7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 1/93

Corso di Laurea MagistraleIn Lingue e Letterature Moderne Europee eAmericaneFacoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere

Università Degli Studi di Cagliari

Anno Accademico 2010- 2011

English Course

World Englishes: An Overview

Lecture Notes

  Prof.ssa MariaTeresa Maurichi

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 1

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 2/93

  Main contents of the course are:

-  An overview on the Varieties and Variation of World English

- The description of English as a Global Language

COURSE OUTLINE 

 SESSION 1

- Features of English as an international Language

- The English spoken Countries

- Development of the English

- English Language Timeline

- Main Languages influence

SESSION 2

- World English vs World Englishes - Definitions and Explanations

- World (New) Englishes 

- The Three Way Classification: ENL, ESL and EFL – their definition:- ENL - English as Native Language

- ESL - English as Second Language

- EFL - English as Foreign Language

SESSION 3

- The Spread of English: An outline

- Main factors for the initial spread of English

- Why English Has become a World Language

- The Dominance Of English

- World (New) Englishes – Key Points

- Kachru‘s Three Circle Model of World Englishes

- The Inner Circle

- The Outer Circle

- The Expanding Circle

- McArthur‘s Circle of World English

- The English - Today Debate

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 2

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 3/93

SESSION 4

- Some Features of New Englishes: a Framework 

- Defining a “New English”

- Language Standards

- The Standardising Process

- Key terms: Language, Dialect, Accent

- Some Changes in Variation of Englishes

- The social variation

- Lexical change

- Phonological variation

SESSION 5

- Varieties of Englishes - some features:

- Main influences- Variation in vocabulary

- Variation in Morphology and syntax- Diachronic change in syntactic simplification

- Synchronic changes

- Differences in tenses

- Cultural conventions

- Some misunderstandings

- Variation in contemporary England

- Scottish English and Variation in Scotland

SESSION 6

- American English: the powerful variety

- The Development of American English

- Some features of 

- -The African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

- The Southern American English (SAE)

- Standard American English or General American: Main features

- Variation in American English

- The main ethnic variety: African American Vernacular English - AAVEs- Southern American English – SAE – main features

SESSION 7

- Canadian English - CanE

- Its origins

- Candian as linguistic area

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 3

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 4/93

- Linguistic situation

- Some Features of Canadian English

SESSION 8

- English in Australia and New Zealand- Australian English (AusE) – descriptive account

- Features of varieties of Standard Australian English

- Some features of Australian Aboriginal English

- Aboriginal English

- How varieties of English are influenced by indigenous languages

- The historical Perspective

- Cultural/conventional and pragmatic norms

- New Zealand English - NZE - Some remarkable features

SESSION 9

- English in Asia and Europe: an overview

- Asia and Europe - Similarities and Differences

- Asian Varieties

- Some shared features

- The Language Pyramid

- New Englishes in Europe- Some shared and common features

- The Changing Role of English in Europe

- New Emerging features

- Identity markers

- European English: a definition

- The Future of English – Main theories

-

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 4

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 5/93

SESSION 1

ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

-

Definition of a global Language

-

English and its origins

-

British English vs American English

Definition of an International Language

Some Characteristics:

-

large number of native speakers

the most widely spoken: Mandarin, English, Spanish, Hindi and Arabic

- A large number of speakers of other languages

-

A language of wider communication:

a) among individuals from different countries

 b) between individuals from one country

D. Crystal (1997):

 “ …a language achieves global status when it develops “a special role” that is

recognised in every country”

Achieving a global or special status means:

- Making it an official language of the Country

- Giving it a special priority

- Studying it as a required foreign language or second language

- English has achieved a special status in over 70 countries

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 5

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 6/93

LIST OF ENGLISH SPOKEN COUNTRIES

Rank Countries Amou

#

1 United States: 280,000,

#

2 India: 100,000,

#

3 United Kingdom: 55,000,

#

4 Canada: 17,100,

#

5 Australia: 15,682,

#

6 South Africa: 3,500,

#

7 New Zealand: 3,213,

#

8 Ireland: 2,600,

#

9 Zimbabwe: 375,

#

1

0Singapore: 227,

#

1

1 Israel: 100,

#

1

2Sri Lanka: 97,

#

1

3

Puerto Rico: 82,

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 6

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 7/93

Rank Countries Amou

#

1

4

Liberia: 69,

#

1

5Bermuda: 58,

#

1

6Papua New Guinea: 50,

#

17

Zambia: 41,

#

1

8Philippines: 32,

#

1

9Guam: 28,

#

2

0Malawi: 16,

#

2

1Barbados: 13,

#

2

2Namibia: 10,

#

2

3Cayman Islands: 9,

#

2

4

Honduras: 9,

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 7

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 8/93

Rank Countries Amou

#

2

5

Virgin Islands: 8,

#

2

6Brunei: 8,

#

2

7Fiji: 4,

#

28

Micronesia, Federated States of : 3,

#

2

9Gibraltar : 3,

#

3

0Mauritius: 3,

#

3

1Malta: 2,

#

3

2Midway Islands: 2,

#

3

3British Virgin Islands: 2,

#

3

4Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): 1,

#

3

5

Ethiopia: 1,

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 8

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 9/93

Rank Countries Amou

#

3

6

Vanuatu: 1,

#

3

7Wake Island: 1,

#

3

8Norfolk Island: 1,

#

39

Seychelles: 1,

#

4

0American Samoa: 1,

#

4

1Cook Islands:

