Ministry of Education, Science, Youth and Sports of UkraineSumy State University

3152 METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONSon the topic “Cultorology:

Ukrainan and foreign culture”on Cultorology

for foreign students

SumySumy State University

2011

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Metodological instructions on the topic “Culturology: Ukrainian and foreign culture” / compilers: V. A. Klymenko, N. V. Lobko. – Sumy : Sumy State University, 2011. – 90 p.

History Depatment

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CONTENTS

Instruction…………………………………………………… 4

Thematic plan of lectures …………………………………… 5

Thematic plan of seminars ………………………………….. 8

Theme 1. The notion of culture. Primeval Culture …………. 11

Theme 2. Culture of Ancient East (Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, China, India) ……………………………………………. 16

Theme 3. Culture of Ancient Greece and Rome …………… 24

Theme 4. Middle Age culture ……………………………… 32

Theme 5. Renaissance ……………………………………… 37

Theme 6. Baroque culture ………………………………….. 44

Theme 7. The Enlightenment in Europe ……………………. 50

Theme 8. Cultural process of the second half of the XIX – beginning of the XX century ……………………………….. 55

Theme 9. Culture of the XX century ……………………….. 61

Theme 10. Culture in the second half of the XX – beginning of the XXI century …………………………………………. 65

Test .......................................................................................... 68

Glossary ……………………………………………………… 77

Control questions ……………………………………………. 87

References …………………………………………………… 89

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Introduction

The history of foreign and Ukrainian culture is a universal property.

This course in higher education gives the opportunity to become acquainted with the cultural achievements of the world in general and the Ukrainian people in particular.

Programme of this course includes the study of the phenomenon culture, issues of cultural development from ancient civilizations to modern times, focusing on the most important achievements of culture.

Also this paper focuses on the history of Ukrainian culture, its relationship to world culture.

While studying the subject students should understand:

a) the basic laws of cultural and historical process;

b) the characteristics of world civilizations and cultures;

c) artistic styles;

d) the types and genres of art;

e) stages of development of Ukrainian culture;

f) the most important events of the Ukrainian culture;

g) the specific nature of Ukrainian culture.

These metodological instructions are worked out for English-speaking foreign students.

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THEMATIC PLAN OF LECTURES

1. The Theory of Culturology (2).

1.1. Subject and Aim of the Course.

1.2. Essence and Structure of Culture.

1.3. Typology of Culture.

2. Ancient Culture (2).

2.1. Prehistory and the Birth of Civilization:

a) Paleolithic Era;

b) Mesolithic Era;

c) Neolithic Era.

2.2. The Ancient Near East (2).

1. Ancient Africa.

2. Ancient Egypt: Gods and Art.

3. Mesopotamia.

4. The Hebrews.

5. Ancient India.

3. The Classical Legacy (2).

3.1. The Aegean Civilization.

3.2. Ancient Greece: Cultural Identity.

3.3. The Art of Etruscans.

3.4. Culture of Ancient Rome.6

4. Culture of the Middle Ages (2).

4.1. Basic tendencies of the development of culture of the Middle Ages.

4.2. Western European culture.

4.3. Byzantine culture.

4.4. Culture of Eastern peoples.

4.5. Islamic Art.

5. The Renaissance (2).

5.1. The Early Renaissance.

5.2. The High Renaissance in Italy.

5.3. North Renaissance.

5.4. Reformation and its influence on Europe.

6. European Culture in the XIX century. (2).

6.1. The Baroque Style in Western Europe.

6.2. Rococo and the XVIII century.

6.3. Neoclassicism. Romanticism.

6.4. Realism of the XIX century.

6.5. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism.

7. Culture of the XX century (2).

7.1. Modernism and its Development.

7.2. Innovation and Continuity.

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7.3. National Construction.

8. Ukrainian Culture from the Middle Ages to the XIX century. (4).

8.1. Ukrainian Culture in the XV – XVIII centuries.

8.2. Ukrainian Culture in the XIX century.

8.3. Ukrainian National Revival.

9. Ukrainian Culture in the end of the XIX – XXI centuries. (2).

9.1. Problems of Ukrainian culture in the context of world development.

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THEMATIC PLAN OF SEMINARS

1. Essence and structure of culture. Primeval culture. Culture of Ancient Greece (2).

1.1. The notion of culture.

1.2. Culture of Primeval Society.

1.3. Culture of Ancient East Society.

2. Culture of Ancient world (2).

2.1. The Ancient Near East:

a) Mesopotamia;

b) Ancient Iran;

c) Persian Empire;

d) Ancient Egypt.

2.2. Ancient Greece.

2.3. Ancient Rome.

3. The Middle Ages Culture (2).

3.1. Early Christian Art.

3.2. Byzantine Art.

3.3. Islamic Art.

4. The Medieval West (2).

4.1. Romanesque Art:

a) Architecture;

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b) Sculpture;

c) Mural Painting.

4.2. Gothic Art:

a) Architecture;

b) Sculpture.

5. Early Modern through the XIX century (2).

5.1. The Renaissance (2):

a) Italian Renaissance (Giotto di Bondone; Dante; Brunelleschi, Botticelli; Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Gentile Bellini Titian);

b) Reformation and its influence on the culture of Western Europe;

c) sixteenth-century painting in Northern Europe ( Bosch, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Dürer, Cranach, Hans Holbein the Younger).

5.2. The Baroque Style in Western Europe (2):

a) Baroque painting (Bernini, Caravaggio, Rubens, Rembrandt, Velazquez);

b) Sculpture.

5.3. Rococo and Neoclassicism (2):

a) Rococo Age and the Enlightenment;

b) the art of Romanticism;

c) culture of America.

6. The Nineteenth-Century Culture. The Global Village of the XX century (2).

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6.1. The Modernist Assault.

6.2. Totalitarianism and the Arts.

6.3. The Arts in the Information Age.

7. Ukrainian Culture (2).

7.1. Ukrainian culture in the XV – XVIII centuries.

7.2. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – XIX centuries.

7.3. Culture of independent Ukraine.

Total: 20

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THEME 1.

THE NOTION OF CULTURE. PRIMEVAL CULTURE

1. Essence and structure of culture.

2. Culture of primeval society.

3. Culture of ancient East societies.

Basic categories and notions: Old Stone Age, mesolithic,

neolithic, animism, culture, culturology, totemism, fetishism, sacral,

magic, civilization.

1. Essence and structure of culture. The term "culture"

originated from Lat. cultura — till, education, development. Definite

clearness in the definition of the notion "culture" was done at the

World conference on cultural policy which was held under

UNESCO aegis in 1982. According to its declaration: "Culture is a

complex of special material, spiritual, intellectual and emotional

lineaments of society, that includes not only different arts and mode

of life, fundamental of human being, valuables systems, traditions

and beliefs". Speaking about the structure of phenomenon of culture

it should be mentioned that there are two kinds of it: material and

spiritual. But it is necessary to keep in mind, that this is a conditional

division.

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Material culture is the aggregate of productive means and

material commonwealth, that are created by human labour on each

stage of the development of the society.

The term "spiritual culture" is associated with the word

"spirit" which means non-material beginning. Spiritual culture

includes religious, intellectual, moral, legal, artistic and pedagogic

cultures.

Culture is divided into world and national one. World culture

is the aggregate of world cultures, that are determined by the system

of human values, which combine and develop the best lines of

national cultures.

World culture is a complex of society spiritual development,

general accomplishments of peoples of all continents, races, nations.

The definition of the term "national culture" should be started from

the definition of the notions "nation", "ethnos". National culture is

aggregate of ecological, political, domestic, ritual and moral factors.

According to the type of the creator, culture can be divided into elite,

folk and mass culture.

Elite (high) culture is created by society elite. Popular culture

is created by anonymous creators, it is named frequently as folklore.

Public culture is a popular culture, which is associated with

public consumption, for satisfaction of people's needs. Culture

civilization is not identical to notion “civilization”. The character of

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civilization is determined by productive relationships. Civilization is

considered to be the stage of social development, which comes after

barbarism and is characterized by creation of states, towns,

introduction of written language, art development.

2. Culture of primeval society. This question deals with the

general description of primeval epoch. A primeval culture is the

boundary, which separates human world from animals one.

According to the last data, primeval society came into existence over

2 mln years ago. Primeval culture should be considered as necessary

developmental stage of any culture.

The important place is occupied by historic division into

periods of primeval culture, which was offered for the first time by

American ethnographer L. Morgan. He divided a primeval culture

into epochs of savagery, barbarism and civilizations. A savagery

epoch is divided into lower, middle, and highest grades. Lower

savagery grade starts with the appearance of a man and an articulate

language, middle — with the appearance of fire and fishery, highest

— bow and arrows. Barbarism starts with diffusion of ceramics,

mastering of agriculture and cattle-breeding, and with use of iron.

Civilization starts to with the invention of an alphabet.

Archaeologically primeval society is divided into the

following periods: Stone period which is divided into Paleolithic

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(“Old Stone”) Era (about 40000 – 10000 B.C.), Mesolithic Era

(about 10000 – 8000 B.C.), and Neolithic Era (about 8000 – 2000

B.C.).

By the beginning of the Paleolithic era our own subspecies,

Homo Sapiens, had supplanted the earlier Neanderthal people, who

left no traces of any works of art. Paleolithic society was a culture of

hunters and gatherers who lived communally.

Many paintings and carvings on the walls of caves are

discovered in Europe, Africa, Australia, and North America.

3. In Paleolithic culture a woman played an important role.

She assumed a special importance: perceived as life-giver and

identified with the mysterious powers of procreation, she was exalted

as a Mother Earth. Perhaps the most famous Paleolithic sculpture is a

small limestone statue of a woman, the Venus of Willendorf. (This

little figure is called Venus after the Roman goddess of love).

Mesolithic Era . It coincided with the end of the Ice Age and

the development of a more temperate climate in about 8000 B.C.

Communities started to settle around bodies of water where fishing

became a major source of food. People began to cultivate cereals and

vegetables.

Neolithic Era. We have the change from hunting and

gathering to agriculture, and hence a less nomadic existence –

contributed to the development of a new art form: monumental stone

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architecture megaliths (from the Greek megas, meaning “big”).

Three distinctive stone structures regularly occur in these regions:

menhirs (from Celtic words meaning “stone” and “hir” meaning

“long”); dolmens (from the Celtic dol meaning “table”); and

cromlechs (from the Celtic crom meaning “circle” and lech

meaning “place”).

The most famous Neolithic cromlech in Western Europe is

Stonehenge which was built in several stages from about 3000 to

1800 B.C.

Other Neolithic projects in Peru like Stonehenge may be

helped ancient farmers determine dates for planting crops, was used

for ritual celebrations, and thus for brining human needs into

harmony with the rhythms of nature.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What does the term “culture” mean?

2. What kinds of culture do you know?

3. Who is Homo Sapiens?

4. What is the Paleolithic Venus?

5. What is Cave Art?

THEME 2. CULTURE OF ANCIENT EAST (MESOPOTAMIA,

ANCIENT EGYPT, CHINA, INDIA)16

1. Ancient Africa. Egypt.

2. Mesopotamia. Hebrews.

3. Ancient India. China.

Basic categories and notions: polytheism, dynasty, fresco,

monotheism, papyrus, Ziggurat.

