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mUDRR Mainstreaming Urban Disaster Risk Reduction
Summary for
Policy Makers
Oxfam
Dhaka, 2013
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Problem, Scope and Methods
Rapid Urbanization in Bangladesh is not a myth, rather a well-founded reality. It is growing faster
than it usually takes place in other parts of the world. Urbanization in Bangladesh contributed to an
unhindered growth due to severe imbalance and disparities amongst different segments of
population, inequality, poor governance at local level, and excessive centralization in the state
governance.
Cities of Bangladesh are exposed to a number of natural and human-induced hazards, which are
likely to intensify on account of climate change. Natural disasters include floods, land-slides, river
erosion, earthquake, and water-logging. Human-induced disasters include settlement growth in
hazardous locations (i.e. unstable slopes, ravines, wetlands, etc.), unplanned growth leading to
greater vulnerability, social exclusion leading to reduced capacity of marginalized communities to
cope with disasters, low building standards, and poor zoning policies. The cities in flood plains,
coastal areas and hilly areas are highly exposed to hazards. The hazards in urban areas are not very
distinct from those of rural areas, except a few hazards that developed from the urbanization
process: fire, building collapse, and water logging.
The above mentioned problems are examined through a comprehensive policy, institutional and
expenditure context for urban disaster risk reduction to find out and explore the possible entry
points for mainstreaming DRR into the urban planning and budgeting process. This is simple in its
current sense but very complex in architecture with a lot more puzzles to unpack through careful
and in-depth analysis of urban disaster risk reduction under existing policy-institutional-expenditure
(or budget) niche of urban development. There is further scope to narrow down the analysis to
“range of capacity” necessary for disaster risk reduction to be embedded within the rules and
allocation of business of different service proving entities.
The study therefore tried to identify the entry points in the following sectors/community of practices
in urban development.
- City Governments (City Corporation and Municipalities)
- Key Urban Service Providers (Water, Electricity, Gas, Health, Civil Defence, Education,
Sanitation, Drainage, transport)
- Key Physical Planning Entities (Development Authority/ Wing in Municipalities/ Regulatory
Authority)
- Key Development Planning Mechanisms (Mid Term Budget Framework, Annual
Development Programme, Long and Mid Term Plans)
- Key Policy Mechanisms (Parliament and Ministry; Disaster Policy, Urban Policy, Poverty
Reduction Policies, Education Policy, Health Policies and other policies; and policy making
process)
- Private Sector
- Mass Media
- Civil Society Engagement
The objectives of the study were-
• To evaluate the extent to which DRR is considered in urbanization process and it’s development
and whether it is in the process of mainstreaming
• Mapping of key government service providers departments in urban areas with its nature of
services offered through various development schemes / programme particularly those which
has high potential to address disaster risks
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• Capacity and Resource (technical) assessment (situation analysis and needs assessment) of
urban planning authorities/departments in context of DRR mainstreaming
• Explore strategy entry point for mainstreaming in Media and Private Sector Organizations.
Scanty literature that has been reviewed and document consulted don’t provide adequate
understanding about the intensity, extent and depth of the problem. It does not provide even the
definitive scope or area of intervention. However a painstaking effort has shed light on the key
conceptual areas, notion categories and analytical framework to wane on a deep search on scope of
mainstreaming DRR in urbanization. The study has analyzed findings from interviews with city
governments, literature and review of policy papers and documentation. The merit of such analysis
does not provide insight into mainstreaming but on outlining multipurpose aspects where scope of
mainstreaming be found.
As the study is first of its kind in Bangladesh, too many spheres are being incorporated on an
assumption that each may come into use in both gaining better understanding. The study has
provided auto logical discussion, meaning an understanding about that basic elements theorized
about. Key concepts, notions, categories, models, schemes are being explained and devised. Finding
suggests that there are multiple scopes for mainstreaming DRR in urbanization. The study was
conducted in eight selected cities and the cities were selected purposively to represent all types of
cities and all types of hazard exposures.
Table1: Selected case cities
Primary Hazard
Context
Metropolitan City
(secondary hazard)
A Category Pourashava
(Secondary Hazard)
B/C Category Pourashava
(Secondary Hazard)
Earthquake Rangpur
(Flood)
Mymensingh
Flood Dhaka
(Earthquake)
Sirajganj
(River Bank Erosion)
Nageshwari, Kurigram
(Earthquake)
Cyclone Khulna
(Waterlogging, Tidal Flood
and Sea Level Rise)
Mongla Port
(Sea Level Rise, Salinity and
Tidal Flood)
Flash Flood
Durgapur, Netrokona
(Earthquake)
The study has addressed the issue of urbanization both in terms of process and spatial analytical
framework. This has put the study on a social theoretical and methodological ground. Of course, a
mere descriptive detail would have been useful lacking thoughts. Further, the study has provided
extensive scope to cover problems related to urban growth, emergence of new phenomena with
urbanization, and transformation of cannon of poverty from rural to urban centres.
Therefore, the scopes of mainstreaming DRR in Urban discourses need to have a deeper and closer
look into social, political, economic, cultural, ecosystem and spatial process. This idea is being
elaborated in the study. The study took an effort to offer several analyses for scoping of the
mainstreaming DRR in urbanization.
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Table 2: Analytical framework of the study
Analysis Rationale P/S
Policy
Analysis
To understand the policy context in which the urban institutions function. Also
to explore the policy trade off, policy conflicts and policy gaps for urban
disaster risk reduction.
Primary
Institutional
Analysis
To understand the institutional architecture for urban services and regulations.
To explore the institutional chaos or miss-match to address urban disaster.
Critical review of the institutional coordination and synergy and if gap exists.
The analysis is also very important to explore the right entry points for urban
disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation.
Primary
Planning
Process
To understand the planning process and the niche for disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation under the planning niche. Also to identify
potential planning gaps to address the DRR-CCA in urban context.
Primary
Budget
Analysis
To understand the contesting needs for financing the urban development and
specific budget constraints and scopes for addressing urban DRR-CCA. Secondary
Capacity
Analysis
To understand the capacity to undertake technical and strategic actions for
DRR-CCA in urban contexts and also capacity to utilize DRR-CCA resources with
proper fiduciary responsibility. This is also important to understand the fiscal
capacity of urban governments. The capacity will be analyzed in the areas of
‘appraisal’, ‘design’, ‘implementation’ and ‘monitoring and evaluation’ aspects.
Secondary
Urban Risk
Analysis
This is an important review of secondary literatures to support the whole
scoping study. Secondary
Political
Economy
Analysis
This analysis helped to explore the role of different stakeholders other than
their formal role and how the differential interest influences the decision
environment. Media and Private Sector were important stakeholders in the
discussion along with civil society organizations.
Primary
Key Policy Points for Mainstreaming Urban Disaster Risk Reduction
1. Critical Threshold: Urban Disaster Risk is growing faster than the
urban growth in Bangladesh Urbanization is growing rapidly in Bangladesh. Migration from villages to cities contributed to
very rapid urban growth, from 7.6% to nearly 25% between 1970 and 2005 in Bangladesh
(Government of Bangladesh 2010). Population growth in cities is faster now than any time
before, and the urban population stood at 42 million (26.6% of total population) in 2007 and as
of UN projections, it is expected to rise to 65 million within a decade (GoB, 2010).
Table 3: Growth of urban population in Bangladesh 1974 1981 1991 2001 2011
Number % Number % Number % Number % Number
(mil)
%
Urban 6273603 8.78 13535963 15.05 20872204 18.73 31077952 23.1 44.06 29.1
Rural 70124397 91.79 76376037 84.95 90582981 81.27 99444646 76.9 107.35 70.9
Total 76398000 100 89912000 100 111455185 100 130522598 100 151.41
Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
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While urban population is growing faster, poverty incidences are increasing in urban areas,
especially in those pockets recurrently affected by disasters. If we analyse last 10 years' poverty
incidence gap between rural and urban areas, we find that the poverty incidences in disaster
affected or adjacent urban areas increased than rural areas, but in non-affected areas, the urban
poverty has reduced in last 5 years.
Figure 1: Changes in rural-urban head count poverty differences in Bangladesh (HIES 2005, 2010)
The figure 1 indicates that at national level, gap between incidence of rural and urban poor
decreased 2 percent, which means urban poor is increasing compare to rural poor. This trend
remained similar in Rajshahi and Sylhet Divisions. In Dhaka and Chittagong divisions, the rural
poverty has increased (while Chittagong is an extreme case) than urban poverty. On the other hand,
urban poverty has significantly increased in Barishal and Khulna Divisions and in fact after 2010, the
urban poverty is higher than rural poverty in these two divisions. Interestingly, during 2007 and 2009
these two divisions experienced two of the largest and most long lasting disaster effects: Cyclone
Sidr in 2007 and Cyclone Aila in 2009. The core assumptions of the city governments of these two
divisions are that intense and frequent disaster episodes and climate change induced vulnerabilities
and stresses (salinity intrusion, sea level rise, increased drought, etc.) has pushed people from rural
areas and came to urban areas with huge uncertainties and this happened very rapidly in these two
divisions after Cyclone Sidr and Aila.
