chemistry:

study

of

chemicals

and

their interactions

Earth

science;

itudy

of

the

planet

as

a whole

and its

nonliving

systems

$ocial

sciences:

studies

of human

society

Humanities:

study

o{

the aspectE

of the human

condition

not

covered

by

the

physical

and

social

sciences

things.

It

integrates

infonnation

and

ideas

from

the

natural

sdenat such

as

biology,

chemistry,

and

geology,

the

social scieflces,

such

as

geography.

economics, politi-

cal science,

and demography

(the

srudy

of

popularion$),

and

the hutnanities,

including

philosophy

and

ethics

(Table

I

-l

and

Figure

1,2).

The

goals

eif

environmental

science

are to

learn

haw

natare

works,

how the

environ-

ment

affeds

us, how

we affea

the

environment,

and how

n

deal

witle

enviranmnttal

prohlems

and live

more

sustainubly.

A

key

sulrfield

of

environmenml

science

is

ecol-

ogy,

the

biological

science

thar

studies

how

organ-

isms,

or

living

tbings,

interact

with

their

environnrent

and

with

each

other.

Every

organism

is

a member

of

a

certain

species:

a

group

ol

organisms

with

djstinc-

tive

traits

and,

for

sexually

reproducing

organisms,

can

mate

and

produce

fertile

of{spring,

Fnr

example,

all

humans

are

menrbers

of a species

that

lriclogis;s

lrave

nanred

llorro

sapiens

sapiens.

A

major focus

o{

ecology

is

the

study

of

ecosystems.

An

eco$y$tem

is

a

set of

Blology

study

of

living

things

(organisms)

Ecobgry:

study

of how

organism:

intrafi

\

/ith

ofie

another

and

with

their

nonliving

envirsnment

Sota$y:

study

of

plants

Zookogy

study

ol

anirnals

tiochemi*ry:

study

of

tle

chernistry

of

living

things

Climatology:

study

of the

earth.s

atmosphere

and

climate

Geology;

study

of the

earthb

origin,

history.

suriace,

and

interior

processes

Hydrology:

study

cf

ihe earthb

water

resources

Paleontologtrr

study

ol fossils

and

ancient life

Anthrcpology:

study

of human

cultures

Demography:

study

cf the

characteristics

of hurnan

populations

Geography:

study

of

the

relationships

betwesn

hurnan

populations

and the

eartht

suriace

features

Fcqnomicsl

study

of the

production,

distribution,

and

consumption

of

goods

and

services

Polftical

Science:

study

of the

principles.

processes,

and

strudture

of

government

and

political

institutions

'

Hktory:

study of information

and

ideas

about

humanityt

past

Ethics:

study

oi

rnoral

values

and

concefis

roncerning

right

and

wrong

hurnan

behavior

and responsibilities

Phib*phy:

study of knowledge

and wisdom

about

the

nature

of reality,

values,

and human

conduct

tthirs

Philorophy

Ilidogiy

Foliti(l

s.lance

gtonoflici

...,

.

eilttgfdlfry

A*l6relttilr

Figure

1-2

Environmental

science

is

an

interdisciplinary

study

of

connections

between

the

earth's

li{e-

support

system

and human

activilies.

CONCEPTS

1-1A

AND

1.18


4/23

Soht

w

E

ffiffi

ffi

Figure 1-3 Key natural resaurces

(biue)

and natunl

sewices

lorange)

that support

and

sustain

the earth's

life

and

economies

iconcept

1-1A).

organisms interacting wiih

one

another and

with

their

environmenl

of

nonlivilg

matter and energy

within

a

defined area or

volume.

We should not

confuse

environmental

science and

ecology

with

environmentallrrn, a social

movement

dedicated to

protec'ting

the earfh's

life-support

systems

for us and

all

other torms of lile. Environmentalism is

prac(iced

more in

rhe

political

and ethical arenas than

in ttre realm o{ science.

Sustainability Is

thetentral Theme

of

This

Book

Sustainability

is

the ability of the earth's

various

nat-

ural systems and

human

cultural systems and econo-

rnies to

survive and

adapt to

changing enyironmental

conditions

inde{initely"

It

is the cenral theme of

this

book,

and its

components

provide

the subthemes of

this book.

CHAPTER

1 Environmental Problems.

Their

Causes,

and Sustainability


5/23

A

critical

component

of

sqstainability

is

natural

capital-the

natural resources

and

natural services

that

keep

us and other lorms of life

alive

and

suppoil

our

econornies

(Figure

l-3). Natural

resources

are mate-

rials

and energy

in nature

thal arr egsential nr useful to

humans. These resourees

are

often

classified as

reaewable

{such

as air, water,

soil,

plants,

and wind) or

nonrfiw-

a&le

(such

as

copper, oii,

aud

coal),

Natural

servlce$

are

{unctions

of

nature,

such

as

purification

of

air

and

water,

which support life and human

economies.

Ecosystems

provide

us

with

these essential

services

aI no

cost.

One vital natural seryice is nutrient

cyding.

the

circulatian

oi

chemicals necessary for life, from the en-

vironment

(mostly

from

soil and

wateri

through or-

ganisms

and back to

the

environment

(Figure

1-4). For

exantple, tapsoil, the upper layer

of

the earlh's cnrst.

provides

the

nutrients

that support the

plants,

animals,

and

rnicroorganisms

that live on

.[and;

when

rhey

die

and decay, they resupply the

soil

with these nutrients,

Without

this service,

lile

as

we know

it

could nnt exist,

Nalural capital

is

supported by solar

capital:

en-

ergy from

the sun

(Figure

1

-3).

Take away solar energy,

and

all

rratural

capital would

collapse.

Solar

energy

warrrls the

planel

and supports

photosynthesis*a

com-

plex

chemical

process

that

plants

use to

provide

food

for

themselves and for

us

and most other

animals.

This

direct input

of snlar energy also

produces

indirect forms

of

renewable

solar energy such

as

wind, flowing water,

and

biofuels

rnade from

plants

antJ

plant

residues. Thus,

our

lives and economies

depend

on

energy from the sun

(solar

capital\ and

natural

resources

and natural seryices

(natura{

capital

)

provided

I$

the

earth

(Concept 1-1A).

A

sec6nd {omponent

of

susrainabitity-and another

sub-theme of

this

text*is

to

recognize

that many hu-

marr

activities can degrade natursl

capital by using tror-

mally renewable

resources faster than

nafure

can

reflew

them. For example, in

parts

of the world. we

are clear-

ing

mature forests much faster

than nalure

can

replen-

ish rhem.

We are also harvesting many

species

of

ocean

fish faster than

fhey can replenish themselves.