1. Antient Africa. Egypt. Throughout the history of Ancient

World, polytheism, the belief in many gods, prevailed. During the

second millennium B.C.E., a second kind of belief system emerged

among a small group of Mesopotamian people: monotheism, the

belief in one and only one god. The third belief system that emerged

among early civilizations was pantheism, best represented in the

Hindu faith of ancient India.

Dating back to about 8000 B.C. and located on the west bank

of the River Jordan in modern Israel, the Neolithic city of Jericho is

one of the world’s oldest fortified settlements. One of the largest

Neolithic cities (dates about 6800 – 6300 to 5500 B.C.) is Catal

Hüyük (modern Turkey).

The most powerful and lasting civilization was Egypt. From

about 3000 B.C., Egypt was ruled by pharaohs (kings), whose

control of the land and its people was virtually absolute.

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Ancient Egyptian culture is well known from hieroglyphic

texts in manuscripts and on paintings, sculptures, and buildings.

Hieroglyphs (from the two Greek words hieros meaning “sacred”,

and glipho meaning “I carve”) are a form of picture writing as

opposed to the more abstract cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia. The

hieroglyphic texts have revealed a great deal about Egyptian religion

and its influence on art and culture.

The most monumental expression of the Egyptian pharaoh’s

power was the pyramid – his burial place and point of entry into the

afterlife. Most of them were located on the western side of the Nile

with the sun rising to the east across the river.

The Giza pyramids were the most elaborate expression of the

Egyptian need to ensure a continued existence after death.

As durable and impressive as the tombs, Egyptian temples

provided another way of establishing the worshiper’s relationship

with the gods. Ancient Egyptian temples were considered a

microcosm of the universe, and as such they contained both earthly

and celestial symbolism.

Egyptian painting and sculpture was used primarily in the

service of the ruler. Walls of Egyptian tombs and temples were

covered with sculpture and paintings – usually frescoes.

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The Book of Dead, a collection of funerary prayers

originating as far back as 4000 B.C., guided and prepared the living

for judgment.

2. Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia (from Greek mesos meaning

“middle”, and potamos meaning “river”) is thus literally the “land

between the rivers”, and is bounded by the Tigris and the Euphrates.

In ancient Mesopotamian religion, the bull was worshiped as the

supreme male god under the name Anu. He was also the sky god, and

his roar was associated with the sound of thunder. Ninhursag was the

great mother goddess, who was identified with the Lady of the

Mountain. Enlil was the thunder god, Ea (or Enki) – the water god,

Namar (or Sin) – the moon god, Utu (later Shamash) – the sun god,

and Inanna (later Ishtar) – the goddess of love, fertility, and war.

The Ziggurat, derived from an Assyrian word literally

meaning “raised” or “high”, is uniquely Mesopotamian architectural

form. Mesopotamians believed that each city was under the

protection of a specific civic god who required a mountain as a

platform for a Shrine. Mountains in Mesopotamia were conceived of

as symbolizing the earth itself, in which the powers of nature were

immanent. As a symbolic mountain, the Ziggurat satisfied one of the

basic requirements of sacred architecture, namely the creation of a

transitional space between people and their gods.

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The earliest Ziggurat dating from between 3500 and

3000 B.C., supported a Shrine, the “White Temple”.

The use of seal impressions to designate ownership

contributed to the development of writing. Some time between about

3500 and 3000 B.C., abstract wedgeshaped characters began to

appear on clay and stone tablets. It is called cuneiform from the Latin

word cuneus, meaning “wedge”.

The Epic of Gigamesh is the first known epic poem and is

preserved on cuneiform tablets from the second millennium B.C. The

Epic of Gigamesh is not only the world’s first epic; it is the earliest

known literary effort to come to terms with death, or nonbeing.

When the Semitic civilization of Akkad merged with

Sumerian culture, Akkadian became the dominant spoken language,

and the Akkadian god Marduk replaced the Sumerian god Enlil as

the national god of Mesopotamia.

Under the rule of King Hammurabi (1792 – 1750 B.C.), the

city of Babylon became the capital. Hammurabi is best known for his

low code, inscribed on a black basalt stele.

The Hebrews. The tribal people called by their neighbours

”Hebrews” originated in Sumer. Around 2000 B.C., they migrated

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westward under the leadership of Abraham of Ur and settled in

Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea.

Shortly after 1300 B.C. following a traumatic period of

enslavement in Egypt, The Hebrew tribes, under a dynamic leader

named Moses, abandoned Egypt and headed back toward Canaan –

an event that became the basis for Exodus (literally “going out”), the

second book of the Hebrew Bible, called the Torach. During this

period (between about 1300 and 1150 B.C.) the Hebrews forged the

fundamentals of their faith: monotheism (the belief in one and only

one god); a set of divine commandments for moral and spiritual

conduct and a covenant fixed in laws that bound the Hebrew

community to God in return for God’s protection. Hebrew

monotheism called for devotion to a single Supreme Being, the God

whom Moses addressed as Yahweh (or Jehovah). Unique to Hebrew

monotheism was the veneration of Yahweh as the Source of ethical

and spiritual life.

3. Ancient India. China. From the Indus valley civilization

of the second millennium B.C. came the most ancient of today’s

world religions: Hinduism. Derived from Sanskrit (the language of

India) word for the Indus River (Sindu), “Hindi” describes, in its

broadest sense, not only a belief system, but a people and their

culture.

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India’s oldest devotional texts, the Rig Veda, “Truth is one,

but the wise call it by many names”. India’s oldest devotional texts,

the Vedas (literally “sacred knowledge”), are a collection of prayers,

sacrificial formulas, and hymns.

The Vedas reflected the union of the native folk culture of the

Indus valley and that of the invading Aryans, Sanskrit-speaking

warriors who entered India after 1500 B.C. Among the chief Vedic

deities were sky gods Indra and Rudra (later known as Shiva), the

fire god Agni and Sun god Vishnu.

Hindu pantheism is perhaps best understood by way of the

250 prose commentaries on the Vedas known as the Upanishads.

Upanishads were orally transmitted and recorded in Sanskrit between

the eighth and the sixth century B.C. The Upanishads emphasize

enlightenment through meditation. They formulated the concept of

the single, all-pervading cosmic force called Brahman. Brahman is

the Uncaused Cause and the Ultimate Reality. In every human being

there resides the individual manifestation of Brahman: the self, or

Atman. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism are the basis for

India’s most popular religious writing: the Bhagavad-Gita (Song of

God). The Bhagavad-Gita is one episode from the voluminous Indian

epic poem, the Mahabharata (Great Deeds of the Bharata Clan),

which recounts a ten-year-long struggle, occurring around the year

1000 B.C., for control of the Ganges valley. The world’s longest folk 22

epic, the Mahabharata is the source of most of the poetry, drama, and

art producted throughout India’s long history.

China. The great period of unity in China came about under

the Qin (pronounced “Chin”), the dynasty from which the English

word “China” is derived. Like the kings of ancient China, Qin rules

held absolute responsibility for maintaining order and harmony.

Having defeated all rival states, in 221 B.C. the Qin prince

Shi Huangdi declared himself “First Emperor”.

In the two centuries that preceded the Qin Empire, there

emerged various schools of thought concerning the nature of human

being, and, by extension, the ideal form of government. Mencius

(371 – 289 B.C.), China’s most significant voice after Confucius,

expanded Confucian concepts of government as a civilizing force

and the ruler as the moral model. Mencius held that human beings

are born good: they do evil only by neglect or abuse.

After Qin dynasty came next dynasty – Han. Han China

established intellectual and cultural foundations that would remain in

place for two thousand years and powerfully influence neighbouring

Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. The Chinese regard the time of the Han

Empire as their Classical Age. Han rulers restored Confucianism to

China, thereby enhancing the Confucian reputation of Confucian

texts and the Confucian Scholar/official.23

Literature. Ancient China’s greatest historian Sima Qian

(145 – 90 B.C.), who rivals both Thucydides and Livy, produced the

monumental Shiji, a narrative account of Chinese history from

earliest times through the lifetime of the author.

Upon Sima’s death, China’s first woman historian Ban Zhao

(45 – 114), continued his court chronicle. Ban also won fame for her

handbook “Lessons for Women”, which outlined the obligations and

duties of the wife to her husband.

Poetry. Chinese poetry appeared in the form of hymns and

ritual songs, sung to the accompaniment of a lute or stringed

instrument. Poems served as entertainments for various occasions,

such as banquets, and as expressions of affection that were often

exchanged as gifts.

My family has married me

in this far corner of the world,

Sent me to a strange land,

To the king of the Wu-Sun.

The technical and aesthetic achievement of the Han in the

visual arts seems have been matched in music. Musical instruments

were regularly buried in the royal tombs, a practice that had begun in

the Shang Era. Most old instruments – bells – the heart of what may

be the world’s oldest orchestra. First notes – from China, too. The 24

name of each of the notes is inscribed in gold on each bell. Low-

relief scenes of music-making and dance found in tomb chambers

and at Han offering Shrines confirm the importance of elaborate

musical entertainments in the imperial Chinese court.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What is monotheism and pantheism?

2. What do you know about “The Book of the Dead”?

3. What can you say about Ziggurat?

4. Speak about “Epic of Gilgamesh”.

5. What do you know about Vedas?

6. What does the term “Chin” mean?

THEME 3. CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE

AND ROME

1. The Ancient Greece.

2. The Legacy of Rome.

Basic categories and notions: democracy, pantheon,

sophist, amphora, acropolis, metamorphoses.

1. The Ancient Greece. Between 500 B.C. and 500 C.E., the

civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome have come to flowering in

the Mediterranean world. The word “classical” is used in several

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ways. Most obviously, classic or classical means “top-ranking”,

“enduring” or “the best of its kind”.

Between 1200 and 750 B.C., the first Greek city-states

appeared on the islands and peninsulas in the Aegean Sea, the coast

of Asia Minor, at the Southern tip of Italy and Sicily. This ancient

civilization called itself “Hellas” and its people “Hellenes”. During

the fifth century B.C., the period was known as the Golden Age of

Greece, the Hellenic city-states produced some of the finest minds in

the history of culture. Following the fall of Greece in 338 B.C. and

under the leadership of Alexander the Great, Hellenic culture spread

throughout Asia into Far East. Well, the legacy of Greece would

continue to influence the formation of Western culture. While Greek

culture was so sorting its Golden Age, Rome was establishing itself

as the leading city-state of the Italian peninsula. Rome’s history is

often divided into two phases: the Republic (509 – 31 B.C.) and the

Empire (31 B.C. – 476 C.E.). The Romans created the largest and

the most powerful empire in the ancient world.

Greek Community. The Mycenaeans civilization was

established on the Greek mainland nearly 1600 B.C.. Named

Minoen after the legendary King Minos, this maritime civilization

had flourished between 2000 and 1400 B.C.