Using a disaster perspective to the poverty incidences, we can easily find that in Khulna and Barisal
division, the urban poor is higher than rural poor (Figure-1), which is a clear indication of the lasting
impact of cyclone Sidr and Aila in the rural areas of the two divisions rural areas pushed the
vulnerable and rural poor to the urban centres. This is probably one of the clear indications of the
significance of addressing urban poverty from the view point of establishing resilient cities in
Bangladesh. The figure also indicates that the readiness of urban centres to provide livelihoods,
water-sanitation and shelters for millions of highly disaster and climate migrants from rural
communities is a upcoming challenge both from urban poverty and urban resilience point of view.
This is a critical risk triggering factors in urban areas. The urban area is here then only seen as a lure
of survival. This might trigger unplanned urbanization, weaken the regulations and social and
political harmonization will be difficult due to unjust economic pressure on different segment of
peoples. The inequality in urban areas will increase and thus urban vulnerabilities will increase. We
observe rapid growth of slums in different cities in Khulna and Barishal divisions. There is also faster
growth of small and medium cities. The rapid urbanization in the adjacent areas of the large cities is
a critical risk factor as they are growing within rural administration violating the urban development
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
National Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Sylhet
2005 Rural-Urban poverty
2010 Rural-Urban poverty
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principles and standards and increasing risks of fire, building collapse (as happened in Savar),
waterlogging, drainage congestions and industrial and road accidents. Interestingly, this risk is
growing faster than urban growth itself.
The vulnerabilities of urban centres are very distinct from the rural areas. Urbanization, as a process
largely contributes this vulnerability, and this needs to be briefly described. The major urban
vulnerability factors are: land associated with urban habitats, livelihoods of city dwellers, social
structures, governance, policy and institution, economies and urban poverty. The precarious land-
population ratio has made land the most precious resource in Bangladesh, especially in the urban
areas. The rapid rise in the urban population in recent decades through migration has made the
urban land situation even more critical. The supply of urban land is highly limited and subject to
many competing claims, such as for commercial, industrial, administrative, educational, recreational,
military, roads, and most of all residential purposes. Urban land prices in Dhaka city have increased
eighty to hundred-fold during 1974-2000.1 The scarcity of urban land initially created a growing
problem of squatting in unused public land, but more recently cities like Dhaka and Chittagong have
seen a growth in informal settlements on privately appropriated public land where the poor have to
pay for their housing.
The existing urban land-use planning did not consider urban hazards in their planning principles and
guidelines. Only recently, Detailed Area Plan (DAP) of Dhaka City (2008) has considered flood and
water-logging issues, and the building code considered earthquake and fire hazard. However, the
implementation of the DAP and Building Code still remains a big implementation challenge for the
City.
1Hafiz, Roxana, 2007, The Urban Frontiers of Dhaka: Creating Space Above Water, in Sarwar Jahan& K.M. Maniruzzaman (ed)
Urbanization in Bang;ladesh: Patterns, Issues and Approaches to Planning, Bangladesh Institute of Planners, Dhaka
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2. Urbanization offers both vulnerability and opportunity for citizens
Urbanization in Bangladesh is currently producing more disaster vulnerabilities for the citizens. Lack
of risk based land use planning in all cities and lack of implementation of whatever detailed area
plan/master plan/ land use plan exists for different cities. The poor land based governance is a cause
of such vulnerabilities. The political economy of urban land and built environment is determined by
elitism (law makers, bureaucrats, housing business community, lawyers, political leaders, and
journalists). 90% of the citizens, who are not part of such an elite society, are living in more at risk
environments due to severe compromise of the build environment in cities. Moreover, it is being
observed that there are issues of social justice and economic feasibility which also provide
disincentives to the citizens and general city dwellers. The tragedy of commons is another important
aspect, which reveals that the Bangladesh society possesses a civic culture that is adverse to
government intervention in the market. We have identified this perspective as “privatism,” namely
the belief that government should restrict its role to helping the business community and seeking
market solution to social problems. However, this reliance on the market leads to certain problems.
We saw that the desire to plan the development of urban/city regions arose because the private
market is not capable of providing adequate amounts of infrastructure. These are other problem
with the market as a mechanism for allocating resource. Two associated limitation involves, on the
one hand the difficulty of maintaining the quality of life when public resources are involved and on
the other, the problem of uneven development in a capitalist society. The summary of a few key
aspects are as follows.
Poverty and Employment
Self employment (41.63%) is the key employment areas in most cities and still 9.52% remain unpaid
or unemployed. This indicates that urban employment is a key area to address the vulnerabilities.
Figure 2: Percentage of employed persons 15+ by status in employment (labour survey, 2005-2006)
13.87
0.27
41.9
21.68
1.99
10.71
7.48
0.7
0.51
0.88
31.2
0.28
41.63
9.52
2.34
2.21
10.07
0.93
0.69
1.13
8.48
0.27
41.99
25.46
1.88
13.35
6.68
0.63
0.45
0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Regular Paid …
Employer
Self Employed
Unpaid Family …
Regular Paid Worker
Day Labours (Agri)
Day Labours (Non …
Domestic Worker
Apprentice
Others
Rural Urban Bangladesh
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Bangladesh is experiencing a rapid urbanization process as more and more people from rural areas
come and settled in the cities for a variety of reasons. Urban population in Bangladesh has grown
from 5 per cent in 1971 to 28.1 per cent in 2010, suggesting that approximately 46 million people
are currently living in the urban areas. The United Nations Population Division estimates that with a
current annual growth rate of over 3 per cent, the urban population of Bangladesh will reach 53
million in 2015. Although, the country faces a number of micro and macro economical challenges, in
the recent past, the country has maintained a steady growth rate.
Rural-urban migration process, which initiates urban growth and drives it forward, resulted in
unplanned growth of settlements in and around the city creating such a chaotic environment that it
became an imperative to prepare urban plans for the control of unplanned growth and for directing
urban development in the preferred areas of urban expansion.
Thus the initiative was taken to prepare the Khulna Master Plan 1961 followed by a three tier
development plans in the form of Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area plan in 2001 for
Khulna. In continuation of the process, the Khulna Development Authority (KDA) has undertaken the
project of preparation of Development Plan for Mongla and its surrounding places to bring the area
under planning coverage and thereby include the area within its jurisdiction.
Drainage
Figure 3: Percentage of budget/ expenditure for drainage in case cities
There is no drainage development plan for most areas undertaken by LGED or Water Development
Board. Shortage of drainage and sewerage coverage cannot drain-out the wastewater and rainwater
together. (RAJUK 2010, location 10) Shortage in fund allotment on Public, Private and Semi-Govt.
obstruct the efficient establishment of drainage system. This is posing a serious threat to new
settlements due to water logging. (RAJUK 2010, location 9)
Expansion of Dhaka city with a rapid urban growth obstructed the existing natural drainage system.
Natural drainage system of the area drained out the excess rain water during monsoon and saved
the area from flooding. Landholding people are observed more devoted to self-interest rather than
to community interest. Most natural drainage systems are being filled up by new land owners and
developer companies unethically. As a result, rainwater becomes clogged at certain places causing
0.7
3%
2.4
9%
0.7
3%
0.5
6%
2.6
6%
0.1
7%
1.7
8%
5.5
7%
0.8
7%
0.2
5%
0.6
9%
6.8
9%
0.0
7%
5.6
8%
0.3
2%
0.4
5%
0.1
0%
0.5
6%
2.0
0%
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City
Percentage of Drainage Expenditure in Total Budget
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
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water stagnation and flooding. Many of these natural drainage system still exist which must be
protected under the laws to save the area from flood vulnerability.(RAJUK 2010, location 10)
Housing
The Dhaka city falls in the earthquake zone 11 of the Seismic Zonic map of Bangladesh and the area
Dhaka-Narayanganj-Demra (DND) is lying between the Pagla Fault and Balu Fault as per Atlas of
Urban Geology, Volume 11, ESCAP, UN, New York, 1999 (RAJUK, 2010. DAP Location-5). The soil
formation is more or less irregular. The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) value in the project area
varies from 1 to 15 up to 15m depth (ibid). A belt of minimum 750 meters on both sides of the fault
has to be considered as ‘high alert’ zone. As per the plan suggested all buildings (about 20% of the
total DND area) should be constructed taking into account seismic forces in order to minimize any
future human hazard. Moreover, special soil treatment is required for heavy civil construction
(ibid).On the other hand the Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for location-6 is also suggested to follow
building construction codes. Almost the entire pan (DAP) of DMDP area mentioned geological fault
line and their strategy.
There is a master plan for Mymensingh Pourashava, which has been prepared in 1993 by Local
Government Engineering Department (LGED). As it was not gazetted by government it cannot follow.
After all to understand the planning status of the area it analyzed. Strategy or guideline for housings
are absent in the master plan. On the other hand a strategic plan entitled ‘Mymensingh Strategic
Development Plan’ for next 2011-2031 years is ongoing on with the support of Comprehensive
Disaster Management Programme (CDMP).
Earthquake zone-I comprising the northern and eastern regions of Bangladesh with the presence of
the Dauki fault system of eastern Sylhet and the deep seated Sylhet fault, and proximity to the highly
disturbed south-eastern Assam region with the Jaflong thrust, Naga thrust and Disang thrust, is a
zone of high seismic risk with a basic seismic co-efficient of 0.08. Durgapur Pourashavas falls under
this zone which is considered as the most vulnerable seismic zone of Bangladesh. In spite of being a
high earthquake vulnerable zone Durgapur has not mentioned any specific guideline or strategy. At
last it may say that most of the master plans are not facilitated to DRR.