This leads us to a

third component o{ sustainability,

Environmental

scientists

search

tw

solutions to

probtrems

such

as the degradation

of

nalural

capital. However,

their

work

is limited

to finding

the scientific sotrutions.

while the

political

solutions

are

left

to

political pro-

cesses.

For example, scientific solutions

might

be

to

stop

chopping

down

biologically

diverse. mature forests,

and

to

harvest fish no faster tban

tirey can replenish tbem-

selves.

But

implementing

such

solutions could require

government

laws

and regulations.

The

search

for

solutions often involves

conflicts.

When

scientistri

argue

lor

protecting

a divrse natural

forest to help

prevent

the

premalure

extinction

of

vari-

ous life forms, for

example,

the timber company that

had

planned

to

harvest

trees

in

that

lorest might

pro-

test. Dealing

with

such

conflicts often

involves

making

trade-offs.

or compromises-a founh

component o{ sus-

tainatrility. ln

the case

of

the timber company,

it

might

be

persuaded

to

plant

a tree

farm

in an

area that

had

Rgur

t-it

Nutrient cfiing: an

important natural

service thal recycles chemicals

needed

by organisms

from the

environment

{mostly

from

soil and

water)

through

organisms and back

to

the

envuonment.

aiready been

cleared or degraded,

in

exchange

for

pre-

serving the natural forest.

Any shift

tcward

environmental

sustainability

should be based nn scientific concepts and results

that

are

widely

accepted

by

experts

in

a

particular

tield,

as

rliscussed

in

more deuil in

Chapter

2. In making

such a

shilt, individua{s

matter*another subtheme o{ this book.

Some

people

are

good

at

thinking

of new ideas and

in-

venting

innovative

technologies or

solutions.

Others

are

good

at

putting political ple$sure

on

government

ofiicials and

business

leaders,

acting either alone or in

groups

to

implernent

those solutions. In any

case, a shift

toward sustainability feir

a society ultimately depends on

the

actions of individuals

within that society.

Environmentally

Sustainable

Societies

Protect

Natural

Capital

{Zt

and Live Off Its Income

'

-\

The ultimate

goal

is

an

environmentally

sustain-

atrle

rociety-one

that

meets the current

and

fulure

basic

resource

needs of its

people

in

a

just

and equita-

ble mauner

without

compromising

the atriliry

of

future

generations

t0

meet

their

basic

needs.

Imagine

you

win

$l

million

in

a lottery.

If

you

in-

ve$

lhis money and earn

l0olo

iuterest

per year. you

will

have

a

sustainable

income

of

$100,000

a

year

that

you

can

live off

of indefinitely,

while allowing

interest

to

accumuiate on what is Ieft afier each withdrawal,

without depleting

your

capital.

However. if

you

spend

9

ONCEPTS 1.1A AND 1.18


6/23

$200,000

per year,

even while

allnwing

intere$t to ac-

cumulate,

your

capihl

of

$l

million will

be

gone

early

in

the seventh

yi:ar.

nven

i{

you

spend

only

$110"000

per

year

and stilt

allow

the interest

to

accumulate,

you

will

be

bankrupr

early

in

rhe eighteenth year.

The lesson

here is an old one:

Przted

ylur

capital and

live

off the income it

pravides"

Deplete

or waste

your

capi-

tal,

and

you

will move

from a sustainable

to

an unsus'

tainable

lifestyle.

The sarne

lesson applies

to our u$e

of the ear-th's

natural capital-rhe

global

trust

lund

that

nature

pro-

vides

for

us"

Living swsuinably

means

living otf

natural

lncomc. the

renewable

resources such

as

plants,

ani

mals. and

soil

provided

by nalural

capital.

This means

preserving

the earth's

naturai capital, which

supplies

this

income,

while

providing

the

human

yrpularion

with

adequate

and equitable

access

to this narural

in-

come

for tlre

{ore seeable

future

{Concept

1-'lB)'

The bad

news

is

that,

according io

a

gr*wing

body

of

scientific

evidence,

we are

living unsustainably

by wasl-

ing, depleting.

and degrading

the earth's

natural

capital

at

an exponerrially

accelerating

rate

(core

case

t*-

Study).*

In 2005,

the

United

Nations

(U.N.)

rn'{

released

its Millennium

Ecasyslem

Assess&ent.

'the

oDeoinq

Core Case

studv

is

used as

a

theme

to

(onnect

and

integrale

much

df

the

-mater,al

in

each

ihapter.

The

logo

rndicates these

(onrEclions

According

to

rhis

4-year

study

by

1,360

expens

from

95

couRlries,

human activities

are degrading

or over-

using

about 62a/a

at the earth's

[atural

sewices

(Fig-

ure

l-3). In its summary

statement.

the report

warned

that'human

activity

is

putting

such

a strain

on

the

nat'

ural

{unctions oI

Earth that

the ability of

lhe

planet's

ecosystenu

tt}

sustain

future

Senerations

can n(}

longer

be

taken

for

granted.' The

goerd

news is that the

report

$uggests

we

have the knowledge

and tools

to conserve

the

planet'$

natural

capital, and

it

describes

common-

sense slrategies

for doing

this.

A

erash

program

ro

gain

tretter

and

more comprehensive

information

atnul ttre

health

r:{

the

world's life-suppon

sys-

tems, See

academlc.cengage.com/biologyrmtller'

HOW

WOULD

YOU VOTE?i*il

Do

you

believe

that

the snciety

you

live

itr is

on an

unsustainable

path?

Cast

your

vote

online

at

academic

.cenga

gg.com/biology/mlller.

'Envronmental

scrnce

is

a

de\doping

lield

wtlr

many

exciting

research

fron$ers

drat

are

rdentitid

thrftghout

this book.

**To

rast

vour

vote. oo

the

wbste

fo

fiis

book

dnd

then

to the appropriale

chapter

(in

this

ca e,

ehapter

1

)

ln

rnost

(dses,

you

will

be able

to

compare

horry

you

voted

wth

others

usrng

this book.

1-2

How

Can

Environmentally

Sustainable

Societies

Grow Economically?

>

corucEpr

r-2 Soieties

n

become

more erwlronmentally

rustainabh

through

aconomic developr:rent

dedkated to

imprcving the

guality

ol life

for

everyona

without degradirtg th

eartht

ltfe support

rystems.

There

Is

a

Wide

Economic

Gap

between

Rich

and

Poor Countries

Economic

growlh

is an

increase

in

a nation'$ output

of

goods

and

services. It

i$ usually measured by

the

percentage

of

change

in

a country's gross domestic

product

(GDP):

the annual

market

value

ol all

goods

and

services

produced

by

all firms and

organizations,

foreign

and

domestic,

operating

within

a country"

Changes

in

a country's

econornic

growth per

per$orl

are

measured by

per

capita GDR

the GDP

divided by

the total

popularion

at rn.idyear.