Centered in the Palace of Minos at Knossos on the island of

Crete, Minoan culture was prosperous and peace-loving. The most

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famous of the palace frescoes, the so-called “Bull-leaping” fresco,

that shows two women and men, latter vigorously somersaulting

over the back of a bull.

The Mycenaens were a militant aggressive people in contrast

of the Minoans. They have built heavily fortified citadels on

mainland Greece at Tiryns and Mycenae. Their warships challenged

other traders for control of the eastern Mediterranean. The

Mycenaens attacked Troy (“Ilion” in Greek), a commercial

stronghold on the northwest coast of Asia Minor around 1200 B.C.

The ten-year long war between Mycenae and Troy would provide

the historical context for the two great epic poems of ancient Greeks:

“The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”. These poems became the

“national”, uniting Greek-speaking people by giving literary

authority to their common heritage.

The Greek gods:

Zeus – King of the gods and sky.

Hera – Queen of the gods.

Athena – war, wisdom.

Aphrodite – love, beauty.

Apollo – solar light, medicine, music.

Dionysus – wine vegetation.

Demeter – agriculture, grain.

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Poseidon – sea.

In 776 B.C. there were founded “regular games” in honor of

the Greek gods located in Olympia, one was of the great religious

centers of Greece, the festival took place at midsummer every four

years, even during wartime: a sacred truce guaranteed safe conduct

for all visitors. The central event of the games was a 200-yard sprint,

called the Stadion. But there were also many other contests: such as

a footrace of one and a half miles, discus-throw, long-jump,

wrestling, boxing, and other games that probably looked back to

Minoan tradition. Winners received garlands consisting of wild olive

or laurel leaves and the acclaim of Greek painters and poets.

Although women were not permitted to compete in the

Olympics, they could hold games of their own.

A great deal of western theatre originated in the tragedies of

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and in the comedies of

Aristophanes.

Aristotle, Plato’s most distinguished student, and tutor to

Alexander the Great, stands out among the ancient Greeks for the

diversity of his interests. In addition to the natural sciences such as

botany, physics, and physiology, Aristotle wrote on philosophy,

metaphysics, ethics, politics, logic, rhetoric, and poetry.

Painting and Pottery. The earliest recognizable style in

Greek art after the migrations of 1200 – 800 B.C. is called

28

Geometric. The lively patterns arranged on the amphora (two-

handled storage jar) are typical of Geometric pottery design.

Greek vases were made of the terra cotta. The artist painted

the figures in silhouette with a sharp tool by incising lines through

the painted surface and exposing the orange clay below on black-

figure pieces.

Sculpture. Monumental sculpture in Greece began in the

Archaic period (meaning “old”). The kouros (or youth) maintains

the standard Egyptian frontal pose. His left leg extends forward to

no bend at knee, hips, or waist and his arms are at his sides, fists

clenched and elbows turned back.

Later, the Early Classical Style (about 490 – 450 B.C.)

produced radical changes in the approach of the human figure. This

style developed the introduction of bronze as a medium for large-

scale sculptures, which were cast by the “lost-wax” poses. The

marble statue, for example, “Discobolus” is known only as a Roman

copy in marble. The bronze original was cast by the sculptor Myron

(about 460 – 450 B.C.).

Architecture. The Acropolis. The Classical period in

Athens is also called the Age of Pericles, after the Greek general and

statesman (about 500 – 429 B.C.) who initiated the architectural

projects for the Acropolis. He planned a vast rebuilding campaign to

celebrate Athenian art and civilization after the devastation of

29

Persian Wars. The Propylaea and the Parthenon were completed

during his lifetime, but work on the Temple of Athena Nike and the

Erechtheum was not begun until his death.

2. The Legacy of Rome.

Roman culture. After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C., Rome

began its rise to power in the Mediterranean.

The Roman view of history was less mythical than the Greek.

The difference between the Greek and the Roman approaches to

history and politics in some sense parallels the differences were in

their views of art. In Rome there were two artistic currents – the

patrician, or upper class, and the plebeian. Official styles were

dictated by the rulers while, popular art also flourished. In contrast

of Greece, virtually no Roman artist – male or female – is

identifiable by name.

While Greek art had tended toward to idealization, Roman

art was generally commemorative, narrative, ad based on history

rather than myth.

Architecture. Roman domestic architecture (from the Latin

domus, in meaning “house”) was derived from both Etruscan and

Greek antecedents, yet maintained its distinctiveness yet.

Roman architecture has two characteristic types, the forum

and the basilica.

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Forums are typically a square or rectangular open space,

bounded on three sides by colonnades and on the fourth by a

basilica. The first forum was known in Rome, the Forum Romanum,

dates from the sixth century B.C.

Basilicas (from the Greek basilikos meaning “royal”) was a

large roofed building, usually at one end of a forum.

Public Baths. Besides providing bathing and swimming

pools, the public bath had low-cost facilities for playing ball,

running, wrestling, and exercising.

The Colosseum. This building was used primarily for public

spectacles.

The Pantheon is the most monumental Roman temple. It

consists of two main parts – a traditional rectangular portico which

is supported by massive granite Corinthian columns and a huge

concrete rotunda which faced on the exterior with brick. The entire

Pantheon stands on a podium with steps leading up to the portico

entrance.

Sculpture. The Roman taste for realism is perhaps best

illustrated in the three-dimensional portraits of Roman men and

women, who was often members of the ruling class or wealthy

patricians.

Literature. The Romans were masters, as well, in oratory

that is the art of public speaking, and in the writing of epistles 31

(letters). In both of these genres, the statesman Marcus Tullius

Cicero excelled. He wrote more than nine hundred letters –

sometimes wrote three a day to the same person – and more than one

hundred speeches and essays.

Virgil is best known for “The Aeneid”. He also wrote

pastoral poems, or eclogues, that glorify the natural landscape and

rustic inhabitants.

Publius Ovidius Naso, or Ovid is one of Rome’s most

notable poet. His narrative poem is “The Metamorphoses”. It is the

vast collection of stories about Greek and Roman gods about

supernatural transformation.

Quintus Haeredes Flaccus, was better known as Horace,

took a critical view of life. He composed verse that pointed up the

contradictions between practical realities and philosophic ideals.

Rome borrowed Hellenic models in all of the arts, but the

Roman taste for realism dominated narrative relief sculpture and

portrait. These genres disclose a love for literal truth that contrasts

sharply with the Hellenic effort to generalize and idealize form.

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What did Hellenic civilization gain from the Minoans and Mycenaeans?

2. How did classical Greek writers, artists and architects express the Greek value of moderation?

32

3. Critical thinking: What did Cicero mean when he said: “We are servants of the law in order that we may be free”?

THEME 4. MIDDLE AGE CULTURE

1. Basic tendencies of the Middle Age culture development.

2. Byzantine art.

3. Culture of East Slavs of pre-Christian period.

Basic categories and notions: pectoral, icons, Hagia Sophia,

a cappella, monophonic, polyphonic, iconography.

1.Basic tendencies of the Middle Age culture

development. General description of the Middle Ages. The Middle

Ages are divided on three big periods: 1) the Dark Ages – the V

middle of the XV century; 2) the early Middle Ages – the middle of

the XI – XV century; 3) the later Middle Ages – XVI – the first half

of the XVII century. It is necessary to remember, that the origin of

national cultures, the formation of national languages were shaped

in that period. This is an epoch with its system of cultural values,

where the idea of God dominated. Christian theology was an integral

system of conceptions about the Universe, the nature, the human.

God was imagined as a grandiose cosmic force carrying

responsibility for permanence of celestial and social spheres.

Philosophy was based on Christianity. The teaching of Augustine

Beatific and Foma Akvinsky were central in medieval philosophy.

33

The Middle Ages descended from antiquity base, on which an

educational system was created. Educational and scientific centres

were the universities. At the and of the XI century a role of

university centres played high schools: in Paris, Palermo, Oxford.

Other oldest universities in Europe were in Paris, Krakow, Cologne.

In the XV century a number of universities quickly increased.

Besides secular schools and colleges were founded. The

development of education brought on the demand on books, which

were a great luxury. Since the XIV century paper has been used in

the production of books. The N. Guttenberg’s invention of a printing

machine was a great achievement.

Naturalistic sciences and geographic discoveries were

developed in the XII century.

The world into which Jesus was born was ripe for religious

revitalization. Roman religion focused on nature deities and civic

gods who provided little in the way of personal spiritual comfort.

The province of Judea, beset by religious and political factionalism,

sought apocalyptic deliverance from the Roman yoke. The message

preached by Jesus demanded an abiding faith in God, compassion

for one’s fellow human beings, and the renunciation of material

wealth. In an age when people were required to serve the state, Jesus

asked that they serve God. The apostle Paul universalized Jesus’

message by preaching among non-Jews. He explained Jesus’ death

34

as atonement for sin and anticipated eternal life for the followers of

the Christos.

The religion that had begun with the teaching of Siddhartha

Gautama in India swept through East Asia in the very centuries that

Christianity emerged in the West. Although rooted in different

traditions, the two world faiths had much in common, especially in

the message of compassion, humility, and right conduct preached by

their founders. Christianity and Buddhism had only limited impact in

the lands in which their founders were born, but both religions

gained popularity in empires that flourished at the same time:

Christianity in the Roman world-state, and Buddhism under the late

Han dynasty in China. With Pauline Christianity, as with Mahayana

Buddhism, the belief in a Savior god, the promise of salvation for all

human beings, and uncompromising moral goodness provided

spiritual alternatives to the prevailing materialism of imperial Rome

and Han China.

In early Christian art, the symbolic significance of the

representation is often more important than its literal meaning.

Iconography, the study of subject matter and its visual

imagery, is essential to an understanding of the transition from

classical to Christian art. Music, literature, almost every number and

combination of numbers was thought to carry allegorical meaning.

2. Byzantine art. In the churches of Byzantium, the mosaic

technique reached its artistic peak. The most notable example of 35

Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”), the

longitudinal axis of the Latin cross plan was combined with the

Greek cross plan. Hagia Sophia is an evidence of the golden age of

Byzantine art and architecture that took place under the emperor

Justinian.

Although religious imagery was essential to the growing

influence of Christianity, a fundamental disagreement concerning the

role of icons (images) in divine worship led to conflict between the

Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches. Executed in glowing

colours and gold paint on small, portable panels, Byzantine icons

usually featured the Virgin and Child Staring hypnotically at the

worshiper in a formal, stylized manner. Early Church was careful to

exclude all forms of individual expression from liturgical music.

Most important music of Christian antiquity was the music of the

Mass.

On the oldest bodies of liturgical song still in everyday use,

Gregorian chant stands among the great treasures of Western music.

It is – like early Christian hymnody – monophonic, that is, it consists

of a single line of melody sung a cappella (without instrumental

accompaniment), the plainsong of early Christian era was performed

by the clergy and choirs of monks rather than by members of the

congregation.