Table 4: BNBC guideline for development of minimum standard housing
One Room Houses
Maximum Density 175 units per house
Minimum plot in metro area 30 m2
Minimum plot outside metro area 40 m2
Minimum plot in dense inner city 25 m2
Two Room Houses
Minimum plot in metro area 40 m2
Minimum plot outside metro area 60 m2
Minimum plot frontage 3.5 m2
Height limitation 6 storeys, but 5 storeys preferred
The compromise of the BNBC guideline, DAP provisions and building regulations are key vulnerability
aspect in cities in Bangladesh.
Sanitation
Provision of sewerage system is concerned with the activities of municipality. If we only consider the
case of Dhaka city, we find that it is the responsibility of Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage
Authority (WASA) and they only can ensure 20% areas of Dhaka city linked with sewerage system.
(RAJUK, 2010, location 10 and 9)
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Figure 4: Percentage distribution of household by availability of toilet facilities in the urban HHs
Figure 5: Percentage distribution of household by toilet facilities in urban area
Hygienic disposal of sewage poses a problem for rural as well as urban community. Traditional
disposal system is a threat to public health. National sanitation program aims to mitigate this
problem with the installation of sanitary toilets throughout the country. In Khulna there is no
sewerage network in Khulna city. Therefore, most of the toilets are onsite facilities, like pit latrines
or septic tanks. The number of toilets with septic tanks is much higher. 68.4 per cent toilets have
septic tanks and the remaining 31.6 per cent toilets are with pit. (KDA Master Plan, 2009). A proper
sanitation is the opportunity to address the health and flood risks in cities and the missed
opportunity will create more vulnerability to disaster.
63
.07 72
.17
76
.24
67
.3 71
.5
72
.5 78
.6
79
.8
80
.7
77
.14
82
.96
79
.6
33
.88
25
.52
21
.65
25
.34
24
.6
20
19
.4
18
.5
18
.4
21
.8
15
.38
19
.2
3.3
5
2.3
1
2.1
1
7.3
6
4
7.5
2 1 0.9 1.7
7
1.6
6
1.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1994 1997 1998 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Sanitary Other None
10 | P a g e
Figure 6: Percentage of budget/ expenditure on sanitation of case cities
Water
In terms of water supply, the Detailed Area Plan for location-2 mentioned 93% households do not
get water supply facility and only 7% households get this service which is of medium quality.
In future a project may be undertaken to procure river water and supply after treatment. In
municipal areas restriction on private extraction may be imposed but there is no restriction on
private extraction in non-municipal areas.
Figure 7: Percentage of drinking water source in urban areas (source: SVRS 2009)
Master Plan of Durgapur Pourashavas-2012 mentioned that there is no water supply network. There
is no difficulty of getting drinking water from hand tube wells in winter. The water supply within the
pourashava is by hand tube wells only. 100% people of the pourashava uses hand tube wells as a
source of drinking water. For water supply system development no strategy or proposed plan has
been developed. Authority of Durgapur Municipality needs to take step to develop the water supply
network in their internal system. On the other hand water supply system of Mymensingh
pourashava is covered by pipe line in the length of 103km. 54km pipe line is under construction. The
pourashava is able to provide daily 1,20,46,000 litres of water where demand is required in the
amount of 199,50,000 litre of water. So Water supply system is good here.
0.1
1%
0.0
0% 0
.15
%
0.5
6%
0.0
5%
0.0
4%
0.1
3%
0.0
0%
0.0
2%
0.6
9%
0.0
1%
0.0
5%
0.0
9%
1.2
2%
0.0
3%
0.5
6%
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
11 | P a g e
Figure 8: Budget/ expenditure on water supply in case cities
The situation with respect to water supply is also quite unsatisfactory in Dhaka city. The Dhaka
Water and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) was capable of supplying only 1500 million litres of water in
2004 (75% of demand) per day for the population of about 13 million while the demand of the
consumers was 2000 million litres per day. Only a limited segment of the population is enjoying
adequate supply of water.. The situation in low income communities is much worse. The supply of
piped water at the municipality level is also extremely unsatisfactory. Only about 35% of the
municipalities have some facility for supply of piped water and that is also in a very limited area in
each of these municipalities. In 2005 only 28.8% of the households in urban areas had connection to
piped water supply.
Table 5: Water supply in Dhaka city
Sl.No Items Unit Quantity
1 Water line Km 2396.61
2 Water connection Nos. 222613
3 Daily water production MLD 1524.87
4 Deep tube wells in operation Nos. 447
5 Deep tube wells of other agencies Nos. 691
6 Overhead tank in operation Nos. 38
7 Water treatment plant Nos. 2
Source: DWASA, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Land Use
Land use pattern varies from one city to another city, and it depends on many factors: population
size, types of occupation, types of land, economic and social potentials, environment, and broader
risk and opportunities of the city. Land use of Dhaka city is composed of commercials, industrial,
residential, mixed uses (both residential & commercial), road network, recreational area and water
body. Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for location-6 has mentioned the existing land use where urban
residential zone (76.84%) is predominant. Commercial and industrial uses are the 2nddominant uses
that have been mentioned in almost all of the DAP of DMDP area. It has found that water bodies
(3.80%) are very limited in all the DAP (RAJUK, 2010, Location-6). Inadequate road network (8.23%
in Airport-Demara Bypass area-DAP) is seen in all the master plan -most of the roads are very
narrow, even the major roads are less than 30ft wide. The plan proposed a road network
0
5
10
15
20
25
30Budget/Expenditure on Water Supply (In million taka)
Water supply 2010-11 Water supply 2011-12 Water supply 2012-13
12 | P a g e
characterized by 5 major road widths (300ft, 100fr, 80ft, 60ft and 40ft). In the Detailed Area Plan
(DAP) for Group-C suggested that all the canals, rivers that are entering the area will remain as they
are . It is strongly recommended that canal re-excavation and recovery should be made of all old
existing khals, ponds as well as channels that once crisscrossed the planning area.
The DAP for Airport-Demara bypass area (location-6) has proposed land use plan which is covered by
the zoning of Main Flood Flow Zone, Sub-Flood Flow Zone, Water Supply Protection Zone, Mixed Use
Planned Zone, Mixed Use Spontaneous Zone, Industrial (Low Hazard), Industrial (Moderate Hazard),
Open Space, Restricted Airport Overlay, Restricted Flood Protection Reserves, Restricted
Military/Public Safety, Restricted Road/Utility Reserves and Restricted Special.
Most of the documents have formulated some strategy and guiding principles for sustainable land
use that all land use should be environment friendly, city function to develop as per major land use
zones, effective drainage through minimum hindrance to flood flow, sufficient route communication.
Detailed Area Plan for Dhaka Metropolitan Development Project (DMDP) area has articulated land
zoning. The zoning considered some special land use zone like overlay zone, water retention area,
flood flow zone, open space etc. In the land use zoning of Mymensingh Master Plan by LGED has not
mentioned land use policy or strategy. But Durgapur Municipality Master plan articulated some
strategy and guideline on land use. It emphasized to follow land use policy. The plan mentioned land
development regulations to implement the land use plan, and monitoring & evaluation of the land
use plan. Thus, land use planning should contain the following key elements to be effective:
• Conduct multi-hazard risk assessment (of hazards, vulnerabilities, capacities, and risks) to build
an urban risk profile for use in identifying safer locations for development initiatives
• Maintain an updated land inventory with details of residential, commercial, industrial buildings,
parks, recreational areas, with the levels of vulnerabilities
• Map the risk information together with other information such as evacuation routes, temporary
sheltering locations, critical facilities such as hospitals, schools etc.
3. Common Understanding and Clarity of Urban Disaster Risk and DRR
Mainstreaming in Urban Development is Important for maturity of
the issues.
The conceptual framework of DRR elements considered the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities
and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and
preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development
(as of UNISDR). DRR incorporates elements, concept, particularly disaster risk reduction. These
notions are inextricably linked to each other constructing the essence of DRR. Disaster risk reduction
is a systematic approach to identify, assess and reduce the risk of disaster. In another way, DRR is
the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze and reduce
the casual factors of disaster.
There is often confused duality in the term 'urban disaster'. Usually the term refers to disasters in
cities, and very specifically the natural hazards in cities and its consequences on city dwellers.
However, the term 'urban disaster' does not carry the full meaning only by referring to the hazards
or disasters occurring in city centres. This connotation only describes the hazard (i.e. flood)
exposures in city life and the suffering of city dwellers by such exposures. There are other ways to
think of the phenomena of 'urban disaster', where the disaster is typically different from the 'rural
disaster', not only the hazards occurred in cities but also how urbanization as a process creates a
condition which is highly susceptible to be affected by any hazard onset. Therefore, 'urban disaster'
13 | P a g e
unfolds a large number of associated concepts: urban vulnerabilities, urban hazards, urban risks and
urban disaster preparedness, response and recovery along with prevention and mitigation as core
dimensions of disaster risk reduction in socio-cultural and built environment of cities. The first
connotation demands analysis of specific nature of cities and how that nature could be factored
during prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases of disaster
management. The second connotation will unfold the issues of the way urbanization create a
different risk context, different from rural risk (a function of hazard and vulnerability) process. These
two connotations are not same in their meaning, though they seem to be the same to the majority
of the readers. The first connotation does not see city as a product of the dynamic urbanization
process rather a 'polygon' where a hazard is exposed. Therefore, analysis of urbanization and
discussion of how this process contributes in hazard onset and creates new types of vulnerabilities
and social resilience is missing.