The

value

of any

country's

currency changes

when

it

is used

in

other

countries.

Because

of

such differ-

ences,

a

basic unit

of

currency

in one counu-v

can buy

more

of

a

particular

thing

than the

basic unit

of cur-

rency

o{

another

country

can

buy. Consumers

in the

first country are

said

to

have

morc

purchasing power

than

consunrers

in

the

second country

have. To help

compare countries.

economisls use

a

tool

called

pur-

chasing

power

parity

IPPP

|

.

By ctimbining

per

capita

GDP

and

PPP,

for

any

given

country,

they

arive

at a

per

capita

GDP

PPP-a

rneasure

of

the amount

ol

goods

and services that

a country's

average

citizen could buy

in the United

States.

While econonric

growth provides

people

with

more

goods

and services, eccnomlc

development

has

the

goal

of using economic

grovwh

to improve

living

stan-

dards. The United

Nations classifies

the world's coun-

tries as economically

developed

or developing based

primarily

on their degree

of

inclustrializarion and

their

per

capita GDp

PPP. The developed

countries

(with

1.2 billion

people) include the United

States, Canada,

,Iapan,

Australia,

New Zealand,

and most

countries ol

to

CHAPTER

1

Environmental Problems, Their

Causes.

and

Sustainability


7/23

Europe.

Mosf are highly industrialized

and have a high

per

callita

GDP

PPP.

All otlrer nations

{with

5.5 billion

pople}

are classi-

fied

as

developing

countries,

most of

them

in

Afuica,

Asia,

atd Latin America.

Sone are micldle-inaffie,

mod-

erately developed

eountries such

as China. lndia, Brazil,

Tr"rrkey" Thailand,

and Mexico.

Others are

low-inwme,

least deteloped

rcuntries where

per

capita

GDP PPP is

steadily declining. These

49

countries

wirh

I I

o/o

of

the

world's

population

include Angola,

Congo, Belarus,

Nigeria, Nicaragua,

and Jordan. Figure 2

on

p.

Sl0 in

Supplemerrt

3 is a rnap

of

high-,

upper middle-, lower

middle-, and low-income

countries,

Figure I

-5

compares some key characteristics ol

de-

veloped

and developing countries. Abour

97%

of the

projected

increase

in

the wnrld'$

populaiion

between

2008

and 2050 is expected

to

take

place

in

develop-

ing countries,

which

are least equipped

to

handle

such

large popular.ion increases.

We lir.e in a world nf

haves and have-nots,

Despite

a 40-fold increase in

economic

growth

since

l9OA,

more

than trwlf

o

the

people

in tke

world live

in

extreme

poverty

afid try

ta survive on

a

daily

income of tex than

$).

Awl

one

of every

six

peoltle,

classitied

u

desperately

pool,

struggle to

swrtsive

on

less

than

$1

a day.

(AJl

dollar figures are

in

U.S.

dollars")

(Figure

t-6)

P6rcentage

of

World'e:

ffifl

re*

Ho'uratron

'

az%

Poputation

|

0

12%

growth

i.461a

Liie

expectancy

Wealth

and

income

Fesource

us6

Pollution

and

waste

77

years

67

years

Developed countries

Develeping

countries

Figurc

1-5

Global

outlaak:

conrparison

of

developed and

de-

velopinq

countrias,

2008.

(Data

from

the

United lltions

and the

World Bank)

ffirs'a

250k

Figure

1{ Extreme

Wverty:

boy searching

for

items

to sell in an open

dump

in

Rio

de Janeiro, Brazil. Many

children of

poor

families

who

live in

makeshift

shanty-

towns

in or near

such

dumps

olten

scaveng

all

day

for food

and

other

items

to

help

their {amiiies

survive.

This

mean$

that they c6nnot

go

to

schooi.

Some

economists call for

continuing conventional

economic

growth,

which lras

he$ed to increase lood

supplies, allowed

people

to live longer.

and stimulared

mass

production

of

an

aray

of useful

goods

and

ser-

vices for many

people.

They

also see such

growth

as

a

cure lor

poverty,

maintaining that

sume of the result-

ing increase

in

wealth trickles

down to countries

and

people

near

the bottom ol

the economic

ladder.

Other

economists

call

{or

us to

put

much

greater

em*

phasis

on

environmentally

sustalnable

economic

development,

This involves

using

political

and

eco-

Ronric sysfems

lo

dLtrswrage

environmentally

harmful

anrt

unsustainabie {orms

of econonric

growth

that

de-

grade

natural

capital"

and ta encourage

environmentally

beneficial and

sustainable forms

o{ economic

develop-

ment

that

heip sustain

natural

capital

(Concept

1-2).

E

Economic

Growth and

SustainabiliW

*.'l.a'

ls cxp(,nenrial

econonrie

growrh

irrcornliatil,le wirh a.{Ztt

orvironnrenral sustainahiliry?

Whar

arc

rhrec

typcs

\7

of

goods

whose

cxporrenilal

growth

would

promorc

environmcntal susrainabiliw?

CONCEPT 1-2 t.l


8/23

{-3

How

Are

Our Ecological

Footprints

Affbcting

the Earth?

>

cotucEpr r-r

A5 sur e(ologkal

footprlnts

gFow,

we

arc daplating

and degrading

more of

the

earth's

natural

capital.

Some

Resources

Are Renewabie

Froin

a

lruman standpoint, a rssource

is

anything ob-

ta:ined from

the environment

tf) meet our

needs and

vvanls.

Conservation is the management

of natural

reriources

with

the

goal

of minimizing resource

waste

and sustainirg resource

supplies for

current and future

generations.

Some

resources,

such as solar energy, fresh

air.

wind, fresh

surface

water. fertile

soil, and

wild

edible

plants,

are directiy available

for'use.

Other resources

such

as

petrol.eum,

iron,

water {ound

underground,

and

cuhivated

crops,

are not directly

available. They

trecom.e

useful

to us

only

with

some effort

and technological

ingenuity.

For

example,

petroieum

was a mysterious

fluid

until

we

leamed how

to find,

exuact.

and convert

(refine)

il.

into

gasoline,

beating oii.

and other

products

that could

be snld.

Solar

energy is called

a

perpetual

resource

be-

cause it is renewed

continuously

and is expected

to last

at lea$t

6 trillion

years

as the

sun completes its

lile

cycle,

On

a

human

time

scale,

a renewable

resource

can

be

replenished

fairly

quickiy

(trorn

hours

to hun-

dreds oI

years)

through

natural

processes

as lnng as it is

not

used up laster

than it is renewed.

Examples

include

forests, grasslalds,

fisheries,

freshwatet

fresh air,

and

tertile

soil.