36

3. Culture of East Slavs of pre-Christian period. The early

Middle Ages for Central and Eastern Europe is the period of the

formation of big Slavic unions, the foundation and the development

of Slavonic states. During the V – VI centuries two Slavonic unions

– Sclavyns and Ants were formed on the territory of contemporary

Ukraine. Archaeological findings indicate, that base of economy of

eastern Slavs was agriculture. But cattle-breeding, hunting, and

fishery also existed. Ceramics, spinning, weaving, manufacture of

skin, stone, and wood products remained as household trade.

In Eastern Slavonic religion the worshipping of nature forces

in various forms and clan cult are reflected brightly. It was typical

for agricultural tribes.

Early Christian religion in ancient Ukrainians was heathen

polytheism. Eastern Slavs believed in natural fantastic deities:

mermaids, wood-goblins, nixes.

The pantheon of heathen gods was formed. Calendar poetry

is folklore, associated with seasons, ritual poetry, associated with

ceremonies.

Questions, and tasks for self-control

1.What peculiar features of Middle Ages culture do you know?

2.What do you know about Byzantine art?

3.What are the peculiarities of the icon-painting of Middle Ages

period?

37

THEME 5. RENAISSANCE

1. Renaissance period and new traditions in culture.

2. Italian Renaissance.

3. Reformation and its influence on culture of WesternEurope.4. Ukrainian Renaissance.

Basic categories and notions: humanism, Reformation,

anthropocentrism, ideal, nativity, basilica, mystery, choir.

1. Renaissance period and new traditions in culture.

Renaissance is one of the most celebrated epochs in the history of

civilization. It was a period in Europe between 1300 and 1600. The

Renaissance, or “rebirth” of classicism, was the cultural hinge

between medieval and modern times. Renaissance art appeared on

the base of humanism. Originating in fourteenth-century Italy, and

spreading northward during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, this

dynamic movement shaped some of West’s most fundamental

political, economic, and cultural values – values associated with the

rise of nation-states, the formation of the middle class, and the

advancement of classically based education and classically inspired

art.

The peculiar features of Renaissance culture were its secular

character, spiritual renewal, appealing to cultural antiquity legacy. 38

Creators of Renaissance culture were people from various social

strata, but its achievement in humanitarian and naturalistic sciences,

literature, and art became the achievements of the whole society.

On counterpoise to feudal ideology, Renaissance philosophy

focused its attention on a person, on his assertion. Philosophy of that

period is represented by E. Rotterdamsky, M. Ficino, G. Bruno.

2. Italian Renaissance. During the eleventh and the twelfth

centuries, Italy continued to be accessible to Byzantine influences

originating in Greece and Turkey through its eastern ports,

particularly Venice and Ravenna.

The most famous of the early Italian humanists was the poet

and scholar Francesco Petrarch (1304 – 1374). Often called the

Father of Humanism, Petrarch devoted his life to the recovery,

copying, and editing of Latin manuscripts. His favourite poetic form

was the sonnet, a fourteen-lined lyric poem.

Architecture. The revival of classical architecture was

inaugurated by the architect, sculptor, and theorist Filippo

Brunelleschi. He won a civic competition for the design of the

dome of Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi was among the first

architects of the Renaissance to defend the principles of symmetry

and clarity in architectural design.

The leading painter, who exemplified the Renaissance

interest in pagan subject matter, was Sandro Botticelli. “The Birth

of Venus” is one of a series of mythological pictures. 39

A division into periods of Italian Renaissance takes very

important place. Three names are sufficient for comprehension of

world sense of Italian Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael,

Michelangelo. Such artists as Giorgione, Tintoretto, Titian,

Veronese made considerable input in the development of painting in

that period.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) is the best artist and

scientist of the Renaissance. A diligent investigator of natural

phenomena, Leonardo, examined the anatomical and organic

functions of plants, animals, and human beings. He also studied the

properties of wind and water and invented several hundreds of

ingenious mechanical devices, including an armored tank and a

flying machine most of which never left the notebook stage. His

great painting is “The Last Supper”.

“Mona Lisa”. The painting that epitomizes Leonardo’s

synthesis of nature, architecture, human form, geometry, and

character is Mona Lisa.

Michelangelo (Michelangelo di Buonarroti Simoni) (1475 –

1564) was an architect, painter, writer, although he thought of

himself primarily as a sculptor. He established his reputation in

Florence at the age of twenty-seven, when he undertook to carve a

freestanding larger-than-life statue of the biblical David from a

gigantic block of marble that no other sculptor had dared to tackle.

40

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio) was born eight years after

Michelangelo but died forty-four years before him. During his short

life (1483 – 1520) Raphael came to embody the classical character

of High Renaissance Style.

At the beginning of his career, Raphael worked in Florence,

where he painted many versions of “The Virgin with Christ-child”.

The “Madonna of the Meadows” of 1505 is a good example of his

clear, straightforward, classicizing style. At the age of twenty-six,

Raphael went to Rome, where, in addition to religious works, he

painted portraits and mythological pictures.

3. Reformation and its influence on culture of Western

Europe. In the transition from medieval to early modern times,

technology played a crucial role. Gunpowder, the light cannon, and

other military devices made warfare more impersonal and ultimately

more deadly. At the same time, Western advances in navigation,

shipbuilding, and maritime instrumentation brought Europe into a

dominant position in world exploration and colonization.

The new print technology broadcast an old message of

religious protest and reform. For two centuries, critics had attacked

the wealth, worthiness, and unchecked corruption of the Church of

Rome.

During the sixteenth century, papal extravagance and

immorality reached new heights, and Church reform became an

urgent public issue. In the territories of Germany, loosely united 41

under the leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500-

1558), the voices of protest were more strident than any elsewhere

in Europe. In 1505, Martin Luther (1483 – 1546), the son of the

rural coal miner, abandoned his legal studies to become an

Augustinian monk. Thereafter, as a doctor of theology at the

University of Wittenberg, Luther spoke out against the Church. In

1517, in pointed criticism of Church abuses, Luther posted on the

door of the cathedral of Wittenberg a list of ninety-five issues he

intended for dispute with the leaders of the Church of Rome. Luther

did not want to destroy Catholicism, but rather to reform it. He

attacked monasticism clerical celibacy, ultimately marrying, a

former nun and fathering six children. With the aid of the printing

press, his “protestant” sermons circulated throughout Europe. In the

independent city of Geneva, Switzerland, the French theologian

John Calvin (1509 – 1564), set up a government in which elected

officials, using the Bible as the supreme law, ruled the community.

On nearby Zürich, the humanist scholar Ulrich Zwingli

(1484 – 1531) fathered the Anabaptist Sect.

The austerity of the Protestant reform cast its long shadow

upon Church art. Secular subject matter provided abundant

inspiration for Northern artists. Portraiture, a favourite genre of the

pre-Reformation master Jan van Eyck, remained popular among

such sixteenth-century artists as Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach the

42

Elder, and Hans Holbein the Younger, three of the greatest

draftsmen of the Renaissance.

Literature. The Scholarly treatises and letters of Desiderius

Erasmus won him the respect of scholars throughout Europe: but

his single most popular work was “The Praise of Folly”, a satiric

oration attacking a wide variety of human foibles, including greed,

intellectual pomposity, and pride. Other humanist, Erasmus’

lifelong friend and colleague Thomas More, wrote “Utopia”. In

Spain, Miguel de Cervantes wrote “Don Quixote”, a novel that

satirizes the outworn values of the Middle Ages as personified in a

legendary Spanish hero. The French humanist Francois Rabelais

wrote “Gargantua and Pantagruel”, an irreverent satire filled with

biting allusions to contemporary institutions and customs.

The literary giant of the age is William Shakespeare (1564 –

1616). He lived during the Golden Age of England under the rule of

Elizabeth I. He wrote 37 plays – comedies, tragedies, romances, and

histories – as well as 154 sonnets and other poems. His comedies,

such as “The Taming of the Shrew”, “Much Ado About Nothing”,

and tragedies as “Hamlet”, “Macbeth”, “Othello”, “King Lear” were

the products of his mature career – that Shakespeare achieved the

concentration of thought and language that have made him the

greatest English playwright of all time.

43

4. Ukrainian Renaissance. Ukrainian cultural eminence

started at the end of the XV – the first half of the XVI centuries due

to the diffusion of humanistic ideas.

The Development of Ukrainian Renaissance humanism is

divided into 3 stages:

1) the middle Renaissance ( XVI century);

2) the second half of the XVI – XVII centuries;

3) the second half of the XVII – XVIII centuries.

Founders of humanistic culture in Ukraine were Yu.

Gorhobych, P. Rusyn, S. Orihovsky.

In the XIV- the first half of the XVII century a school theatre,

a custom to go around with puppet shows appeared.

In the conditions of cultural eminence civil and cult construction

reached a very high level. Church architecture is represented by three-partial

and five-partial stone churches. In many towns the defensive fortifications

were built: wooden and stone castles, billows, ditches, and walls.

Sculptural reliefs, fretwork appeared on portals, in interiors of

Renaissance houses, palaces, churches, iconostasis, and sepulchral sculpture

appeared. Religious images on artists' pictures gradually lost former stability

and frequently had features of simple people.

In the last decade of the XVI century the information about Ukraine

was spread in the West.

Questions and tasks for self-control

44

1. Which of the artists are called “titans” of Renaissance

period?

2. Analyze the peculiarities of Ukrainian Renaissance culture.

3. What significance has the Renaissance period in the worldculture?

THEME 6. BAROQUE CULTURE

1. Baroque and rococo.

2. The Age of Enlightenment. Neoclassicism.

3. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – the first half of the XIX century.

Basic categories and notions: gallery, classicism,

sentimentalism, empire style, elegy, materialism, education, play, satire.

1. Baroque and rococo. The term “baroque” is applied to

diverse styles, which highlight the approximate character of art

historical categories. Baroque art began in Italy, particularly in

Rome. In the course of the baroque period, however, Paris took over

as the artistic centre of Europe, a position it retained until the World

War II.

Architecture. The official architect of St. Peter’s was Gian

Lorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680). He designed erected the bronze

baldacchino, or canopy, over the high altar above St. Peter’s tomb.

45

In France the architecture was elegant, ordered and rational,

recalling the classical esthetic. The example of it is Versailles, a

small town about 15 miles (24 km) southwest of Paris, the vast royal

household.

In England the exponent by Baroque style was Sir

Christopher Wren (1632 – 1723), which took part in redesigning of

fifty-one churches that had burned down, and rebuilt of the

Protestant Church of England.

Sculpture. The most important sculptor of the Baroque style

in Rome was Bernini. His over-life-size sculpture “Pluto and

Proserpina” was an example of his talent as a sculptor.

Painting. The leading painter in Rome was Michelangelo.

Merisi da Caravaggio (1571 – 1610). His credo was in depicting

subjects and themes of a homoerotic nature.

The Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens (1577 – 1640) was one

of the most famous painters of the XVII century. His mythological

paintings (“Venus and Adonis”) also celebrate the sensual side of life.

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606 – 1669) falls into the general category of

Baroque.

Diego Velazquez (1599 – 1660) was the leading Baroque

artist in the XVII century in Post-Reformation Spain.