Mainstreaming is not an “activity” but a “process." Mainstreaming is a long-term and dynamic
process, and it requires the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders. Putting all the components
in the framework in place requires collective action through co-operation, consultation and
negotiation at different levels (local, national and international) between the relevant actors.
Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is an attempt to operationalise such a process mapping out a
coherent system of different and dynamic spheres and levels. Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is
not merely a listing of variables or entry points, but they represent “spheres" of action, that are
linked and interrelated in a particular way and ultimately, they re-enforce each other.
Mainstreaming Spheres Framework is not hierarchical; it does not indicate a starting component but
suggest a process the user should consider identifying levels of interventions, needs, opportunities
and barriers to mainstream DDR.
Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into development policy, planning and implementation is not
a matter of choice or preference. It’s a necessity. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction is a
continuous process of integration of disasters' implications and lessons learned into design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Mainstreaming requires consensus and active
participation of decision makes and planners at the national level and support from donors and
development community. Analysis, approach definitions and strategically thinking is a prerequisite
for success. Integrating urban planning and DRR result to be fundamental in address poverty
reduction in urban areas.
4. Planned urbanization is a key solution for disaster risk reduction.
The history of both physical and development planning in Bangladesh isn’t new and has gone
through a lot of evolutionary steps to redeem proper attention for progress. Yet, as dynamic as it is,
much has to be done in the development and physical planning spheres of Bangladesh in term of
effectiveness and reality of the modern societies. Similarly, the concept of disaster management has
been a very familiar topic in many development planning arenas in Bangladesh. On the other hand,
the concepts of urban disaster management and mainstreaming DRR in the urban planning process
is rather fresh in Bangladesh although it incorporated some aspects of disaster management through
different physical planning activities like master plans or through even some infrastructure
development initiatives. Over the time, physical plans for urban areas have started to incorporate
and mainstream a lot more development considerations to enhance the quality of these physical
plans and to ensure efficiency and compatibility with overall urban development activities in
14 | P a g e
Bangladesh. As a result, projects like CDMP, PECM are also being implemented alongside planning
projects like DMDP; DAP of Dhaka, Khulna; local level physical planning initiatives like UTIDP, DTIDP
etc.
Spatial analysis has been carried out for selected urban centres and the analysis shows that inter-
connections and dependency between locations are important determinants to understand the risks
and vulnerability of cities in a country like Bangladesh where physical processes are strongly active.
This understanding may provide arguments/rationale for adopting different kinds of planning
process and institutional setup to address the dynamic factors and processes that characterize the
type, intensity and magnitude of disasters. However, the current planning process and related
strategic approaches offer limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since the
objectives of urban planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks.
However, this section demonstrates the gaps in this regard based on some spatial analysis. The
narratives argue that understanding the problems at-scale and within the wider regional settings are
necessary to grasp the dimension, magnitude of disaster risks in an urban context and to devise
methods/approaches to address disaster risks.
Current urban planning process, specially the Master Plans, and related strategic approaches got
limited space to accommodate disaster risk reduction measures since the objectives of urban
planning/management are not sufficiently aligned with reducing disaster risks. Besides, this planning
instrument (i.e. the Master Plan) is designed for a certain duration (i. e. 20 years) and non-
flexible/fixed in nature. Critical spatial assessments, considering scale issues (e.g. the inter-
connections of locations, considerations of catchment characteristics) for physical or social
processes are rarely considered in Master Plan developments in Bangladesh. Assessment of
Mymensingh Master Plan, Khulna Master Plan, Detailed Area Plan (DAP) for Dhaka indicates that
mapping exercises are carried out in the name of spatial assessments as to produce general land use
maps. But spatial analysis based on physical and social variables, scenario based projections, climate
change impacts are strongly missing in these planning documents. It is imperative to mention here
that in an interview the Team Leader for Khulna Structural Plan mentioned that DRR considerations
are missing in the Master Plan. He also indicated that there are components/elements such as
indication of open spaces, wetlands etc. in the Structural Plan which could be used to make the
current Structural Plan more DRR responsive/focused. However, based on the discussions above,
some recommendations are given in the following sections to develop efficient Master Plans in
Bangladesh.
The urban planning process in Bangladesh can be described over detailed discussion from the top
tiers of the policy makers to the implementation at local levels. According to Professor Golam
Rahman, the urban planning process and practice in Bangladesh can be describe at four distinct
levels – Policy, National, Regional and Local level.
Policy Level Interventions for Urban Planning
The policy level interventions of urban physical and development planning are mainly derived by
highest policy level plans and documentations such as Five year plans for the government. Similarly,
in order to achieve best possible implementation process of the development activities through the
national policy planning the five year plans are divided into Annual Development Plans (ADP). ADP
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concentrates a different way of approach; it rather focuses on the sectoral development such as
housing, education, water supply, sanitation mainly with the purpose of social sector improvement.
ADPs are generally constructed to ensure development initiatives through the administrative
framework of the government from local to national level in a hierarchy order. As the key
organization for the development of five year plans and ADPs, “Planning Commission” ensures long
term strategy through project approval process with Executive committee of National Economic
Council (NEC). Here, planning commission acts as a coordinating figure for all economic and
development planning activities in Bangladesh.
Planning Commission is divided into several divisions to ensure concentrated input within areas of
considerations of those divisions. Funds are allocated on the annual development plans with priority
basis of different sector. Although the urban sector of Bangladesh is purged with problems and day
by day these problems are enhanced by repeated threat of natural and manmade disasters as well
climate change issues, Planning Commission doesn’t have any division to directly address either the
emerging urban issues or mainstreaming disaster management with the national physical or
development planning. Lack of master plans and their implementations with DRR considerations can
cause serious threat to urban citizens of Bangladesh. The sixth five year plan has some specific
considerations on disaster management and urban issues, but the lack of specific physical or
development plans for urban areas can seriously hamper or even damage the overall development
of Bangladesh. Similarly, other policy making agencies of relevant ministries and departments do not
consider urban issues such as urban risk reduction to deserve any separate treatment.
National Level Interventions for Urban Planning
Unlike the policy level, the national level of urban planning is influenced and organized by different
organizations. The Urban Development Directorate (UDD) is supposed to act as the key contributor
in the national level interventions for urban planning for mainly the urban areas without any specific
development authorities. Other organization which directly or indirectly influence urban planning at
national level includes national Housing Authority (NHA), Public Works Department (PWD),
Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE), Roads and Highway Department (RHD),
Bangladesh Power Development Board (PDB), Local Government Engineering Department (LGED).
UDD was created at 1965 in order to prepare and advise on physical plans and policies to manage
and plan the increasingly rapid urbanization in Bangladesh. UDD took initiatives for the “National
Physical Planning Project” in the second and third five year plan period during 1980’s with financial
support from UNDP and UNCHS/UN-HABITAT. The project was initiated with the aim to analyze the
urbanization trend as well as projecting the future urbanization trend with relevant priority issues.
Unfortunately, the projects was dropped after partial execution of phases I and II due to lack of
funding and some technical difficulties. Currently any specific national level policy or physical plan
for urban planning with disaster management consideration is almost non-existent. But, similar
projects and policies can be found for the national level addressing some of the aspects of urban
planning or even disaster management. Among them “National Land Zoning Project” under Ministry
of Land is supposed to be based on the “National Land use Policy, 2001”. “Strengthening Settlement
Press, Map Printing Press and Preparation of Digital Maps Project” again under the Ministry of Land
are supposed to develop authentic digital base maps for all district and upazillas of Bangladesh
which is a basic requirement of any physical plan. In case of urban disaster management
“Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme” of UNDP is working on DRR issues of urban
16 | P a g e
areas of Bangladesh. But, these activities are yet to be converged with any national level physical
plan and rather contributes to the overall development plans and policies.
City Corporations with Separate Development Authority
In case of cities with separate development authorities such asRAJUK or KDA, the physical master
plan development initiatives are mainly taken by the respective separate development authorities.
As a dedicated organization for urban physical development for specific city, development
authorities like RAJUK take regular initiatives to develop a continuous physical development plan like
DMDP (1995-2015) which is divided into a three tier plan package viz Structure Plan (SP), Urban Area
Plan (UAP) and Detailed Area Plan (DAP). These physical plan development initiatives are highly
poetized by the separate development authorities as per section 74 of Town Improvement (TI) Act
1953. On the other hand, city corporations in these cities with separate development authorities
also have the authority to develop a master plan of their own. But, as the development of master
plan is only one of the development activities they need to perform as well; and due to financial
reason, in Bangladesh these city corporations have the tendency to rely on the respective
development authorities.