The highest

rate

at which a

renewable

resoLrrce

can

be used ixdefinitely

witbout reducing

its

available sup-

ply

is

called its

sustainable

yield.

When

we

excecd

a renewable

resource's

natural replacement

rate,

the

available

supply

begins to

shrink, a

proces$

known

as

envircnmental

degradation,

as

shown in Figure

l-7.

We

Can

Overexploit

Commonly

Shared

Renewable

Resources

:

The

Tragedy

of the

Commons

There are

three types

erl

property

or

resource

rights.

Ane is

privrtt proprty

where individuals

or lirms

own

Figure

1-7

Degradation

of

normally

renew-

able natural

resources

and

services in

parts

oi

the world,

mostly

as

a

result

of rising

population

and

resoulce

use

per

per5on.

12

CHAPTER 1

Environmental

Problems,

Their

Causes,

and Sustainability


9/23

the rights

to iand,

minerals,

_or

other resources" Al-

other is

xrnrnofi

properry

wheie

the

rights

to

certain

resources

are held by large

groups

of

individuals.

For

example,

rcughiy one-third

trf

the

land

in

the

United

States

is

owned

joinily

by

all

U.5.

citizens

and

held

and

managed lor

them

by

the

government.

Another

exam-

ple

is land

that belongs

to a whole village

and

can be

used by anyone for

activities such

as

grazing

cows

or

sheep.

A

third

cafegory consists

oI

open

access

renewable

re-

soarcer', owned

by no one

and available Jor

use by any-

one at

litlle

or no

charge. Examples

of

such shared

renewable

resources

include

clean air" underground

water

supplies, and

the open ccean

and its fish.

Many

common

property

and npen access renew-

able rescurces

have

been degraded.

In

1968, biologist

Carrett l{ardin

{1915-2003}

called such degradation

the

tragedy

of

the

commons"

It

ocur$ because each user

of a shared

courmon resource

or

open-access

resource

reasons,

"If I

do

not

use this resource,

someone

else

will. The little

bir that I

use

or

pollute

is

not

enough to

matter,

anrl anyway, it's

a renewatrle

resource."

When

the

number o{

users is

small, rhis logic

wnrks. Eventually,

however.

the

cumularive effecl of

many

people

trying

to ex$loit

a

shared resource

can

exhausl

or

ruin

it.

Then

no

one

can benefit from it.

Such resource

degradation results

from rhe

push

to

satisfy

ihe short-telrn

needs

and wants of

a

growing

number

of

per:ple.

It

threatens our ability

to ensure the

long-term

economic

and

e[vironmental

sustainability

of open-acce*s

resourfes

such as clean

air or

an

open-

ocean fishery.

One

'solution

is

to

,tss shared

resources

at rates well

below their

esdmated

sustainable

yields

by reducing

use

of the resources,

regulating

access to

the resourceg,

or

doing both. For

example,

the most

conunon approach

is

for

govemments

to

estabiish laws

and regulations

Iimiting

fhe annual harvests

of

various tlpes

of

ocean

fish

that ar being harvested

at unsustainable

levels

in

their coastal

waters.

Another

approach

is

for

nations

to enter into

agreements

that regulate

accrss

to open-

access

renewable

resources

such as the fish in

the open

oceaR.

Another

solution

is to

convert open-atcess

resources

to

private

ownership.

The reasoning

is

that if

you

own

some-

thing,

you

are

more

iikeiy to

protect

y_our

investment,

That

sounds

good,

Lrut this

approacb

is not

practical

for

global

open-access

resources-such

as the

amo

phere,

the open ocean,

and most wildlife

species-that cannot

be divided

up and

converted

fo

private property.

Some Resources

Are Not Renewable

Nonrenewable

re*ources

exist

in

a fixed

quantity,

or

stotk,

in

the earth's

crust.

On a

time

scale

of

millions

to

billions

of

years. geological

processe$

can renew

such

resources.

But on the much

shorter human

time

scale

of

hrndreds

to thousands

of

years,

these

resources

can

tre depleted

much

faster

rhan

they

are

formed.

Such

exhaustible resources

include

eflergy reslurces

{such

as

coal and oi1l,

wetallic mineral

resaalces

(such

as copper

and aluminum\,

and twnmetallb miwral

raronrces

{such

as

salt and sand).

As

such resources

are depleted. human

ingenu-

ity

can

often

lind

subsritutes. Ferr

e,xanrple, during

this

century, a mix

ol

renewable

energy resources

such

as

wind.

the sun, llowing

water, and

the hear

in

the

earth's

interior could reduce

our

dependence on non-

renewable fossil fuels such

as

oil

and coal. Also, various

types of

plastics

and cnmposite

materials

can

replace

certain metals, .But

sometimes

there is no

acceptable

or

aflordable

substitute.

Some nonrenewatrle

resources,

such as

copper and

aluminum,

ean be

recycled

or reused

to

extend sup-

plies,

Reuse is

using a resource

over

and ovr in the

same

lorm.

For

example,

glass

bottles can be

collected,

washed,

and

refilled

many times

(Figure

i-8).

Recy-

cling

involves

collecting

wasle materials

and

process-

ing

them

into

new matedals.

For

example.

discarded

aluminum

cans can be crushed

and melted

to make new

Figure

1 Beuse: This

child and

his

{amily

in

Katmandu,

Nepal,

collect beer

bottles

and sell

them

for

cash to

a brewery where they will

be reused.

i

*

*

Degradation

of Commonly

Shared Resources

tfm

,l ant

llow is

rhe

degradation

of

shared renewable

re'

rnc{

sources related

to exponential

gtowtr

(Core

Case

Study)

ol the

world's

populalion

and ecouomies? Whar

are

three examples

of how most cf

us contribute to

this envin:n-

mental

degradation?

CONCEPT

1-3

t3


10/23

aluminum

cans

or other aluminum

products.

But en-

ergy resources such as

oil and coal cannot be recycled.

Once

Lrurned,

their

energy is no longer available to us.

Recycling nonrenewable

metallic

resources

takes

much less energy, water, and other

resources and

pro-

duces

rnuch less

pollution

and

environmental degrada-

tion than expk:iting virgin mctallic

resources. Reusing

such resources

takes

evcn

less

energy and

other re-

sources and

produces

less

pcllutinn

and environmental

degradation than recycling

does.

Figure

1

Consumptron of

natural resources.

The

top

photo

shows a family

of

{ive

iils

s:e.Ee

{aryners

with

all

theu

possessions.

They live

in

the

village

of

Shingkhey,

Bhutan,

in

the Himalaya Mountains, rvhrch

are sandwiched

between

China

and lndia

in

South Asia.

Th

bottom

photo

shows a

typical

U.s.

family

of four

living in

Fearland,

Texas,

with

their

possessions.