46

Rococo. The most distinctive style of the XVIII century is

called Rococo, a French word rocaille and coquille (meaning “rock”

and “shell” – the formations were used to decorate Baroque

gardens).

The XVIII century was called the “Age of Enlightenment”.

This complex concept derives from the philosophical ideas, which

were translated into political movements. The rationalism of

Descartes – Cogito, ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”) – in the

previous century continued to appeal to the same European and

American thinkers. In England, John Locke advanced the notion of

“empiricism”, the belief that something exists only when it can be

seen and experienced.

In political philosophy, the concept of a secular “Social

contract” developed. It was based on the principle that governments

ruled only by the consent of the people. This “contract” could be

broken if a government abused its power. The practical effect of this

reasoning can be seen in Thomas Jefferson’s “Bill of Rights” and

“the American Constitution”.

Rococo Painting. The leading Rococo painter, Antonio

Watteau (1684 – 1721), was born in Flanders, but spent most of his

professional life in France. (The Dance is his best known painting).

Neoclassicism. During the late XVIII century and early XIX

century in Western Europe, several styles competed for primacy.

47

Paris had become the undisputed centre of the Western art world,

although Rome was still influential. Artistically, the “true style”,

later called the neoclassical style, was a reaction against the levity of

rococo. Although neoclassicism originated during the rule of Louis

XIV, it reign was later adopted by the leaders of the French

Revolution, and became the style closely associated with the

revolutionary movements of the period.

The leading neoclassical painter, Jacques-Louis David

(1748 – 1825), appealed to the republican sentiments that derived

from Ancient Rome. His “Oath of the “Horatii” was first exhibited in

1785. David was elected to the National Convention and he voted to

send Louis XVI to the guillotine. When Robespierre fell, David was

imprisoned twice but regained favor under Napoleon. After

Napoleon’s exile, David left France and died in Brussels in 1825.

3. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – the first half of the

XIX century. To understand this epoch better it is necessary to start

with the description of the historic period. These historic peculiarities

influenced on the development of education. On the Right-bank

Ukraine the union schools originated. They were state schools owned

by Vasylian order. On the Left-bank and rural Ukraine only orthodox

schools existed. Kyiv-Mogyla college had a great significance and

became Kyiv Academy in 1701.

48

The remarkable scientists, writers, and artists such as

L. Baranovych, I. Halyatovsky, F. Prokopovych, S. Polotsky worked

there. Academy graduates did their endeavours for eminence of

education and culture in other Slavonic states, first of all in Russia.

The creative activity of H. Skovoroda had a great

significance for the development of Ukrainian culture. He wrote his

works as dialogues, in which anthropologism is preached as the base

of philosophical conception.

Literature was greatly developed. The polemic genres:

treatises, dialogues, public debates, pamphlets – played a very

important role in literature. The puppet theatre – vertep developed

greatly in that period too. The Ukrainian language and songs entered

scene due to this genre. Folk theatre-show, serf theatre appeared.

Kharkiv theatre, which was founded in 1798, was the first

professional theatre in Ukraine.

Music was developed under the influence of theatrical art.

Family-genre and lyric songs, ritual, folk dancings-snowstorms,

hopaks, and pittances were developed.

A professional music was represented by the creative activity

of famous composers: D. Bortnyansky, M. Berezovsky, and

A. Vendel.

Baroque in Ukraine became a spiritual trend which involved

all spheres of cultural activity and came into the history of world art

under the name of Ukrainian Baroque.49

The creators of Baroque architecture were I. Hryhorovych-

Barsky (Samson fountain, etc.) in Lviv, S. Kovnir (Kovnir corps).

The remarkable Ukrainian architects F. Starchenko and A. Zernikov

worked together.

B. Rastrelli (Andriivska's church, Mariinsky palace), B

Meretyn (St. Yur's cathedral in Lviv) made a great contribution to

Baroque architecture.

Imitative art of this epoch was represented by iconostasis,

which was distinguished by grandiosity, splendour, and riches.

In this period Ukrainian portraiture started to develop.

Portrait, as genre of secular art, had a national peculiarity: attached

to all its vitality in the XVII century it stored a close tie with

iconpainting. D. Levytsky, V. Borovykovsky, F. Senkovych worked

in this genre.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. How was baroque style reflected in Western European culture?

2.What famous architects of baroque style do you know?

3.What artistic styles of New Time do you know?

4.Name peculiar features of Ukrainian baroque.

THEME 7. THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN EUROPE

1. Romanticism and realism.

50

2. Impressionism and post-impressionism of the XIX century.

3. Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIX century.

Basic categories and notions: empire style, eclecticism,

elegy, materialism, play, satire, naturalism, cubism.

1. Romanticism and realism. The romantic movement like

neoclassicism, encompassed both western Europe and the United

States. The term “romantic” is derived from the Romance languages

(French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese), and more particularly from

the medieval tales of chivalry and adventure written in those

languages, such as the Chanson de Roland (Song of Roland). The

romantic esthetic of “long ago” and “far away” is conveyed in works

with locales and settings that indicate the passage of time (for

example, ruined buildings or dilapidated sculptures). To the extent

that neoclassicism expresses a nostalgia for the classical past, it may

be said to have “romantic” quality too.

Painter. Francisco de Goya (1746 – 1828), the leading

Spanish painter, was attracted by several Romantic themes. His

compelling images reflect his remarkable psychological insights. In

1799 Goya published Los Caprichos (“The Caprices”), a series of

etchings combined with the new medium of aquatint.

51

Romanticism focused on people’s longing to return to nature.

Such themes led to an expansion of landscape painting in the XIX

century.

In England, the two greatest romantic landscape painters were

John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner.

French great artists of those times were K. D. Friederich,

T. Gericault, E. Delacroix, etc.

Marxism appeared in the XIX century. This century is a time

of general personal interest in historic science. Almost in every

country historic societies were founded, the museums were opened,

the magazines were published. A complex of humanitarian scientific

disciplines was formed, economic and social sciences were

developed.

T. Hofman, G. Byron, V. Hugo, G. Sand, W. Scott were main

representatives of romanticism in European literature. Romanticism

in music was formed under the influence of literary romanticism in

1820. Composers who created in romantic style were K. Weber,

R. Wagner, F. List, F. Chopin. They created real musical cult.

Realism was established in culture since 1830s. There were

many causes for establishing of realism. A desire to return to truth of

life, to usual feelings of usual people appeared. Stendhal,

52

P. Beranger, O. Balzac, P. Merimee, G. Flaubert, J. Galsworthy were

representatives of realism in literature. Realism in music: the most

prominent were the Italian composers: D. Verdi, D. Puccini,

P. Mascagni. In Austria at the beginning, of the XIX century

Salzburg along with Vienna became the musical centre. There,

besides classical opera, Viennese operetta was founded.

2. Impressionism and post-impressionism of the XIX

century. The Impressionist Style evolved in Paris in the 1860s and

continued into the early XX century. Unlike realism, impressionism

responded rarely, if ever, to political events. The impressionist

painters preferred genre subjects, especially scenes of contemporary

leisure activities and entertainment, and landscape. The

impressionists were also concerned with direct observation,

especially of the natural properties of light. They held eight

exhibitions of their work between 1874 and 1886.

Edouard Manet (1832 – 1883) worked in Paris. This painter

formed a transition from realism to impressionism. His “Bar at the

Folies Bergere”, the customer is cut by the frame, as is the trapeze

artist, whose legs and feet are visible in the upper left corner of the

picture plan.

Edgar Degas (1834 – 1917) also represents a “Slice of life”,

the boundaries of which are determined by the apparently arbitrary

placing of the frame.

53

The work of Claud Monet (1840 – 1926) more than that of

any other XIX century artist embodied the formal principles of

impressionism.

Auguste Renoir is an impressionist painter too. He has

combined traditional thematic content with a new formal idiom.

Camille Pissarro was influenced by photography, and by the

photographer’s characteristic experimentation with different

viewpoints.

Winslow Homer, an American painter, is regarded as

transitional between realism and impressionism. Another important

American painter Maurice Prendergast clearly evolved from

Impressionism.

Sculpture. The acknowledged giant of the XIX century

sculptor was Auguste Rodin.

Auguste Rodin was the most innovative sculptor of his time,

and was a force for change compared with the ongoing tradition of

the Academy. A comparison with the plaster and bronze versions of

Rodin’s Balzac.

Post-Impressionism (meaning “after impressionism”), is the

term used to designate the work of a group of important late XIX

century painters. Like impressionists, post-impressionists were

drawn to bright colour and visible, distinctive brushstrokes. Most

powerful impact on the development of western painting was Paul

Cezanne.54

The greatest Dutch artist since the Baroque period was

Vincent van Gogh.

Symbolism. The symbolists concentrated their attention on

artistic expression of things in themselves through symbols and

ideas. Most popular painters were E. Munch, the Norwegian artist,

and H. Rousseau.

Naturalistic trend in art was not pure. It is represented in

literature by E. Zola, A. Holz, brothers Goncourt. Poets Charles

Baudelaire, Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine, American writer

Edgar Allen Poe and Swedish philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg.

Their literature of decadence, disintegration, and the macabre shares

many qualities with symbolist painting.

3. Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIX century.

The prominent persons of modernistic period of Ukrainian culture

were M. Hrushevsky and I. Franko. Ukrainian painters are

K. Krutovsky, K. Konstandi, O. Lytovchenko, M. Yaroshenko.

Ukrainian national landscape school was founded: V. Orlovsky,

I. Pohytonov. O. Murashko was a well-known portrait-painter.

Ukrainian domestic theatre of M. Kropyvnytsky,

M. Sadovsky, M. Starytsky was over the hill.

L. Kurbas was the founder of a theatre of a new type.

The creative activity of M. Lysenko, Ya. Stepovy,

S. Lyudkevych, O. Koshytsya, M. Leontovych, O. Nyzhankivsky,

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P. Stetsenko. Artistic school of Ukrainian architecture was formed in

this period by P. Alyoshyn, O. Beketov, V. Horodetsky, O.

Verbytsky. The formation of style “modern” took place in the first

decade of the XX century in Ukrainian architecture. It was

connected with desire to create synthetic style of all kinds of art.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1.Define peculiar features of romanticism.

2.How was realism reflected in the European culture?

3.What is impressionism?

4.Speak about general features of Ukrainian modernism.

THEME 8. CULTURAL PROCESS OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY– BEGINNING OF THE XX

CENTURY.

1. Fauvism and expressionism.

2. Cubism. Surrealism.

3. Dadaism.

4. Ukrainian culture in interwar period.

Basic categories and notions: modernism, international,

nihilism, fauvism, expressionism, cubism, surrealism, dadaism.

1. Fauvism and expressionism. In the twentieth century

styles came and went, often merging into one another. In half past of

century, Paris had been the centre of the western art world. Just as 56

the impressionists had expanded the range of subject matter in the

XIX century, so the XX century artists turned to entirely new

subjects, including everyday objects. They also began to use new

materials, such as plastics, which resulted from advances in

technology. The very idea of “newness” became the basis of

modernism. The so-called “avant-garde” (or leaders) became a

prominent force in western art.