Municipalities and City Corporations without Separate Development Authority
In all other cases of physical plan development in the municipalities and city corporation without
separate development authorities, city corporations and municipalities themselves have the
authority to develop physical master plans for the respective cities (according to local government
act, 2009). But, in most cases it has been seen that local governments have developed a physical
master plan all by themselves. In most cases these organizations manage physical master plan from
development project or initiatives from other organizations like UDD or LGED. One of the main
reason to justify such tendency was mentioned by these organizations is financial issue. As local
government institutions these organizations have to pay salary of their employees and other
expenditures from their own earnings unlike the revenue employees of the separate development
authorities. Moreover, as a city corporation they have to invest on more numbers of urban services
than the separate development authorities. As a result, they have much more pressure on their
financial capability and they are unable to develop physical master plan on their own.
5. Policy readiness for urban disaster risk reduction should be a
priority as urban policy is going to develop soon.
Bangladesh has not yet developed institutions, strategies and policies relevant to mainstream
disaster risk reduction in post 2015 development agenda. There is legal and institutional framework
of decentralized system of local government with provisions to establish disaster management
committee; however, urban areas are not yet considered as priority with regards to country
resilience. There is substantial overlap and lack of proper functional relationship amongst different
agencies in the urban areas. Disaster Management Committees are proposed to be the mechanism
to ensure institutional collaboration and coordination integrating different efforts, however, they
are found to be inactive and often not grounded into the urban communities. These committees are
weak due to different factors including weak executive system and poor resource allocation. They do
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not posses institutional capacity to plan, implement, finance and monitor services related to risk
reduction.
Policies and regulations for urbanization have evolved in response to problems faced rather than on
the basis of a vision and a long-term road map. Fortunately, for a long time Bangladesh did not
experience any large scale disasters in urban areas beyond high susceptibility to earthquake and
some fire incidences Eventually no such dedicated urban disaster related polices emerged. However,
disaster is tacitly addressed in several policy documents. After partition of India in 1947 Dhaka
became the provincial capital and experienced significant population increase. This led to major
infrastructure development and building activities. In order to regulate and control urban
development activities the government enacted legislations and framed rules which included the
building construction act 1952, the Town Improvement Act 1953 and the Building construction rules
1953. The Building Construction Act 1952 provided for the prevention of haphazard construction of
buildings and excavation of tanks which are likely to interfere with development in certain areas. The
Town Improvement Act 1953 provided for the development, improvement and expansion of the
towns of Dhaka and Narayanganj and certain areas in their vicinity and the formation of a board of
trustees. The Building Construction Rules 1953 were made to facilitate exercise of powers conferred
by the Building Construction Act 1952.
In 1959, Master Plans were prepared for Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi cities. This was a
major venture for guiding the overall physical development of the four major cities. But in course of
time, especially after independence of Bangladesh in 1971, these plans were found to be inadequate
with regard to population growth and land use changes. Despite rapid urbanization in the country
there was no initiative to plan or control urban development activities during 1970’s and 1980’s. It
was only after 1990 that some steps were taken for control of development in big cities. All these
process did not consider disaster beyond standard built environment concepts. These included
preparation of development plans for Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi cities, and
formulation of Building Construction Rules (1996), Private Residential Area Development Rules
(2004) and Dhaka Metropolitan Building Construction Rules (2008). The Bangladesh National
Building Code (BNBC) which was prepared in 1993 came into force in 2006 after some modification.
This BNBC brought some strong disaster connotation into the design principles and reduced the
vulnerability of the city from fire and earthquake hazards. Other legislations which are relevant for
the mainstreaming of urban disaster include Bangladesh Environment Protection Act 1995 (modified
in 2010) and the Wetland Preservation Act 1998.
In intermediate and smaller urban centres, the Pourashavas are responsible for preparing and
implementing Master Plans and carrying out development control functions. The Pourashava
Ordinance 2008 has given the Pourashava wide responsibilities in town planning and development,
public health and sanitation, water supply and sewage disposal, maintenance of public infrastructure
and amenities. It is now mandatory for the Pourashava to prepare Master Plans within five years
from the date of creation of a new Pourashava or from the date of enforcement of the Ordinance for
the old or already created Pourashava.
One of the main reasons for haphazard urban growth in Bangladesh is the lack of proper planning. In
the area of urban planning, the Pourashava Ordinance has empowered the Pourashvas to prepare
Master Plan for development, expansion and improvement of any area within its jurisdiction and
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impose restrictions, regulations and prohibitions with regard to the development of sites, and the
erection and re-erection of buildings. But due to lack of technical manpower and equipment, no
Pourashava has been able to prepare and implement a Master Plan on their own.
Bangladesh follows a centralized and basically top down mechanism in development of policy,
regulation and strategies. There is lack of a system to promote and provide incentives that can
regulate and control urban development and urban disaster as a by product of unplanned
urbanization. The existing policies and strategies have a number of provisions that can facilitate both
reduction of urban vulnerabilities to disasters and urban development. However, these are
remaining presently in isolation and not necessarily synergise into national development
mainstreaming. There are no specialized tools and guidelines that support mainstreaming disaster
risk reduction in the urban planning and development process. Lack of urban disaster specific policy
and implementation mechanism clearly indicate that urban communities are less benefited from
government, donor and NGO by means of programmes for disaster risk reduction in urban areas.
Flood, drainage congestion, heat stress are major climate-induced vulnerabilities that affect cities
like Dhaka (Alam and Rabbani 2007; UN-HABITAT 2008). These problems would impact the urban
communities especially the poor who reside in slums. These people encounter health hazards that
may lead to death.
Disaster Management Act 2012 and BCCSAP do address issues of risk reduction and climate
adaptation. However both documents lack explicit reference and recognition of the way unplanned
urbanization and disaster aloof physical and economic planning limit the urban communities to cope
up with disaster vulnerability and hazard exposures, especially for low-income urban poor people.
The inference is that the country has got to consider disaster risks of the urban communities as a
serious issue. However, Disaster management Act 2012 declares that GoB wants to take into account
the Comprehensive Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) method in disaster management plans to
minimize the disaster risk. This is actually the declaration of mainstreaming DRR. Hence it could be
viewed that, if there has been enough scope of the Local Disaster Management committee to
provide input into Urban Planning then Urban Risk reduction could easily be included in the local
level disaster management plan. This is not yet realized due to complex institutional setting that will
be discussed in next section. One of the examples is that Urban Planning in Dhaka is the
responsibility of RAJUK, Urban Development Directorate and City Corporation in Dhaka but very
unclear how City Disaster Management Committee would play their role in this complex institutional
settings. It would be better if the Local Disaster management committee has the scope to input
Urban DRR in the Urban Planning of these respective areas.
National Urban Sector Policy 2011 is in process of consultation which envisages strengthening urban
aspects and measures to deal with its negative consequences to achieve sustainable urbanization.
The future endeavours and dimensions proposed under this document are promising and provide an
ideal entry point to incorporate disaster risk reduction into the development agenda under urban
areas. This combined with provisions under DM Act, Water Policy, BCCASP, NAPA, BNBC and others
detailed under Annexure 1 and 2 (of the part 2 of the report) of this study that can be considered as
a basis to advance comprehensive urban disaster risk reduction policy.
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Table 6: Policy Entry Points for Mainstreaming DRR
Policy Reference Key Entry Point Advocacy Strategy
1. Land
Development Rules
for Private
residential Projects
2004
1. From the field survey we could observe that Pre-feasibility,
earthquake vulnerability land development including source of
materials, initial environmental examination report, detailed
land use schedule papers are not monitored properly. When
this act will be revised in the future we should ensure the
monitoring of these papers.
1. Related Govt.
organizations andNGOs
should arrange training and
awareness programs about
the importance of these
papers.
2. Real estate
development and
management act
2010
1. Chapter 5, section 18.4 declared that anything beyond
structural design can be prepared according to any
international code under the supervision of developer,
engineer and architect. This act should give definition of
international code and also should explain which international
codes will be acceptable.
1. Govt. should define
international codes and
should also explain which
codes are acceptable and
which are not.
3. Natural Water
Body Protection and
Preservation of
Open space and
Playground Act'
2000
1 . This act declares the conservation of wetland according to
the master plan. This act must include provision of
alternatives of master plan for those areas where there is no
master plan.
1. Related Govt.
organizations and civil
society can create alocal
environment conservation
committee where there is no
master plan.
4. Housing Authority
act 2000
1. The provision of 7(d) of Housing Authority Act 2000 that
during disaster according to this law, the housing authority
may prepare housing plan and may implement the plan with
GoB acknowledgement.
This provision should be included in 4.2.13 in SOD (Standing
Orders on Disasters).
1. Civil society and NGOs
should influence the GoB to
consider this when SOD will
be revised.
5.Environment
conservation act
1995
1. Section 13 declares that wetland conservation rules can be
considered at any compulsory national interest. Govt. should
explain and clarify the ‘’ compulsory National interest’’.
2. It is not explained in the act that what the Govt. policy
would be in case of ecologically critical zone destruction due
to any natural or man-made disaster. It should be redefined in
the act when revised.
1. Govt. organizations, NGOs,
Civil Society altogether
should try to define the ‘’
compulsory National
interest’’.
2. Need advocacy to the
central Govt. to accept some
practices of environment
conservation from the
developed countries.
6.Local Government
(Pourashava) Act
2009
1. According to the Schedule 1, Section 32, every municipality
should prepare their own master plan. But in reality many
municipalities of Bangladesh do not have any master plan.