Our

Ecological

Footprints

Are Growing

Many people

in

developing countries strugglc

to

sur-

vive. Their

individual

use nl

resources and

the

resuit-

ing envircrnmental

impact is low and is clevoted mnstly

to meeting

their

basic

neecls

{Figure

l-9,

top). By con-

trasl,

many indivicluals

in

nrore affluent nations con-

sume large

arnounts

of

resources way beyond

their

basic needs

(Figure

l-9,

bottom).

Supplying

people

with resources

and dealing

with

the

resulting

wastes

and

pollution

can

have a large en-

vironmental

impact.

We can

think of

iI

as

an ecologi-

cal

footprint-the amount

ol

biologicaliy

productive

land and water

needed

to

supply

the

people

in

a

par-

dcular country or area

with

resnurces and

to

alrsorb

and

recycle ihe

wastes

and

pollution produced

by such

resource use.

The

per capita

ecological

footprint

is

the average ecological

footpr:int

of

an

individual

in

a

givcn

country

or area,

If

a

country's, or the world's, total ecological

foot-

print

is larger than its

bialogi.ml c&pacity to replenish its

renewable resources and absorb

the

resulting waste

products

and

pollution.

ir

is said to have an uolagiul

deficit.

The

world wildlife Fund

(WWF)

and the Global

Fo$tprint

Network

estimated that

in

2003

(the

latest

data availablei

humanity's

global

ecological footprint

exceeded the earth's

biologkal

capacity by about 25%

{Figure

l-10.

right).

That

figure

was aboul

88olo

in

(he

world's

high-inconre

countdes,

with

the

United States

having

the

world's

iargest

total

ecological footprint^

lf

the current exponeffial growth

in

the

use

o{

renew-

able

resources

ccrntinus, the Global

Foofprint Network

estimates

that

by

2050 humanity wiJl be

trying

to use

twice as

nany

rer'lewable resources

as the

planet

can

supply

(Figure

1-10.

bottom)

(Concept

1-3). See Fig-

ure

J

on

p.

S24 and

Figure

5 on

pp.

S27

in

Supple-

ment

4

{eir maps

ol

the human

ecologicai

footpriuts

for the

world

and

the United

States,

and

Figure

4

on

p.

526

lor

a map of countries

that

are ecoiogical debtors

and those that

are

ecological creditors,

The

per

capita ecological footprint is

an

estimate

o{

how

much

o{

the earth's renewable resources

an

individual consume.s. After the

oil"ricb United Arab

Emirateri,

the United States has the world's second larg-

est

per

capita

ecological

Iootprint.

In

2003

{the

latest

tlata

available), its

per

capita ecological foofprint

was

about 4,5

times

the average

global

footprint per person,

6 times

larger

than China's

per

capita

footprilt,

and

12 times the average

per

capita lootprint in

the world's

low-income

countries.

According

to William

Rees and Mathis

Wackernagel,

the

developers

of

the

ecologicai

fclofprint

concept,

it would take the land area

o{ about

fve

more

planet

eafths

to( the rest of

the

world

to

reach

current

U.S.

levels

of

consunption

with

existing technolngy.

Pur

another

way. if

everyone consumed

as much as

the

average American does today,

rhe earth's natural

capi-

tal cor:ld support

only about

1.3

billion

people-*not

:

14 CHAPTER

1 Environmental Problems,

Their

Causes,

and Sustainability


11/23

Toi6l

oological FootFrint

(il$ttlon

h.ctaros)

and

Sharg

of Global Ecotogicat

Cspachy

{%}

united

states

ffi

a.s1o

(af./"\

European

Un,on

2.160 (1S%)

China

2,050

{18%)

rnoraf

zlo{ry,j

Jananf

s4o(s%)

China

1.S

lndia

g

o.B

.iapanffia.a

0

1961

ts90

2000

2040

Year

Figure

1'10

Natural

capital

use and

degradation: total

and

percapita

ecological fooprints

of selected

coun-

tries

(top).

ln

2003,

humanity's

total

or

global

ecoiogical foatprint was

about

25yo higher

than the

earth's ec6iogi-

cal

capacity

{bottom)

and

is

projected

to

be twice

the

planet's

ecological

capacity by

2050.

Question:

lf

we

are

living

beyond the arth's

biological

capacity. wtry

do

you

think

the

human

population

and

per

capita reseurce

con"

sumption ar

still

growing

exponentially?

(Data

from Woddwide

Fund for

Nature,

Global Footprint

Network)

living

in

todsy's developir"lg

natjons

will

reach 1.2

bil-

iion-about

four

times the

current

U.S.

population.

China is

row the

world's

leacling

consumer

of

wheat,

rice,

meat,

coal, ferfilizers,

sleel, and

cement,

and

it

is the

second largest

consunrer

of

nil

a{ter the

United States.

China

leads

the world

in

consumption

of

goods

such

as

television sets.

cell

phones.

refrigera-

tors,

and

soon,

personal

computers.

On the other

hand,

aftr 20

years

of

industrializatian,

two-thirds

of

the

world's

rnost

poliuted

cifies are

in

China;

this

pollution

threatens

the

health

ol

urtran

dweilers.

By 2020,

China

is

projeeted

to be rhe

world's largest producer

and con-

sumer af

cars and to have

rhe

world's leading

economy

in

rerms

of

GDP

PPP.

Suppose

that

China's

economy

continues

growing

I

CASE

STUDY

exponentially at a rapid rate and its projened popula-

tion

size

reaches

1.5

billion

by ?033"

Then

China

will

China's

New

Affluent

Consumers

nced two-r.hirds

of the worldis

currenr

grain

hawest,

lVlore

than

a billion

super-affluent

consumers

in devel-

trvtce

,the

world's

current

paper

con$umption,

and

oped

countries

are

putring

imnrense

pressure

on rt.

*"t:-':ii.l-o:-Tte*'globalproductionoioil'

earth's

natural

capital.

Another

billion

consurnr.*

r..

^

According

to environmental policy

expert

Lester R'

attaining

middle-class.

aflluent

lifestyles

in rapidly

de-

Erown:

velr:piug

countries such

as

China, India,

Brazil,

South

The

western

emnontk

model-the

lossit fuel-baxd,

Korea,

and Mexico.

The

700

miilion

middle-class

con-

aat0mobile-ceftt*ed,

throwaway

economy*is

not going

surners

in

China ancl tndia

number

more

than

lwiee

to work

for

China. Nor

will

it work

far

lndia,

whith

by

the

sizc

of the

entire

U.S.

population,

and the

number

3013

k

projected

to

have

a

populatiott

even larger

than

is

growing

rapidly.

In

2006,

the World

Bank

projected

Chitu\

or

for

the

other 3

billion

people

in devdoping

that try

2030 the

number

o{ middle-class

consumers

cauntries

w4n are

also dreawing

the

'Atnerican

dream."