In painting, two figures dominate the first half of the XX

century, Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973) and Henry Matisse (1869 –

1954). As artists, however, they were quite distinct.

Fauvism. In 1905 a new generation of artists exhibited their

paintings in Paris. One critic, who noticed a single traditional

sculpture in the room, exclaimed: “Donatello chez les fauves!”

(“Donatello among the wild beasts!”), because the colour and the

movement of the paintings reminded him of the jungle. His term

suck, and the style of those pictures is still referred to as “Fauve”.

The leading Fauve was H. Matisse.

In Germany, the artists who, like the Fauves, were most

interested in the expressive possibilities of colour – as derived from

Post-Impressionism – were called expressionists. They formed

groups that outlasted the Fauves in France. This style, like Fauvism,

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used colour to create mood and emotion. The leading artists of

expressionism were E. Kirchner, V. Kandinsky, E. Marc.

2. Cubism. Surrealism. Cubism was essentially a revolution

in the artist’s approach to space, both on the flat surface of a picture

and in sculpture. In 1909 P. Picasso created the first Cubist

sculpture, a bronze Head of Woman. In 1911 two Cubist exhibitions

held in Paris brought the work of avant-garde artists to the attention

of the general public. Although this phase of Cubism was brief, its

impact on western art was enormous.

Surrealism. Another stylistic shift in Picasso’s work,

influenced by Cubism, has been called surrealism. This term literary

means “above the real”, and denotes a truer reality than that of the

visible world (“Girl in front of a Mirror”). In Picasso’s work of 1937,

Guernica, he combined both Analytic and Synthetic Cubist forms.

3. Dadaism. The term “Dada” refers to an international

intellectual movement that began during the war in the relative safety

neutral Switzerland. Dada was thus not an artistic style in the sense

of shared formal qualities that are easily recognized. Rather, it was

an idea, a kind of “anti-art”, based on a nihilisv (from the Latin nihil,

meaning “nothing”) philosophy of negation.

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One of the major prophet of Dada was Marcel Duchamp,

whose “Nude Descending a Staircase” had already caused a

sensation in 1913.

Many members of the Dada movement also became

interested in the Surrealist style that supplanted it. It was the writer

Andre Breton who bridged the gap between Dada and Surrealism

with his first Surrealist Manifesto of 1924. He advocated art and

literature based on Freud’s psychoanalytic technique of free

association, an exploration into the imagination, and a reentry into

the world of myth, fear, fantasy, and dream. The very term “surreal”

connotes a higher reality – a state of being that is more real than

mere appearance.

The most prominent surrealist artist was Salvador Dali. The

development of European literature of the first half of the XX

century is associated with Universal human values in general – the

distinctive feature of Surrealism. One of the central modernistic

problems in literature is the question about the place of “small man”

in a society, his/her deeds, that was stipulated by realization of

exposure, a crash of humanitarian ideals. Literature of “lost

generation” appeared: E. Hemingway, E. M. Remark, F. S. Fitzerald.

It is incorrect to consider a foreign art of the period between the two

wars to be modernism only.

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The original changes took place in music. Opera was not so

popular. Music, which differed by expressiveness, sound sharpness

appeared: I. Stravynsky, B. Bartok, A. Schonberg.

Some changes took place in architecture of the period

between two wars. The architects tried to put end eclectism of a style

“Modern”, they wanted bring architecture into accordance with

technical possibilities of that development. Architecture of that

period is realized in numerous innovatory trends of constructivism:

V. Gropius, F. Jourden, and Le Corbusier made the foundation of

constructivism bases in Europe.

4. Ukrainian culture in interwar period.

Literature was represented by M. Hvylyovy, R. Tychyna, V.

Sosyura, O. Dosvitny, H. Epic, Yu. Yanovsky. They defended a

national culture, but not proletarian one. They were supported by a

group of newclassics. The representatives of this group considered

“europeism” to be a way of Ukrainian people to national revival on

the base of high European culture (M. Zerov, M. Dray-Hmara, P.

Fylypovych, M. Rylsky).

Music. National opera and ballet theatres were founded. The

remarkable composers were M. Verykovsky, K. Dankevych,

K. Lyatoshynsky, K. Stytsenko.

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Ukrainian famous “avant-guard” painter was K. Malevych.

Realistic trend was developed by F. Krychevsky.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Give general description of culture in the beginning of the

XX century.

2. What is Fauvism?

3. Speak about expressionism.

4. Characterize Dadaism.

5. What do you know about Surrealism?

6. Speak about Ukrainian culture in interwar period.

THEME 9. CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY.

1. Avant-gardism.

2. Pop art. Op art.

3. Post-modernism.

Basic categories and notions: avant-gardism,

abstractionism, nonconformists, existentialism, collage, modern,

paradigm, psychoanalysis, rock culture, pop art, Freudism.

1. Avant-gardism. We’ll start from the general factors of

western European cultural development. The continuation of

modernism existence was in some state of renewal. Post-modernistic

trends are abstractionism, new avant-gardism. Two of the most

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important artists are Hans Hofmann (1880 – 1966) and Josef

Albers (1888 – 1976), which emigrated to America from Germany.

“Action painting” was a term coined by the critic Harold

Rosenberg to describe the work of certain members of the New York

School. The best known of the “action” or “gesture” painters is

Jackson Pollock (1912 – 1956), who began as a regionalist, and

turned to surrealism in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

Many sculptors whose work conveys a dynamic abstraction

akin to abstract expressionism. David Smith (1906 – 1965) welded

iron and steel to produce a dynamic form of sculptural abstraction.

Louise Nevelson (1899 – 1988) made assemblies consisting

of “found objects” – especially furniture parts and carpentry tools –

set inside open boxes.

In the 1960s the most significant style to emerge in the world

was “pop”. In contrast to abstract expressionist subjectivity, the pop

artists strove for an “objectivity” embodied by the imagery of

objects.

Pop art made its debut in London in 1956 and continued in

England. In contrast to abstract expressionist subjectivity – which

viewed the work of art as a revelation of the artist’s inner,

unconscious mind – the pop artists strove for an “objectivity”

embodied by the imagery of objects.

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Another artistic product of the 1960s, the so-called

Happenings, probably derived from the Dada performances at the

Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich during World War I.

2. Pop art. Op art. Op art is akin to pop art in rhyme only,

for the recognizable object is totally eliminated from op art in favor

of geometric abstraction. The op art artist produced kinetic effects,

using arrangements of colour, lines, and shapes, or some

combination of these elements.

Sculpture. From 1960s sculptures movements were called

Minimal, or primary sculptures, because they were direct statements

of solid geometric form. The impersonal character of vinimal

sculptures is intended to convey the idea that an artwork is a pure

object having only shape and texture in relation to space.

In the late 1960s, the popularity of photography, its

relationship to pop art, and the notion that it permits an objective

record of reality, led to the development of the Photorealist Style

(Chuck Close, Gilbert Proesch, Laurie Anderson, Richard Estes).

The most interesting artist of the XX century design was

R. Buckminster Fuller, philosopher, poet, architect, and engineer.

He is best known for the principle of structural design that led to the

invention of the geodesic dome.

3. Post-Modernism. Post-modern architecture is eclectic. It

combines different styles from the past to produce a new vision,

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which is enhanced, but not determined by modern technology.

Post-modernism rejects the international style ethic that “form

follows function”.

“High Tech”. By 1977 Lloyd’s of London, the international

insurance market, needed new quality. In addition to housing, the

more than five thousand people who use the building every day.

Lloyd’s had to adapt to the technological changes, principally in

communications, that were revolutionizing the insurance and other

financial markets. Unlike the neolithic structures, the Egyptian

pyramids, and the Gothic cathedrals, the technology on which

modern structures are based may be obsolete within five or ten years

of their construction.

All works of art affect the environment in some way. In its

broadest sense, the environment encompasses any indoor or outdoor

space. Today, the term tends to refer more to the outdoors – the rural

and urban landscape, for example, – than to indoor spaces. Two

recent artists, whose work has had a startling, though usually

temporary, impact on the natural environment, are Robert Smithson

(1938 – 1973) and Christo (b. 1935).

At times, history seems to repeat itself. The French

expression “The more things change, the more they remain the

same” well describes this historical paradox. On the visual arts, it is

possible to witness this phenomenon unfolding before our very eyes.

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Themes persist, styles change and are revived. New themes appear,

old themes reappear. The media of art also persist. Artists still use

bronze and marble, oil paint, and encaustic. Nevertheless, modern

technology is constantly expanding the media available to artists, as

well as introducing new subjects and inspiring stylistic

developments.

Conclusion. Recalling that one of the primary impulses to

make art is the wish to keep memory alive, we conclude this text

with two memorial works. Both have political, social, and artistic

significance.

As we approach the XX century, we are presented with a

proliferation of artistic styles and expanding definitions of what

actually constitutes art. The pace of technological change,

particularly in communications and the media, spawns new concepts

and styles at an increasing rate. Taste as well as style changes, and it

will be for future generations to look back on our era and to separate

the permanent from the impermanent.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. How can the public culture be characterized?

2. Characterize the modernism peculiarities.

3. Speak about the notion pop-art culture.

THEME 10. CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX

– BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY.

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1. Culture of Soviet Ukraine in interwar period.

2. Cultural life in the second half of the XX century.

3. Culture of independent Ukraine.

Basic categories and notions: anti-fascist, cinematographic

art, socialist realism, prose, nonconformism, collage.

1. Culture of Soviet Ukraine in interwar period. It should

be mentioned that in the interwar period Ukrainian territory was

divided between four states.

The literature of this period was represented by

M. Hvylyovy, P. Tychyna, V. Sosyura, Yu. Yanovsky, etc. They

defended a national culture, but not proletarian one. They were

supported by a group of neoclassics. The representatives of this

group (M. Zerov, M. Dray-Hmara, M. Rylsky) considered

“europeism” to be a way of Ukrainian people to national revival on

the base of high European culture.

Cinematographic art had a big significance for the culture,

which was formed in 1920s. Documentary, scientific, and historic

films appeared. The famous producers were P. Chordynin,

V. Hordin, O. Dovzhenko.

Ukrainian music was developed in the interwar period.

National opera and ballet theatres were founded. The

remarkable composers M. Verykovsky, K. Dankevych, P. Kozytsky,

B. Lyatoshynsky, L. Revutsky, K. Stetsenko worked in wide 66

diapason – from rearranging of folk songs to creation of the modern

Ukrainian music.

Figurative art: the successful development of Ukrainian

“avant-garde” in 1920s (K. Malevych, V. Tatlin).

Realistic trend is developed: F. Krychevsky,

O. Shovkunenko. Cultural explosion of creative activity of

I. Boychuk took place in the interwar period. He tried to combine the

traditional painting receptions with contemporaneity.

2. Cultural life in the second half of the XX century. This

question deals with post war development of Ukrainian culture. The

changes took place in the period of Hrushchov’s “thaw”. “Thaw”

touched all areas of culture. “Men of the 60s” was the very

significant phenomenon. The changes took place in the second half

of 1960 – 80s.