2. Schedule 1, Section 45-48, explained flood, fire and civil
defence as responsibilities of municipality. But earthquake and
cyclone are not included here. It should be included in the act
when revised.
Civil society, NGOs,
respective Govt.
organizations should act as a
pressure group to
municipality to prepare the
master plan.
7. National Water
Policy
1. Urbanization and urban areas are increasing day by day.
That is why we need to have a specific water policy for urban
areas emphasizing on the aquifer and polluted rivers around
the urban areas.
2. Master plan and water resource planning should be
coordinated.
1. Water resource planning
and physical planning should
coordinate with each other.
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6. Coordination role of City Governments are critical for all cities, this is pivotal in four large cities where there are city development authorities controlled by central government
A large number of government agencies are involved in the management of urban land. However,
with poorly defined roles and responsibilities and in the absence of an urban land use policy, the
urban land scenario is highly susceptible to unplanned growth, forcible appropriation by the
powerful and inefficient use. Before 1953, there was no regulation to develop the urban areas of
Bangladesh for a planned development. Town Improvement Act was promulgated in 1953, and
following this, planning authorities were created for the four major cities – RAJUK for Dhaka, CDA for
Chittagong, KDA for Khulna, and RDA for Rajshahi. Other than these four big cities, there is no
specific land use policy for the other urban centres. During 1980s when Upazila was selected as a
local level administrative unit, the Urban Development Directorate (UDD) prepared Land-Use
Plan/Master Plan for the secondary towns of Bangladesh, but these were not implemented. Due to
lack of legal status and financial constraints, the plans remained unimplemented. These towns are
now growing in a haphazard manner.
Central Government Agencies: National level agencies provide services to different urban areas
including city corporations, Pourashavas and other urban centers as part of their national
responsibilities. Some of the important national agencies are Urban Development Directorate (UDD),
National Housing Authority (NHA) and the Public Works Department (PWD) under the Ministry of
Works; the Department of public Health Engineering (DPHE) and the Local Government Engineering
Department under the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperatives; the
Roads and Highways Department under the ministry of Communication; the Department of
Environment under the Ministry of Environment and Forest; and the power Development Board
under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. Other Ministries such as the Ministries of
Commerce, Education, Finance, Agriculture, Youth and Sports, and Water Resources Development
are also actively involved in the process of urban development mainly through their regional and
local level agencies.
Special Purpose Authorities: There are also some special purpose agencies that provide special
services to the city dwellers. These are Water Supply and Sewerage Authority, Electricity Supply
Authority, Road Transport Authority, etc. There are two water and sewerage authorities i.e. DWASA,
CWASA and KWASA, which are working in three metropolitan cities: Dhaka, Chittagong and Khulna
respectively. Two other agencies involved in the development activities of Dhaka Metropolitan Area
are Dhaka Transport Coordination Board (DTCB) and Bangladesh Bridge Authority. DTCB is mainly
responsible for planning and development of transportation facilities within the metropolitan area
while the Bangladesh Bridge Authority is responsible for constructing flyovers, elevated expressways
etc.
Urban Local Governments: Two types of local government institutions exist in Bangladesh e.g. urban
and rural. The urban local governments are of two types. In the Divisional Level, the City Corporation
functions whereas Pourashvas function in other towns. At present there are 6 City Corporations and
309 Pourashvas in the country (Table 5.4). Pourashvas or Municipalities again are classified
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according to financial strength. In addition, there are also some urban centers that are under
Cantonment Boards.
At the local Level, Pourashava is the basic planning and development authority. Through the
Pourashava Bill 2009, the Pourashava authorities were empowered to prepare Master Plan,
implement development schemes and exercise building control. A Pourashava consists of a Mayor,
Councillors whose number is fixed by the government and women Councillors of reserved seats. The
Chairman and Councillors of a Pourashava are elected by direct election on the basis of adult
franchise. The Pourashava (Municipal) Act, 2009 has given the Pourashavas wide responsibilities, but
the administrative, financial and technical capabilities of the Pourashava are not adequate to meet
the challenges associated with rapid urbanization in the country.
Table 7: Hierarchy of urban local governments
Mega City For example: Dhaka Metropolitan Area
City Corporations at Divisional Level For example: Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi and
Barisal
Pourashva(Municipality) Number of Pourashva – 278 in 2001, 309 at present
Category determined by income
level Annual income level
Class I Pourashavas Average Population (2001) - 88,907
Class II Pourashavas Average Population (2001) - 41,275
Class III Pourashavas Average Population (2001) - 25,466
Development Authorities: Pourashava were originally created for planning and management of
urban areas. Later on separate planning and development organizations were created for the cities
of Dhaka (RAJUK), Chittagong (CDA), Khulna (KDA) and Rajshahi (RDA). The development authorities
in these cities are authorized to undertake local urban planning as well as infrastructure and site
development activities for housing, commercial and industrial use. The authorities are also
empowered to exert development control functions. The effectiveness of these authorities,
however, is generally limited by such factors as inadequate management and financial system,
multiplicity of institutions with urban development function within their jurisdictions, uncoordinated
development, lack of integration with other agencies, inadequate manpower and lack of public
participation.
At present KDA has a total man power of 255 of which 28 are Class-I, 16 are Class-II, 100 are Class-III
and 111 are class-IV categories of man power. Out of the total sanctioned post 39 posts are lying
vacant. It is very difficult to function properly with this man power shortage for the existing
jurisdiction. KDA jurisdiction is going to be enhanced by another 367.27 sq.km with the approval of
the present project. This will make the situation worse. There is built in weakness in the planning
department. This has to be rationally improved and town planning has to be made a part of our
cultural practices in order to ensure planned development of any urban centre.
It is found that local authorities like Pourashava and Union Parishad grant planning permit within
KDA jurisdiction. The Local Government Ordinance provides power to the local government
institutes to issue planning permits. This has given duality in the performance of development
control function resulting in chaos as KDA and local government institutes follow different rules.
Conflict is also found about jurisdiction area among different agencies which needs resolution.
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Institutional Issues for DRR mainstreaming in Urban Planning Process
Institutional spheres include the roles and responsibilities of major agencies involved in
development of urban areas of Mongla Pourashava ensuring coordination of development activities.
Development control function is very poor in KDA area and Mongla Pourashava. With the present
capacity KDA cannot oversee or pro-act to guide, steer and restrict development. In order to enable
KDA to effectively carry out its development and development control functions it needs to be
strengthened for risk free DRR. There is no institutional arrangement for training and capacity in KDA
and stockholder motivation. As a result, disaster risks reduction is not possible due to non-execution
of planned development and development.
While urban development is treated as a next development agenda in post 2015, there is an
essential need of the institutional harmony amongst different agencies working in urban
development. Disaster risk reduction is possible to be mainstreamed if such institutional harmony is
designed and proper functional relationship is established amongst different agencies. In cities like
Dhaka and Khulna, there is a vibrant City Corporation administered by Ministry of Local Government
division and similarly very vibrant Development Authority administered by Ministry of Public Works.
This is a critical issue revealed in the study that without functional relationships and mutual trusts of
these two critical organizations in four metropolitan cities: Dhaka (north and south), Chittagong,
Khulna and Rajshahi, development as well as reducing urban risk will be heavily challenged. This
problem is not observed in other cities like new city corporations: Rangpur, Mymensingh, Comilla
and Narayanganj. However, the study has observed that in each city corporation there is a dedicated
planning cell, which is responsible for all planning. There is a role conflict of this cell with
development authorities in Khulna and Dhaka under the current study. The other service providing
organizations responsible for critical services: water and power are very dependent on city
corporation and development authorities. The issues of disaster risk reduction in the metropolitan
city therefore have to be mainstreamed into City Corporation, development authority and service
providing organizations like WASA. The entry points therefore have to be the organogram, allocation
of business of the organizations, and rules of business among organizations for a better coordinated
resilient city. The functions and citizens charter of these organizations brings the following
inferences:
• At citizen charter of Durgapur Municipality, it is found that in emergency period the municipality
will take steps when necessary. It will be systematic according to Municipality law, act, notice,
official order, and circulation. Municipality is the authority of all tasks.
• No DRM/DRR issue is addressed at Citizen chartered or City Corporation service of Rangpur,
Mymensingh, Dhaka South and RAJUK.
• At citizen charter or City Corporation service, there is nothing about DRM/DRR but it is
processing and will be added early at Dhaka North and Khulna City Corporation.
• There is a committee of DRM but no activity is found. After taking charge of existing committee
(Newly formed), no serious disaster was faced at Durgapur, Mymensingh, Nageswari
municipality and Rangpur City Corporation.
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• No preparedness, no activities for warning system no funding or budgets. For DRM/DRR in
Durgapur, Nageswari ,Rangpur, Mymensingh and RAJUK.
• At emergency period local people or Civil Society take steps or help (finance, shelter etc) at
Dhaka South and Nageswari.
• There is a climate change and disaster management fund containing 5000000 taka at Dhaka
North City Corporation but Dhaka South City Corporation has common maintenance fund for
DRM/DRR.
• During emergency periods municipality will take steps but have not mentioned how they will be
at Durgapur, Rangpur, Dhaka North and Dhaka South City Corporation.