Per

Gapit8 Ecological

Foolprint

{hactarcs

per petson}

United State$

European

Union

e

1'5

.g

UJ

,.0

s)

c

z

o.s

today's 6.7

billion,

hr

other

words, we are

living

unsus-

tainably

by depleting and degrading

some

o{ the earth's

irreplaceable

natural

capital and

the natural renewable

income

it

provides

as nur ecological

footprints

grow

and

spread

across the

earth's

surface

{Concept

1-3),

For

more on

this subject,

see rhe

Guest Essay

by Michael

Cain

at CengageNOWrM.

See

the Case

Study that

fol-

lows

about

tlte

growing

ecological

fnotprint

Qf Cirina.

.:;

tr;r::tl";..{i:i::{l

+

f

Earth'g

ocologlcdl

Froiocred

footprtnt,

-,

cspacity

Bcological

foohrlfit

*

t

,

Your

Ecological

Footprint

Esti]nate

your

own ecological

footprinr

by

visiring

the website

www.myfaotprint.orgl.

What

are

three

things you

could

do

to reduce

your

ecr:logical

footpdnr?

CONCEPT 1-3

{5


12/23

For

more

details

on the

growing

ecological

footprint

of china,

see

rlle

Guest Essay

by

Norman

Myers

for this

chapter

ar CendageNOw.

Cultural

Changes

Have

Increased

Our

Ecological

Footprints

Culture

is

the whole

of

a society's

knowledge,

brlie{s,

technology, and pracrices,

and human cultural

changes

have

had

profound

effects on

the earth.

Evidence

o{ organisms

from

the

past

and

studies of

ancient

cultures

suggest

that

the {urrent

form

ol

our

species,

Homo

sapiens

sapiens,

has walked

the

eanh for

perhaps

90,000-195,000

years*.less

rhan

arr

eye-blink

in

the 3.56

billion

years

of

life

on rhe

earth.

Until

abour

12.00O

years

ago,

we were mosdy

hunter-gathererswlto

obtained

Iood

by

hunting

wild

animals

or scavenging

their

remains

and

garhering

wild

planrs,

Early

hunter-

gathers

lived

in

small

groups

and

moved

as

needed

to

find

enough

food

for survival.

Since

then,

three

major

cultural

changes

have

oc-

curred.

Fr'rs,

was

the agricwltural

r*olution,

wbich

began

I0,0OO-12.00O

years

ago

when

humans

learned

how

to

grow

and

breed

plants

and

animals

for

food,

clothing,

and other

purposes.

Second

was

the

industrial-medical

revolution,

beginning

about

275

years

ago when peopie

invented

machines

for

the large-scale

production

of

gnods

in

factories.

This involved

learning

how

to

get

energy lrom

fossil

fuels,

such

as coal

and

oil,

and

how

to

grow

large quantities

o{ Iood

in

an

efficient

manner.

I.-inally,

the

information-glabalization

revolution

began

about

50

year$

ago,

when

we developed

new

technolo-

gies

fnr gaining

rapid

access to

much more

information

and

reseturces

nu a

global

scale.

Each

of

these cultural

changes

gave

us m.ore

snergy

and new

lechnologies

with

which

to alier

and control

more of

the

planet

to meei

our

basic needs

and irrcreas-

ing

wants. They

also

allowed

expansion

of

the human

population, mo$tly

brcau$e

of

increased

{ood

supplies

and longer

life

spans.

Il

addition,

they

each

resulted

irr

greater

resource

use,

pollufion,

and

environmenlal

elegradation

as our

ecological

lootprints

expanded (Fig-

ure l-10)

and

allowed

us

to

dominate

the

planet.

Many

environmenhl

scientists

and

other

analysts

call for

us

to

bring

about

a new

envlronmental,

or

sus-

tafurabtlity,.evolution

during

&is

cenrury.

It

would

involve

leaming

how

to

reduce

our

ecnk:gical

footprints

and

live

more

sustainability.

For

more

background

and

details

on

environmental

history,

see

Supplement

5

(p.

S3l).

China and

Sustainability

*lJ*

lr{hat

are three

rhings

China

could

tlo to shift

,r*ura

$.{}i

more

sustainablc

consumption?

Whar

are

three

\t

things

the

United Stales,

Japan,

and

the European

Union

could

do ro

shift roward

more

sustairable

consumption?

1-4

lMhat

Is

Pollution

and

1{hat

can

we

Do

about

It?

>

corucEpr

r-4

pnaventing

pollution

ir

more

effejtfue

and

hsr cordy

dran

cle*nlng

up

pollution.

Pollution

Comes

from

a

Number

of Sources

Pollution

is

any

in

the

euvironment

t}rat :is

harmful

to the

heahh,

survival,

or

activitie$

ol

humans

or orher

organisms. Pollutants can

enter the environment natu-

rally,

such

as {rom

volcanic

eruptiors.

or

through

hu-

man

activifies,

such as

buming

coal and

gasoline

and

discbarging

chemicals

inro

rivers

and

the ocean,

The

pollutants

we

produce

come from

two

tlpes

of

sourcfs.

Point

$ources

are

single,

identjfiable

sources.

Examples

are

the srnokestack

of

a coal-burning

power

or industrial

plant

{Figure

f

-It),

the

drainpipe

of

a faclr:ry,

and

the

exhaust

pipe

of

an

automobile.

Nonpolnt

source$

are

dispersed

and often

diffi-

cult

to

identify.

Examples

are

pesticides

blown

lrom

the land

intn

the

air and

the

runofI

of

fenilizers

and

pesticldes

from

farmlands.

lawns, gardens,

and

golf

courses

into

streams

and lakes.

It

is

mucb

easier

and

cheaper

to identify

and

conirol

or

prevenl

pollution

lrom

point

sources

than

{rorn

widely

dispersed

ncn-

point

sources.

There are

two main

types

of

pollutants,

Blodegrad-

able

pollutants

are

harmful

materials

that

can

tre bro-

ken

down

by natural processes.

Examples

are human

sewage

and newspapers.

Nondegradable

pollutants

are

harmful

materials

that natural

processes

cannot

break

down.

Examples

are

toxic

chemical

elernents

such

as

Iea{

mercury.

and

arsenic

{see

Supplernent

6,

p.

S39, for

an intoduction

to

basic

cbemistry),

Pollutants

can

have

three

tlTes

of

unwanted

effecs.

Firsl,

they

can

disnrpt

or

degrade

lile-supporr

sysrems

for

humans

and

nther

specie$,

Second,

they can

damage

wildlife.

human

health.

and

properfy.

Third"

they

can

t6

CHAPTER

1

Environmental problems,

Their

Causes,

and

Sustainability


13/23

create

nuisances

such

as noise

and

unpleasant sruells,

tastes, and sights.