In 1980s, the period of “perestroyka” gave the possibility to

make a process of national and cultural revival more active. New

independent Ukraine was founded. Revival of Ukrainian culture

became a result of inspired, great work of its many representatives.

However we can’t help speaking about problems, which exist in

culture: language problems, russification, there is no unity and

consent in the religious life.

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So, entering the XXI century, Ukraine is to overcome a crisis

of national identity, to revive a process of a spiritual, cultural, moral,

and ethic development.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What way does the national culture in Ukraine develop?

2. Characterize the problems of Ukrainian culture.

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TEST 1

1. The culture is:a) historical periods of the development of mankind;b) behavior rules in a society;c) a complex of special material, spiritual, intellectual, and

emotional lineaments of society.

2. The culture is divided into:a) mythological and scientific;b) material and spiritual;c) slaveholding and feudal.

3. Primeval society came into existence over:a) 2 million years ago;b) 1.5 million years ago;c) 1 million years ago.

4. By the III century B.C. the main tools of people trade had been made of:a) stone, wood, iron;b) stone, bone, wood;c) stone, wood, bronze.

5. The Paleolithic Venus is:a) the goddess of love;b) beauty symbol;c) Paleolithic sculpture is the small limestone statue of a

woman.

TEST 21. What is the biggest Egyptian pyramid:

a) of Hephren;b) of Heopse;c) of Josser.

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2. Who invented writing: a) Egyptians; b) Indians; c) Sumerians.

3. Who invented paper: a) Egyptians; b) Indians; c) Chineses.

4. Who was Confucius:a) an artist;b) a thinker;c) a scientist.

5. "The Father of a tragedy" was: a) Sophokl; b) Aeschylus;

c) Aristophan.

6. A remarkable architect in ancient Greece was:a) Finidid;b) Herodot;

c) Fidiy. 7. The epoch of hellenism is:

a) the epoch of Greek policies foundations; b) the epoch of Roman culture formation; c) the epoch of Greek culture diffusion on Mediterranean Sea

countries and Asia.

8. The name of the famous Roman orator is:a) T. Plautus;b) M. T. Cicero;c) Q. Ennius.

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9. The author of “Aeneid” is:a) Virgil;

b) Ovid; c) Homere

10. A rectangular building for trade and judicial businesses in ancient Rome was called:

a) forum;b) tabulary;c) basilica.

TEST 3

1. Higher schools, where people studied and pursued science in Arabic countries and Byzantine, existed since:

a) VIII — IX centuries;b) VI – VII centuries;c) X – XI centuries.

2. The highest development of Byzantine culture took place during the dynasty of:

a) Issavrian;b) Comninian;c) Palleoleian.

3. The first period of icon-painting in Byzantine began in:a) the XI century;b) the VIII century; c) the IX century.

4. The second period of icon-painting in Byzantine was completed in the IX century by the victory of iconophilists. Their leader was:

a) I. Damaskin;

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b) F. Studit;c) H. Bogoslav.

5. Fresco is:a) drawing, done on damp plaster;b) work of art, done from pieces of coloured glass;c) portraiture.

6. Byzantine empire became extinct in:a) 1453;b) 1054;c) 1204.

TEST 4

1. In Western Europe the first university was founded in:a) Oxford;b) Bologna;c) Cambridge.

2. The Medieval universities as a rule had:a) two faculties;b) three faculties: theological, juridical, preparatory;c) four faculties: preparatory, theological, medical, juridical.

3. Romanesque style in art developed within the:a) XII — XIV centuries;b) VI – VII centuries;c) X – XII centuries.

4. Gothic styles in art developed within the:a) XII – XIV centuries;b) VI – VII centuries;c) X – XI centuries.

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5. Who invented the printing machine:a) N. Guttenberg;b) N. Kopernik; c) G. Galileo.

6. Schools attached to orthodox churches and monasteries in theXIV-XVI century gave:

a) only elementary education (reading, writing, counting, singing);b) elementary and secondary education (reading, writing, counting, singing, and bases of “Seven free arts”);c) not only elementary and secondary, but also higher education (knowledge on philosophy and God’s postulates).

TEST 5

1. Renaissance has arisen in:a) France;b) Italy;c) Germany.

2. Who was named the Father of humanism:a) Francesco Petrarch;b) Filippo Brunelleschi;c) Leonardo da Vinci.

3. The genius Holland painter Rembrandt is the author of the famous picture:a) Paris law-court;b) Danaja;c) Athenian school.

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4. The author of the colonnade on the St. Peter's cathedral square in Rome was:

a) F. Borromini;b) L. Bernini;c) J. Briappo.

5. The founder of classicism of French music was a composer:a) J. S. Bach;b) V. A. Mozart;c) G. B. Lully.

6. The style of French architecture, associated with the time of Napoleon I empire, is:

a) classicism;b) baroque;c) empire.

7. The new direction in Western European culture of the XVII century. established by Swiss historian J. Burckhardt in the XIX century was called:

а) empire style; b) baroque;c) rococo.

8. The Remarkable representative of the Age of Enlightenment was:a) G. Lank;

b) T. More; c) R. Descartes.

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TEST 61. The founder of cubism in painting was:

a) P. Gauguin;b) P. Picasso;c) F. Goya.

2. A new vision of the world, founded on the immediate impression is called:a) expressionism;b) impressionism;

c) symbolism.

3. Dadaism as modernism variety came into existence in:a) Switzerland;b) Germany;c) France.

4. The founder of surrealism in painting was:a) Velasquez;b) F. Goya;c) S. Dali.

5. The first artist and theoretician of new direction in culture that does not contain neither a reminder about reality nor response from this reality was:

a) S. Dali;b) O. Kokoschka;c) V. Kandinsky.

6. At the beginning of the XX century (1905) a group "Bridge" appeared in Dresden. It established:

a) dadaism;b) impressionism;c) expressionism;d) avant-gardism;e) symbolism.

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TEST 7

1. Ukrainian puppet-shows were popular in Ukraine in the XVII century. The authors and the actors were the pupils of the fraternity schools and colleges. Such theatre was called:

a) vertep;b) miracle;c) interact.

2. As a chronicle testifies, the first schools in Kyiv Rus were founded by the Duke:

a) Svyatoslav (Zavoyovnyk) the Conqueror;b) Volodymyr (Velyky) the Great;c) Volodymyr Monomah.

3. Who was the author of the Story of the Passing Years:a) the Metropolitan Illarion;b) the Monk Nestor;c) the Duke Volodymyr Velyky.

4. As a chronicle testifies, the first library in Rus was founded in:a) Sophiya cathedral in Kyiv;b) Sophiya cathedral in Novhorod;c) Uspensky cathedral in Halych.

5. In Kyiv Rus children were taught only:a) to read and to write, to compose the poems and speeches, to

understand language of spheres, and God's postulates and moral bases;

b) read, write, and count, God's postulates, moral bases, and church singing;

c) to read, write, count, compose poems and speeches, to sing in church choir, God's postulates and moral bases.

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6. In Kyiv Rus the most popular architecture was of:a) Romanesque;b) Byzantine style;c) Gothic style.

7. The founder of Kyiv college – one of the high school at the endof the XVI - the first half of the XVII centuries was:

a) I. Borytsky; b) P. Mohyla; c) K. Ostrozky.

8. Yu. Kotermak is known in Ukraine and Europe as:a) a clever war-lord;b) a famous scientist and teacher, professor and rector of Bologna university;c) a brilliant politician.

9. The widespread architecture style in the XIV-XV centuries in Ukrainian lands was:

a) Byzantine style;b) Romanesque;c) combination of lines of Byzantine and Gothic styles.

10. O. Dovzhenko was known as:a) an artist;b) a scientist;c) a producer.

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GLOSSARY

Abstractionism (Lat. abstractus – dissevered) – movement in

painting, pointless art founded at the beginning of the XX century. It

is also called “sign-painting or abstract painting, action painting”.

Artists of this current want by means of arbitrary forms, lines and

colour blots to express unreal images and impressions, abandon from

realistic images of things.

Allegory (Gr. allegoria – other speaking) – story with

symbolically represented moral.

Arabesques – a complicated interlaced ornamental pattern,

widespread mostly in art of Moslem countries, made by geometrical

vegetable patterns and calligraphic Arabic superscriptions.

Arc (Lat. arcus – bow) – part of the circumference of a circle

or other curve.

Architecture – design and construction of buildings; style

of a building.

Art – creation of works of beauty or other special

significance; exercise of human skill (as distinguished from

nature).

Avant-gardism – modernistic movements in the art of the

XX century (futurism, abstractionism, constructivism), its

representatives proclaimed a full break with traditions of realistic

art.

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Baroque (It. barocco – fanciful, wonderful) – style in

European and American art in the end of the XVI – middle of

XVII century, which appeared in architecture, painting, literature,

and music. Grandiosity and decorative splendour, solemnity and

inclination to impressive effects are typical for baroque.

Bible (Gr. biblia – books) – Christian scriptures of Old and

New Testaments; (bible) copy of these; (bible) colloq.

authoritative book.

Brahmanism or Brahminism (sometimes not cap.) – the

religious and social system of orthodox Hinduism, characterized by

diversified pantheism, the caste system, and the sacrifices and

family ceremonies of Hindu tradition; the form of Hinduism

prescribed in the Vedas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads.

Bronze age – historic period of human development (4 – 2

millenium B.C.), specifically its culture, when the bronze wares

were widespread. On the territory of contemporary Ukraine bronze

age lasted since the XIX century B.C. till the VIII century A.C.

Buddhism – Asian religion or philosophy founded by

Gautama Buddha and his followers, which declares that by

destroying greed, hatred, and delusion, which are the causes of all

suffering, man can attain perfect enlightenment.

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Calvinism – the theological system of John Calvin and his

followers, characterized by emphasis on the doctrines of

predestination, irresistibility of grace, and justification by faith.

Caricature – a pictorial, written, or acted representation of

a person, which exaggerates his characteristic traits for comic

effect; a ludicrously inadequate or inaccurate imitation.

Caryatid (Lat. Caryatides, Gr. Karuatides priestesses of

Artemis at Karuai (Caryae), village in Laconia) – a column, used

to support an entablature, in the form of a draped female figure.

Cathedral (Lat. (ecclesia) cathedra – cathedral (church),

from cathedra – bishop's throne, Gr. kathedra – seat) – the

principal church of a diocese, containing the bishop's official

throne.

Ceramics – (functioning as sing.) the art and techniques of

producing articles of clay, porcelain, etc.

Collage – an art form in which compositions are made out of

pieces of paper, cloth, photographs, and other miscellaneous objects,

juxtaposed and pasted on a dry ground; a composition made in this

way; any collection of unrelated things.

Constructivism – a movement in abstract art evolved in

Russia after World War I, primarily by Naum Gabo, who explored

the use of movement and machine age materials in sculpture and had

considerable influence on modern art and architecture.