• It is not mentioned how many people will be engaged with DRM/DRR activities in Durgapur,
Rangpur, Dhaka North and Khulna City Corporation.
• It is not mentioned that how the amount of money will be distributed in Dhaka North, Dhaka
South and Khulna City Corporation.
In Dhaka and Khulna, there are vibrant City Corporations administered by Ministry of Local
Government division and Development Authority administered by Ministry of Public Works. Study
revealed that without functional relationships and mutual trusts between organizations in Dhaka
(north and south), Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi, the development and reduction of urban
disaster risk would be challenging. The effectiveness of these authorities, however, is generally
limited by factors such as inadequate management and financial system, multiplicity of institutions
with urban development function within their jurisdictions, uncoordinated development, and lack of
integration with other agencies, inadequate manpower and lack of public participation. Disaster risk
reduction needs to be mainstreaming into City Corporation, development authority and service
providing organizations like WASA. The entry points have to be the organogram, allocation of
business of the organizations, and rules of business among organizations for a better coordinated
resilient city. The legal and institutional framework at the local level should have inclusive and
decentralized decision making mechanisms to operationalise mainstreaming of risk reduction
services into their routine business. Rangpur, Mymensingh, Sirajganjand Mongla cities, there is a
planning cell, responsible for planning. The issues of disaster risk reduction could be potentially
mainstreamed in the planning cell, and the planning cell of the municipalities should be the potential
entry point for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction.
7. Capacity and good governance are key enabling factors for urban disaster risk reduction and more investment is required in these
areas.
In the budget of DCC-North and South, a welfare expenditure is mentioned as ‘’ Natural Disaster
(Flood, Accident and Fire hazard). Here we can see 125% increases in the budget allocation for
this sector. Nevertheless, this part is not well described because we know Accident and Fire
Hazard are not actually natural disasters. Dhaka city is in a potential threat of Earthquake
disaster, which is not mentioned in this point. This is not described that whether the amount
allocated for pre- disaster preparedness or post-disaster response. In the DCC-North 2012-2013
Development budget a fund was mentioned about ‘’Climate change and Disaster management’’
and BDT 0.50 crore is allocated in this fund. This is a new expenditure sector for DCC-North.
24 | P a g e
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City
Percentage of Climate and Disaster sensitive Expenditure in Total Budget
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Figure 9: Percentage of revenue budget/ expenditure of the case cities
Besides, many Development projects are operational in cities to be implemented in 2012-2013
financial year. Those are UGIIP-2(Urban Governance & Infrastructure Improvement Project-phase 2),
STIFPP-2(Secondary town’s integrated Flood protection-phase 2), UPPRP, District town Infrastructure
Development project, MSDP (Mymensingh Strategic Development Plan), clean air and sustainable
environment program etc., where there is scope for mainstreaming DRR.
Figure 2: Percentage of disaster and climate sensitive budget/ expenditure of case cities
We can see that Disaster management and Urban Planning is actually present in the Financial Budget
2012-2013 in terms of Development projects. But most of them do not have any regular fund-
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
Dhaka North City Dhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City
Percentage of Development Expenditure in Total Budget
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
Dhaka North CityDhaka South City Khulna City Mymensingh City Rangpur City Nageshwari City Durgapur City
Percentage of Revenue Expenditure in Total Budget
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
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allocation for DRR or Disaster management.
Figure 10: Percentage of development expenditure in comparison to total budget
Way Forward The study has observed that there is good enough policies in urban development, most of those are
to regulate but very few of these policies are promoting and incentive for urban development. Many
of these policies have contradictory provisions and ambiguity. The “National Urban Sector Policy” is
currently under consultation process. This could be the key entry points for mainstreaming DRR in
urban planning. Master plan is an ongoing process, where each city has a regulatory obligation to
develop it. This master plan is the basis of urban physical and economic development. In most cases,
the master plan as key document ignored the risks of disasters and failed to capture the long term
climate change impacts. Though, we find that disaster and climate change is addressed in Mongla
master plan but not in Khulna master plan in coastal cities. Earthquake is adequately addressed in
DAP in Dhaka and in the upcoming master plan of Mymensingh.
This is also observed that where there is fund from donors (Mymensinh from CDMP, Khulna from
ADB), the disaster sensitivity is observed but absence of fund in cities like Sirajganj, Nageshwari,
Rangpur and Durgapur has contributed in disaster non-sensitivity in master plans. Surprisingly,
Mongla master plan has integrated disaster and climate change and that is also explored that the
lead consultant for master plan was a disaster professional having town planning background. This
clearly indicates the disaster risk reduction and climate change impact is yet to be matured in the
urban development planning agenda.
The role of media and civil society is very critical at this point and it reveals that in most cities, media
professionals are very sensitive about urban service problem as they have highest number of news
reports from that angle: traffic jam, electric-water-gas failures, crimes in streets and some political
processions. Except Dhaka, the study has observed very low level media activism in disaster risk
reduction, when they report on urban development. The civil society sensitization in an organized
form is very active in Dhaka and has reported very strongly about earthquake, fire, flood and linked
with eco-systems: rivers and wetland in city. However, such activism of civil society regarding
disaster-climate change-environment is very low in other cities. Though there are very high level
risks in Khulna, Mongla, Durgapur, Rangpur, Mymensingh and Sirajganj but the civil society activism
is very low in disaster and climate change arena. This is also observed that in Khulna - there is
growing number of academicians in Khulna university who are very active in the civic engagement in
relation to disaster risk reduction.
Private sector is not active in disaster risk reduction beyond their corporate social responsibilities. In
Dhaka, the study team found key concerns about fire and industrial accidents in garments sector,
but this also has very low sensitivity beyond the economic niche. Regarding earthquake the private
sector expects governments to act and help them. There is substantial room for private sector
sensitization in disaster risk reduction in urban and industrial areas.
The following are the suggestive entry point for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction.
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URBAN PLANNING: The tendency of cities to be located and expanded on river banks or coastal
areas for economic reasons makes them more vulnerable to disasters. Initiatives to enhance
coordination between local government organizations and central government representative needs
strong advocacy. Initiative to divide the physical development plans into yearly combined
development plan to ensure execution will be a realistic approach.
ENVIRONMENT: The urban eco-system is characterized by interplay of the build, natural and socio-
economic environment, which separately and collectively generate much of the risk that cities face
today. While, we attempt to mainstream DRR into urbanization, we have to consider all three
subsystems (built, natural and cultural) of the urban eco-system.
MEGACITY AND LARGE CITY GROWTH: Dhaka as a megacity is increasingly becoming the
concentration of physical, economic, social, political and cultural assets, which are being exposed to
different types of disaster risks, mostly earthquake, fire and flooding. Similarly, two other upcoming
megacities Chittagong and Khulna are already heavily exposed to climatic disasters (cyclone,
waterlogging, flooding, salinity, sea level rise and tidal surge). Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Syhlet,
Barishal, Rangpur, Mymensingh and Bogura are large cities in Bangladesh and are increasingly
becoming the concentration of physical, economic, social, political and cultural assets, which are
being exposed to different types of disaster risks and climate change vulnerabilities. These large
cities in Bangladesh needs to be properly planned to accommodate at least 120 million people in the
next three decades and therefore these cities need to be ready to turn into a safer city for current
and future citizens. Therefore, growth of the megacity could be a potential entry point for
mainstreaming DRR. Mostly urban planning and implementation of public and private sector
investments for development could be a good entry point for mainstreaming DRR.
CATASTROPHIC RISK: Cities in Bangladesh face cascading vulnerabilities that go beyond the original
risk or hazard. The relevance of low probability and high consequence events should be recognized
during the development and growth of the city. This is very important to keep in mind that a proper
and comprehensive risk assessment is therefore a key entry point for mainstreaming urban DRR.
CLIMATE CHANGE: Climate change is becoming a threat to the urban environment. The uncertainty
that arises due to climate change needs to be considered in the overall urban risk management
framework. Coastal cities and cities in flooding areas have higher likelihood of being affected by
climate change. Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Mongla, Mathbaria, Barguna, Zhalokathi, Kalapara,
Bhola, Chandpur, Chittagong, and Coxs Bazar are key cities that remain highly vulnerable to climate
change (sea level rise, increased cyclone, and tidal flooding). Tehy need to be brought under
comprehensive risk based master plan to accommodate at least 30% more people from vulnerable
rural areas around these cities only due to climate change.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION: Mainstreaming of DRR can be ensured through institutionalization of DRR
in different local level organizations (city corporations, municipalities, development authorities) up
to various national level organizations (such as Planning commission, UDD, LGED) responsible for
urban development of Bangladesh. DRR specific rules of business, manpower, institutional activities
development requires attention.
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: Technical and non technical trainings, workshops and other applied
formal education on urban DRR are very significant considerations. Initiatives like Urban Volunteers
27 | P a g e
for the community representative and coordination capability enhancement initiatives for
appropriate officials can be vital through any disaster periods.
REVITALIZED PLANNING PRACTICE: Integration of DRR and implementation of physical development
plan demands attention. Ensuring development and implementation disaster management or
preparedness plan, development of an efficient inter ministerial and inter institutional practice to
coordinate and manage physical development plan are also important.
BUDGETING PRACTICE: Development of a disaster management friendly budgetary system is very
important. A specific climate change and disaster management budget should be introduced
separately. Provision of Emergency budget should be allocated for disaster management.