We

Can

Ctrean Up Follution

or Frevent

It

Consider

the

smoke

produced

by a steel

rnilJ. We

can

try

to deal with this

problem

by asking two enrirely di{-

Ierent

queslions.

One

question

is

"how

can we clean up

the smoke?"

The other is

'how

car

we avoici

producing

the smoke

in the firsr

place?"

The answers

to

these

questions

involve two dif-

ferent

ways of dealing

with

pollution.

one

is

pollu-

tion

cleanup, or

output

pollution

coutrol,

which

involves cleaning up

or diluting

pollutants

alter

they

have

been

produced.

The

other is

pollution

preven-

tion,

or

input

pollution

control,

which reduces nr

eliminates

the

production

of

pollu{ants.

snvironmental scientists

have identified three

prrrb-

lems

witlr

relying

prirnarily

on

pollution

cleanup.

Frrsl,

it is

only

a

temporary bandage

as

long

as

population

antl consumpdcn levels

grow

without

corresponding

irnprovements in

pollution

control

technology. For ex-

ample,

adcling catalyric

conveners to car exhausl

sys-

tems

lras reduced some lorrns ol air

pollution.

At the

same

tim,

increases

in the nunber of

cars and

the

to-

tal distance eaeh car

travels have reduced the effective-

ness ol this cleanup approach.

Secotd,

cleantrp often rqnoves a

pollutaut

frorn

one

part of

rhe enyironrnent

only

t{} carrse

pollution

in

an-

other. For

exanrple,

we can

collect

garbage,

bur

the

gar-

bage

is

rhen bun*d

(perhaps

causing air

pollution

and

leaving

toxic ash that mu$t be

put

somewhere),

duwped

Figure

1-11

tuint-source

air

Wllufior

trom

a

pulp

mill in New York

State

(USA)

on

the land

{perhaps

causing

water

pollutioil

through

runoff or

seepage into

groundwater),

or &arird

(periraps

causing

soil and

groundwater

pollution).

Third,

once

pollutants

hecome dispersed

into

the en-

virnnment

at harmful levels,

it

usually costs too much

or

is impossible

to reduce them t(") acceptable levels.

Pollution

prevention (Irnnt-of-the-pipe)

and

pol-

lud*n

cleanup

{end-of-the-pipe)

solutions are

troth

needed.

But

environmeltal

scientists,

sorns

econo-

mists, and some m.ajor companies urge us to

put

more

enrphasis

on

prevention

because it

works

belter and

in

the

lnng

run

is cheaper than cleanup

iConcept

1-4).

c

1-5

\AIhy Do

We

Have Environmental

Problems?

>

coilcEpr

.r-rn

Major aures of

environmental

problemo

ar

pcpnLtion grcwth,

wasteful and unsurtainable

resoure

ure,

povsrty,

rcluslon of environmental

costr

of

rsrcur{ us from

the

market

pricer

rf

goods

and

rervices.

and

attempb to

manag

natur with in:uffkient knowledge.

>

comcspr

r-rr

Feople

with different envirtnmental

wsrldviews

often

disagree

about

tha iriournss of envirsnmentat

probhmr

and what ure rhould do

aho$t

them.

Hxperts Have

Identified Five

Basic

Causes af

Environmental

Problerns

As we

nrn

more

and

more of the earth's

nalural

re-

sources

through

the

global

economy,

in

nrany

parts

oi

the

world. {orests

are shrinking. deserts

are expanding,

soils are eroding, and agricultural

lands

are

deteriorat-

ing. ln

addition,

tlre

lower atmosphere is warming.

gla-

cters

are

meltilrg,

sea

ievels

are

rising, and

stnrms

are

becoming

more destructivc.

And in

lrrany

areas,

water

tables are falling,

rivers

are running

dry,

fislreries

are

collapsing, coral reefs are disappearing, and

various

species are becoming extil'rct.

According to

a

number

of

environmenml

and

social scientists, the major causes

of

these and

other

CONCEFTS I.5A AND 1-58

17


14/23

ffi

opulalion

growth

Exeluding

environmentgl {osts

{rsm rnarkct

prices

figul" t-lZ Enyironmental

and social scientists

have

identified five

basic causes

ol the environmental

problems

we

face

{Concept

1-5A).

Quertion:

What are three

ways in which

your

lifestyle

contributes

to these causes?

Udsustainable

resour


15/23

Figure

'l-14

Global Outloak in developing counlris. one of every

three children under age

5,

such

as

this child

in

Lunda, Angola,

suffers

from

severe

malnutrition

caused by a

lack

of

calories

and

protein.

According

to

the Wgrld Health

Organization, each

day at

least 13,700 children under

age

5

die prematurely

from malnutritisn

and infectious

diseases,

most

from

drinking

contaminated

water

and being weakened

by

malnutrition.

The

great

new$ is that

we

have

the means

ta

solve fhe

environmental, healrh,

and social

problems

resulting

from

poveny

within 20*10

years

if

we

can iind the

po-

litical

and thical

will

to

act.

Afflnence

Has

F{armful

and

Benefi cial Environmental

Effects

The harmful

environmental

e{fe$s

of

poverfy

are

serious,

but

lhose

of

affluence are

much worse

{Fig'

ure l-10,

top). The lifestyles

of

rnany aflluent con-

sumers in

developed countries and in rapidly develop-

ing

countries ruch as

India

and China

(p.

l5)

are built

upein

high

levels

of consumption and unnecessary

waste of resolrrce$.

Such alTluence

is

based

mostiy or

the

assurnptinn-fueled

by mass

advertising-that buy-

ing urore and

more things

will

bring

happiness.

This

type

o{

affluence has

an

enoilnous harmful

environmental

impact.

It

takes about 27 tractor-trailer

loads of resources

per

year

to support one American,

or 7.9

billion truckloads

per year

to supporl the enlire

U.S.

population.

Stretched

end-to-end, each

year

these

trucks would reach beyond the sunl

While the

Uuited

States has

far {ewer

people

than

India. the

average

Arnerican

consunres

aliout

]0 times

as

much

as

fhe

average

citizen

nf India

and

100 times

as

much

as

the

average

person

in

the world'r

poorest

couREies. As

a resuh.

the

average environmental

im-

pact,

or ecological footprint

per

person.

in

the

United

State$

is

much larger than thr average

impact

per per-

son

in

developing countries

(Figure

l-10, top).

on the

other

haud, affluence can

lead

people

to be-

come more concerned

about

environmental

quality.

It

also

provides

nrorey

for deveioping technologies to

reduce

pollution,

environntental

degradation. and re-

sOurce waste.