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Cubism – a French school of painting, collage, relief, and

sculpture initiated in 1907 by Picasso and Braque, which

amalgamated viewpoints of natural forms into a multifaceted surface

of geometrical planes.

Custom – established social habit or practice of a group,

transmitted from one generation to another; convention.

Cyrillic – denoting or relating to the alphabet derived from

that of the Greeks, supposedly by Saint Cyril, for the writing of

Slavonic languages; now used primarily for Russian, Bulgarian, and

Serbian dialect of Serbo-Croatian.

Dada or Dadaism – a nihilistic artistic movement of the

early XX century in Western Europe and the USA, founded on the

principles of irrationality, incongruity, and irreverence towards

accepted aesthetic criteria.

Eclectic – selection of what seems the best from various

styles, doctrines, ideas, methods, etc.

Encrust or incrust – to cover or overlay or as with a crust or

hard coating; to form or cause to form a crust or hard coating; to

decorate lavishly, as with jewels.

Expressionism – widespread movement in literature and art

at the beginning of the XX century, which proclaimed subjective

spiritual world of a person as the only reality, and its expression is

the main aim of art.

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Fresco – very durable method of wall painting using

watercolours on wet plaster or, less properly, dry plaster (fresco

secco), with a less durable results; a painting done in this way.

Futurism (Lat. Future) – avant-garde direction in literature

and art; an artistic movement that arose in Italy in 1909 to replace

traditional aesthetic values with characteristics of the machine age.

Followers aimed to create synthetic art of future.

Graffito – archeol. Any inscription or drawing scratched or

carved onto a surface, esp. rock or pottery; drawings, messages, etc.,

often obscene, scribbled on the walls of public lavatories,

advertising posters, etc.

Gravure – a kind of graphics, medium of drawing

procreation with the help of printing form tree, metal, plastic or

stone.

Heathendom – adopted in Christian church and partially in

historical literature a term for designation of pre-Christian and

non-Christian polytheistic religions. Gods personified forces of

nature. The demons, ghosts of forests, and waters were hallowed. On

the base of heathendom there was created an original spiritual

culture, folk-tales, legends, ceremonies, and songs. Heathendom was

forced out by official monotheistic religions which adopted heathen

rituals and beliefs to their needs.

Hinduism – the complex of beliefs, values, and customs

comprising the dominant religion of India. Characterized by the 82

worship of many gods, including Brahma as supreme being, a caste

system, belief in reincarnation, etc.

Humanism – the denial of any power or moral value

superior to that of humanity; the rejection of religion in favour of a

belief in the advancement of humanity by its own efforts; a

philosophical position that stresses the autonomy of human reason in

contradiction to the authority of the Church; a cultural movement of

the Renaissance, based on classical studies; interest in the welfare of

people.

Iconography – the symbols used in a work of art movement;

the conventional significance attached to such symbols; a collection

of pictures of a particular subject, such as Christ; the representation

of the subjects of icons or portraits, esp. on coins.

Iconostasis or iconostas – in Eastern Church a screen with

doors and icons set in tiers, which separates the bema (sanctuary)

from the nave.

Icon painting – a kind of cult painting (icons). Icon painting

appeared on the base of ancient Greek portraiture.

Impressionism – a movement in French painting, developed

in the 1870s chiefly by Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley, having

the aim of objectively recording experience by a system of fleeting

impressions, esp. of natural light effects; the technique in art,

literature, or music of conveying experience by capturing fleeting

impressions of reality or mood of a person.83

Iron Age – a period of human development and its cultures,

which is associated with the use of wares made of iron, that followed

Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1 millenium B.C.

Landscape (from Middle Dutch lantscap – region; related to

Old English landscipe – tract of land; Old High German lantscaf –

region) – an extensive area of land regarded as being visually

distinct; a painting, drawing, photograph, etc., depicting natural

scenery.

Madrigal – a vernacular song, usually composed for three to

six unaccompanied voices.

Messiah – Anointed One, or Savior; in Greek, Christos.

Mosaic – a design or decoration made up of small pieces of

coloured glass, stone, etc.; the process of making a mosaic.

Myth – a story about superhuman beings of an earlier age

taken by preliterate society to be a true account, usually of how

natural phenomena, social customs, etc.

Naturalism – a movement, esp. in art and literature,

advocating detailed realistic and factual description, esp. in

XIX century France in the writings of Zola, Flaubert, etc.

Nocturne – a short, lyrical piece of music, esp. one for the

piano; a painting or tone poem of a night scene.

Organ – a keyboard instrument in which keyboards and

pedals are used to force air into a series of pipes, causing them to

sound.84

Pagoda – an Indian or Far Eastern temple, esp. a tower,

usually pyramidal and multistoreyed.

Painting – the art or process of applying paints on a surface

such as canvas, to make a picture or artistic composition; a

composition or picture made in this way.

Portrait – a painting, drawing, sculpture, photographs or

other likeness of an individual, esp. of the face; a verbal description

or picture, esp. of a person’s character.

Realism – a style of painting and sculpture that seeks to

represent the familiar or typical in real life, rather than an idealized,

formalized, or romantic interpretation of it.

Rococo – a style of architecture and decoration that

originated in France in the early XVIII century, characterized by

elaborate but graceful light, ornamentation, often containing

asymmetrical motifs; an eighteenth-century style of music

characterized by petite prettiness, a decline in the use of

counterpoint, and extreme use of ornamentation; any florid or

excessively ornamental style.

Romanticism – the theory, practice, and style of the

romantic art, music, and literature of the late XVIII and early XIX

centuries, usually opposed to classicism. Beginning of romanticism

is associated with the end of the Age of Enlightenment.

85

Sculpture – the art of making figures or designs by carving

wood, moulding plaster, etc., or casting metals, etc.; work or a work

made in this way.

Self-portrait – portrait or description of somebody by

him – or herself.

Sketch – a rapid drawing or painting, often a study for

subsequent elaboration; a brief, usually descriptive and informal

essay or other literary composition.

Stained-glass windows or stained glass – decorative artistic

composition of figurative or ornament pattern character from

coloured glass or another clear material for windows or doors.

Specially widely used in gothic cult buildings of the late Dark Ages.

Statue – a wooden, stone, metal, plaster, or other kind of

sculpture of a human or animal figure, usually of life-size or larger.

Stone Age – a period in human culture identified by use of

stone implements and usually divided into the paleolithic,

mesolithic, and neolithic stages.

Surrealism – a movement in art and literature in the 1920s,

which developed esp. from Dada, characterized by the evocative

juxtaposition of incongruous images in order to include

subconscious and dream elements.

Symbolism – representation of something in symbolic form

or attribution of symbolic meaning or character to something as a

system of symbols or symbolic representation.86

Triptych – a set of three pictures or panels, usually hinged so

that the two wing panels fold over the larger central one: often used

as an altarpiece.

Tryzna – in ancient Slavs till the X century. Final part of

funeral ceremony, with establishing of Christianity included a

system of burial rituals.

Veda – the oldest monuments of ancient Indian literature,

written in Sanskrit at the end of the II – the first half of the I

millennium, consists of 4 volumes.

Watercolour – paint, that is dissolved by water, and also

paintings made with this paint. The peculiarity of watercolour is a

colour transparence, colour cleanness.

Ziggurat (from Assyrian summit – height) – a type of

rectangular temple tower or tiered mound erected by the

Summerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians in Mesopotamia. The

tower of Babel is thought to be one of these.

Zoroastrianism (Zoroastrism) – the dualistic religion

founded by the Persian Prophet Zoroaster in the late VII century

B.C. and set forth in the sacred writings of the Zend-Avesta. It is

based on the concept of a continuous struggle between Ormazd (or

Ahura Mazola), the god of creation, light, and goodness, and his

arch enemy, Ahriman, the spirit of evil and darkness, and it includes

a highly developed ethical code. Also called Mazdaism.

87

CONTROL QUESTIONS ON WORLD CULTURE1.How did primeval art come into existence?2.What was typical for world vision of ancient Egypt?3.What achievements of old Egyptians came in to the treasure-house

of world culture?4.What can you say about the developmental level of society in

Mesopotamia?5. What peculiar features of ancient Indian culture do you know?6.What were the most prominent achievements of ancient China?7. Give the description of antiquity.8. What peculiar features of ancient Greek culture do you know?9. What can you say about the relations between mythology and arts

in ancient Greece?10. What peculiar features of ancient Roman culture do you know?11. How is the originality of Roman culture exhibited?12. What were the stages of Byzantine art?13. What peculiar features of Middle Ages culture do you know?14. What can you say about medieval educational system?15. How can romanticism and gothicism be characterized?16. What is humanism?17. What do you know about the specific features of Renaissance

culture.18. Who are named the titans of revival? 19. Speak about painters of Renaissance.20. What factors did influence the rebound of Revival in

Western European?21. What sources and essence of Reformation do you know?22. What artistic styles of New Time do you know?

88

23. Discuss the specific features of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe.

24. How were the ideas of Enlightenment reflected in the culture of the XIX century?

25. What do you know about classicism?26. Why did romanticism appear in the culture of the XIX century?27. How can impressionism and symbolism be characterized in

painting, literature, music?28. What reasons of modernistic movements formation in culture

of the XX century. do you know?29. What is expressionism?30. What is Dadaism?31. What is cubism?32. What is abstractionism?33. What peculiar features of surrealism do you know?34. How can the mass culture be characterized?35. What are the basic problems of contemporary culture

development?

89

REFERENCES

1. Adams L. S. A history of Western Art / Adams Laurie Schneider.

McGraw-Hill Companies : London, 1997. – 560 р.

2. Fiero G. K. The Humanistic Tradition / Gloria K. Fiero. – V.1 – 4.

– McGraw-Hill Companies : London, 1995 – 1997. – 178 р.

3. Shevchenko O. The Stories of Bygone years /

O. Shevchenko. – Kiev, 2003. – 463 р.

4. Ancient Greece (Hellenic) [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим

доступу: http:/www.Showgate.com/medea/grklink2.html

5. Ancient Near East [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:

http:/religion.rutgers.edu/vri/aneast.html

6. Egyptian History [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:

http:/www.wsu.edu

7. The First Unification of China (221 – 207 B.C.) [Електронний

ресурс]. – Режим доступу: http:/www.mc.maricopa.

edu/anthro/china/qinemp.html

8. The History of India [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:

http:/www.itihaas.com/

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Навчальне видання

Методичні вказівкина тему “Культурологія: українська й зарубіжна культура”

з курсу “Культурологія”для іноземних студентів(Англійською мовою)

Відповідальний за випуск В. А. НестеренкоРедактор М. В. Буката

Комп’ютерне верстання: В. А. Клименко, Н. В. Лобко

Підписано до друку 14.11.2011, поз.Формат 60х84/16. Ум. друк. арк. 5,35. Обл.-вид. арк. 3,25. Тираж 50 пр. Зам. № .

Собівартість видання грн. коп.

Видавець і виготовлювач

91

Сумський державний університет,вул. Римского-Корсакова, 2, м. Суми, 40007

Свідоцтво суб’єкта видавничої справи ДК № 3062 від 17.12.2007.

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