Development of Guidelines to formulate budgets sensitive to climate change and disaster
management needs attention.
RESILIENCE: In spite of different threats, urban communities have their inherent capacities to cope
with different types of shocks (including hazards). Community resilience should be considered as an
asset for risk reduction in urban areas. Massive mass awareness could be aimed for increased
resilience of the communities 'indispensable efforts.
DECISION-MAKING: Appropriate governance and decision making system lie at the core of risk
reduction in urban areas. Special focus should be given to vital infrastructures like schools, hospitals
and key public buildings. Policy development and mandating also requires attention.
ECONOMY: Urban areas are often considered as the economic hub of region or country, and
therefore result in concentration of vital infrastructures in cities. The cities in Bangladesh are mostly
located adjacent to rivers and also many people to the catchment rural areas see city as a place of
opportunity. Therefore urban economy is growing faster, and in many cases without considering the
environment, disaster and climate risks. There is a scope for widening economic opportunity in cities
for climate and disaster refugees in catchment rural areas as well as during the economic growth
and planning there is scope to consider environment-climate change and disaster risks.
POVERTY: The socio-economic opportunities provided by Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Gazipur,
Rajshahi, Sylhet, Barishal, Rangpur, Mymensingh, Bagura, Jessore, cities enable people from a wide
range of income brackets to interact and live, but also create vulnerabilities resulting from lack of
access to urban goods and services. Urban livelihoods therefore have to be tied up with urban
development, urban economy and addressing urban poverty in an integrated fashion. This entry
point could then create more gearing effects for mainstreaming urban DRR.
PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT: Private sector priority consideration for DRR for industrial and
man-made hazard as well as physical hazard needs revitalization including the corporate social
practice for disaster management in Bangladesh. Promoting or introducing disaster management
specific services from private sectors can also be beneficial to the overall economy.
MEDIA COVERAGE: Promote and disseminate information on disaster and related services.
Enhancing the media sector capability to collect information on disaster (pre, during and post
disaster) and more importantly on disaster risk factors (mostly vulnerability aspects) is a key entry
point for maturing the agenda of mainstreaming urban DRR.
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POPULATION: Urban areas are characterized by high density population, which results in higher
exposures. Combination of high vulnerability and exposure causes higher degree of urban risk. This is
a fact but we cannot avoid this reality in Bangladesh. The entry point therefore should a whole of
city awareness to communicate the risk factors in the specific city.
PROGRAMMATIC IDEAS:
The entry points proposed in figure 17 and 18 are based on the study findings and tentative in
nature. These entry points will be key start for mainstreaming DRR in urban planning but have to be
open enough to explore more entry once the DRR analysis starts in urban development process.
Figure 11: Programmatic approaches for mainstreaming urban disaster risk reduction
Finding the entry points and
making the case
Mainstreaming Urban DRR into
policy, institution and planning
process
Meeting the
implementation challenge
Preliminary Assessment
• Understanding the Urban
Disaster Risk Context
• Understanding the
governmental, institutional
and political context for
urban risk reduction
Collecting City Specific evidence
• Integrated vulnerability and
ecosystem assessment
• Economic and Social Analysis
of urban disaster risks
Including disaster and
climate change in the
monitoring system
• Indicators and Data
Collection
Influencing Policy Processes
• National Level (Five Year
Plan, Delta Plan, Urban
Policy)
• Sector Level (Urban
Development)
• City Level (Master Plan)
Budgeting and Financing
• Financial support for
disaster and climate
inclusive urban
development measures.
Raising Awareness and
Building Partnerships
• National Consensus and
Commitments
Developing and Costing Policy
Measures for mainstreaming
UDRR
• National, Sector and City Level
Supporting Policy Measures
• National, Sector and City
Level
Strengthening Institutions and
Capacities
• Needs Assessment
• Working Mechanisms
Strengthening Institutions and
Capacities
• Learning by doing
Strengthening Institutions
and Capacities
• UDRR Mainstreaming as
standard practice in
urbanization
Figure 12: Relationship of disaster risk reduction programmatic approaches to the urban
development planning cycle
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Recommendation and Conclusion
The study at this stage has limited information about upcoming policy direction. The team is now
exploring the future urban directions in all cities and not in a position to provide any
recommendations based on current analysis. However, the indicative recommendations are:
• The upcoming “National Urban Sector Policy” is a golden opportunity for mainstreaming DRR
and CCA. OXFAM needs to present the study findings to a seminar inviting two key persons:
Dr. Nazrul Islam and Dr. Hossain Zillur Rahman, who are now the key drivers and shakers for
this. The study recommends strong policy dialogue organized jointly with PPRC and CUS on
the urban disaster risk reduction issues and mature the case of urban disaster.
• The issue of urban disaster risk is not a mature issue beyond overwhelming risk of Dhaka city
in earthquake. The issue needs to be matured in seven key cities through policy dialogue and
media campaign. Involvement of academicians, media and civil society organizations are key
in these policy dialogue inviting the city corporation mayors and development authority
chairmans’ in the dialogue to listen the concerns.
• There are many policy advocacy issues, not all are disaster related but without having
change in urban governance system many of the DRR agenda will not be functional. In the
findings of the study this is clear that the relationship between City Corporation,
development authorities and key service organizations is key and that can only happen with
a very robust policy advocacy. Disaster risk reduction will be a key case to show where
without the functional coordination of these entities, a resilient city is impossible in the
following decades.
• The entry points, which are going to be finalized in the study have to be tentative and can be
more dynamic in future. These entry points will be a key start for mainstreaming DRR in
urban planning but have to be open enough to explore more entry once the DRR analysis
starts in urban development process.
URBAN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
Agenda Setting
(DRR, CCA, CCM, EM, Urban Resilience)
Policy Making
(Fiscal Policy for Resilient City)
Meeting the Implementation Challenge
(Develop Indicator Framework of Resilient City)
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- Risk Scenario based spatial analysis has to be the key entry point for urban disaster risk to
influence policy, institutions, plans and budgets. These can be done in following flow:
o Understanding the nature of natural hazards in the context of the region. The major
areas of assessments are as follows.
� Identifying major hazard events of the region that have got impact
probability on the urban areas in question. It also may include issues like
assessing the possibility of multiple hazards (understanding all-hazard
approach) occurrences.
� Impacts/influence of physical conditions of the region (slope/aspect,
orientation of physical features, hydro-climatic conditions, precipitation and
runoff characteristics, sediment dynamics leading to defining/continuous
readjustments of river morphometric characteristics)
� Understanding the urbanization process within a high-risk environment
� Risk factors assessment for urban key service providers
o Assessing the changing trends of physical geography (focusing on temporal change)
of the region and its influence on the genesis, magnitude of hazards and social
conditions
o Evaluating city urban conditions, land use patterns, concentration of slums and
squatters; identification of planning needs.
o Understanding at-scale vulnerabilities (local, regional) and related interconnections
(e.g. migrations, competition over access to resources, supply chain management)
o Development of regional disaster management system and early warning
o Demographic conditions (focusing on community at risk, specially the women,
children and the disabled) and changing socio-economic-ecological conditions of the
region
o Assessing supply chain conditions in all PPRR (preparedness prevention response
recovery) situations
• Urban LGIs in the urban area in the 21st century should be more vibrant organizations to
serve their citizens. The ULGIs must take advantage of the advancements achieved in the
world in terms of communication and information technology. Global connectivity should be
taken into the forefront of the functions of the LGs. The following are the areas that the LGs
could easily adopt with no or minimal cost:
- Conduct awareness programs for various stakeholder groups to provide hazard
related information
- Develop information products (if possible a web portal) to provide useful
information to citizens (such as hazard prone areas, policies, regulations, tax systems
etc.)
- Assist professionals to develop guidelines to reduce disaster impacts and
disseminate such information (using posters, calendars, billboards, hand bills etc)
- Organize disaster safety day events to commemorate past disasters
- Organize annual school competitions to raise awareness
- Maintain disaster data bases, people data base, inventory of elements at risk and
update the data therein
- Maintain inventory of service providers for an emergency, their locations, readiness
to mobiles etc. (private hospitals, water plants, heavy machinery, and food
suppliers)
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Acknowledgement:
A.K.M. Mamunur Rashid of PECM Project of UNDP; Dr. Tawhidul Islam of Jahangirnagar University;
M.B. Akhter, Sonya Syafitri, Shah Muntamin Mujtaba, Mohammed Norul Alam Raju, Ms. Subarna
Shaha of OXFAM GB, Dr. Aminur Rahman, Rakib Ahsan, Sardar Arif Uddin of Development Frontiers,
Mayors of Khulna and Rangpur City Corporation, Administrators of Dhaka North and South City
Corporation, Municipality Chairman of Mymensingh, Sirajganj, Mongla, Durgapur and Nageshwari
Pourashava, Puji Pujino of CDMP, Syed Shahnawaz Ali of Islamic Relief, Khurshid Alam of Think
Ahead, Mr. Wajed Ali of Departmetn of Disaster Management, Dr. Nazrul Islam of CUP, Dr. A.S.M.
Maksud Kamal of Dhaka University, Dr. Hossain Zillur Rahman of PPRC and the respondents of the
study in different cities.