Jn

the United States

and most other affluent coun-

tries,

rhe air is cleaner, drinking water

is

purer.

and

most rivers and lakes are cleaner than

they were in rhe

1970s.

ln

addititxr, the

food supply is

rtrore

abundant

and

safer,

the

incidence

ol

liJe-threateninSl

infectious

cliseases has been

greatly

reduced. lilespans are longer,

and

some

endangered

species

are

being

rescued

from

premature

extinction.

Afiluence financed these improvements

in

envi-

rcmmental

quality,

ba*ed on

greatly

increased

scientific

research and techmrlogical advances,

And

education

spurred citizens

insist

rhat businesses and elected

offi-

eials

inprove environrnenral

qualiry.

Affluence and ed-

ucation have also

heiped to reduc'e

population growth

in

most developecl countries. However, a downside to

wealth is that

it

allows the affluent to

otrtain

fhe re-

sources they

need from

almost anywhere

in

fie

world

without seeing

the harmlul

environmental

impacts

of

their

high

-consumption life

styles.

Prices Do

Not

Include

the

Value

of Natural

Capital

When

companies use

resources

to

create

goods

and

services

for

consumers, they are

generaily

not

required

to

pay

the enyironmental costs of such resource

use.

For

example,

fishing

companies

pay

the costs

of

catch-

ing

fish

but

do

nnt

pay

for

the depletion of iish stocks.

Timber

cornpanies

pay

for clear-cutting

forests

but

not

f.or

the resulting environmental degradation and loss o{

wildlile

hatritat. The

primary goal

of

these companies

ir

to maximize their

profits,

so they do not voluntarily

pay

fhese

harmful

enviroumental cosls

or

even

try

to

as$ess them, unless required

tc

dei

so

by

gnvernment

laws or regulations.

E

The

Poor.

the Affluent and Exponentially

4qiffir

lncreasing Population

Growth

':ffi,

Some

see rapid

populadon

growth

a{ the

poor

in

developing countfies as the

primary

cause of our en-

vircnmental

problems.

Orhers say that

the much higher

reseurce u$e

per person

in developed

countries

is a rnore

imponant

factor.

Which facror

do

you

think is rnore impor-

ranr? why?

CONCEPTS

1.5AAND 1.58

19


16/23

As a

result,

tlx

prices

of

goods

and sewices do

not

include their

harmJui environmental

costs. Thus, con-

sumers

are

generally

not aware

of

them

and have no

effective

way to

evaluate the resulting

harmful

effecls

on the earth's

life-support systems and

on their own

healti.

Another

problem

is

that

governments

give

com-

panies

tax breaks and

payments

called subsidies

to assist

them

in

using

resources to

run

their

businesses,

This

helps

to create

joh

and stimulate

economies. but

it

can also

result

in

degradation

o{ natural capital,

again

because fhe

value of the

natural capital is n$t

included

in the market

prices

of

gocds

and

services. We ex-

plore

this

problem

and

some

pos*ilrle

solutions

in later

chapters.

People

Have

Different

Views

about

Environmental

Problems

and

Their

Solutions

Dilfering views

about the seriousness

o{ our

environ-

mental

problenx

and what

we

should

do about

them

arise

mostly

out

of differing

environmental

wnrld-

views. Your

environmental

worldview

is

a

set of

assumptions

and

values

reflecting

how

you

think the

world

works and

what

you

think

your

role in the wr:rld

should be.

This

involves environmental

ethics, which

are our beliefs abaut what

is

right and wtong with

how

we treat the

enviromnent.

Here

are

some important

ethical

questions

relating fo

tbe environment:

.

Why should we care about

the environment?

.

Are

we

rhe most

important treings on the

planet

or

are we

just

one of the earth's

millions o{ differ-

ent forms of life?

.

Do we

have

an obligation

to see that our acfivi-

ties do

nnt

cause the

premature

extinction of

other species? Shnuld

we

try to

protecl

all species

or only some? How do we decide which species

to

protect?

.

Do we have an ethical obligation to

pass

on to

future

generations

the extraordinary

natural

world in

a

condition

at

least

as

good

as

what

we

inherited?

.

Should

every

Ferson

be

entitled

to equal

protec-

tion

from

environmental

hazards

regardless

of

race,

gender,

age, naticlnal origin, income. social c1ass, or

any

other factor?

People

wi&

widely

differing environmental

world-

views

can

take tbe

same data, be

logically consistent,

and arrive

at

quite

djf{erent conclusions

because they

start

with

different

assumptions

and rnoral, ethical,

or

religious belie{s

(Concept

1-58}. Environmental world-

views

are discussed

in

detail

in

Chapter

25, but here

is

a

brief introduction.

The

planetary

managemnt

worldvlew

holds

that

we are separate

lrom nature, that nature

exists

mainly

to meet our needs and

increasing wants, and

that we can

use our ingenuity and xechnology

to man-

age

the

earth's

li{e-suppart sy$tems, mostly

for our

benefit,

indefinitely.

The

rtewardship

worldview holds that we can

and should

manage the eanh

for our benefit, but

that

we have an erhical

responsibi.lity to be caring

and re-

sponsible

managers,

ot

stewards,

of

the earth.

It says we

should

encourage

environmentally beneficial forms of

econornic

growth

and development

and discourage en-

vironmenally

harmfu I forns,

The environmental

wisdom

worldview

holds

that we arf

part

of, and

totally

dependent

on, nature

and that

nature

exists

for all

species,

not

just

for

us.

It

also

calls

for

encouraging

earth-sustaining

forms of

economic

growth

and

deveiopment

and

discouraging

earth-degrading

forms. According to this view, our suc-

cess

depends on leaming

how

lile

on earth sustains

it-

self and

integraring

such

envirsnmerrtal wisdzfi

into

the

ways

we tbink and

act.

Many of the ideas for the stewardship

and environ-

mental wisdom

worldviews are derived

from the

writ-

ings of

A.ldo

Leopold {Individuals Matter,

p. 22).

We

Can

Learn to Make

Informed

Environmental

Decisions

The first step lclr dealing

with

an environmental

prob-

lem

is to carry out scientilic

research

on the

nature

of

the

protrlem

and to evaluate

possible

solurions to the

problem.

Once this

is

done,

other factors

involving

the

social

sciences and ttre humanities

(Table

l-l) must be

used

to

evaluate

each

proposed

solution. This involves

considering various humanvalres. what are its

projected

short-term and long-term benelicial and

harmful

envi'

ronrnental, economic,

and health

effects?

How

much

will it

eost?

Is

it

ethical? Figure

l-15

shows the major

steps

involved in making

an

environmental decision.

We

Can

Work

Together

to Solve

Environmental

Problems

Making the

sltilt

to more

sustainable

societies

and

eccnomies

involves building what snciologists call ro-

cial capital.

This

involves

gefiing

peopl

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