#

4

2Nauru:

#

4

3Kiribati:

#

4

4Saint Pierre and Miquelon:

=

4

5Kenya:

=

4

5

Tanzania:

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 9

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 10/93

Rank Countries Amou

=

4

5

Nigeria:

=

4

5Niue:

=

4

5Belize:

=

45

Rwanda:

=

4

5Ghana:

=

4

5Uganda:

Total: 478,367,2

Weighted average: 9,199,36

From Website: http://www.nationmaster.com

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 10

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 11/93

Map Of English Spoken Countries 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 11

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 12/93

-

Major Language Families-

-

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 12

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 13/93

-

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 13

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 14/93

-

Indo-European Background - Major language families

-

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 14

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 15/93

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 16/93

 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 16

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 17/93

Many Centuries of Development

Modern English is the result of various influences and transformations by great

movement of peoples to the British Isles

Main Influences are:- CELTS

- ROMAN INVASION

- ANGLO-SAXON TRIBES

- DANES

- NORMANS

THE CELTS

Celtic language formed one of the most extensive group in the Indo-European

family:- a great number of geographic features and place names come from Celtic

- Cumberland is of Celtic derivation, it means “Valley Land”

- place-names like “KENT” which comes from the Celtic “Cant”i 

Common words from Celtic origin are:

curse

dolmen

down

druid

flannelgaol

slogan

town > tun (fortified hill)

truant

whiskey

car

cart

clock 

crag

crock crockery

cross

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 17

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 18/93

 

ROMAN INVASIONS

Latin had a considerable impact on the language

Especially with Christianisation of the Island

- in both 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain with the aim of conquest.

- in 43 AD Romans invaded and settled Britain

Latin Influence can be found in:

Mile – milia

Wall – Vallum

Table – Tabula

Latin Castra / Camp formed place-names:

Chester – Manchester – Lancaster 

Words connected with Christianity:

Angel – Angelus, Mass – MissaWords connected with education and learning:

Master – Magister , School - Schola

THE ANGLO- SAXONS INFUENCE

From 449 AD onward

The Anglo-Saxons were North German Tribes

Their language was called “ Englisc”

Main Language influence:

-

Introduced pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs,

-

concrete words connected with farming:

-

Sheep, ox, plough, swinw, wood

-

Every day words:

-

Mann (man), wī (wife), cild (child) hūs (house)

NORMAN INFLUENCE

From 1066 the Normans settle in England.

They brought French Language

French was the language of the ruling class

There were three languages in play:

1- French: language Social and cultural prestige

2- Latin: language of learning and Religion

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 18

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 19/93

3- Anglo-Saxon/English: for common speech

Speaking French or Anglo-Saxon was a matter of class distinction

Main Norman influence can be found in words concerning:

- government ad administration:

 Empire, reign, parliament, state

Law:

Crime, accuse, adultery, property

Fashion/ social life:

Coat, button, satin, supper, dinner 

Literature and architecture:

 Art, painting, poet, cathedral, romance

French and Anglo-Saxon existed side by side for a long period there were

two words in usage with the same meaning:

Ox – beef 

Sheep – mutton

Swine- pork 

Calf – veil

Anglo-Saxon words for the beast and French words for meats

Middle English (1150 – 1500)

- It was not one language

- It was made of several regional dialects

- The East Midlands became the most important

- Commercial importance of London

- Dialect of Centres of learning of Oxford and Cambridge

There was a sort of triangle: Oxford/Cambridge/London

They shared the same kind of English:

The basis for the Standard English of our time

 East Midlands

Turning point of the rebirth of English as a national language:

Henry V was the first English King to use English in official documents

In 1415 when he defeated the French army at Agincourt

In his first letter dictated in French soil he chose symbolically: “not to write in the

language of his enemies”

English became the official language of the English Kings

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 19

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 20/93

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 20

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 21/93

English Language TimelineThe English language is a vast flea market of words, handed down, borrowed or created over morethan 2000 years. And it is still expanding, changing and trading. Our language is not purely

English at all - it is a ragbag of diverse words that have come to our island from all around the

world. Words enter the language in all sorts of ways: with invaders, migrants, tradesmen; instories, artworks, technologies and scientific concepts; with those who hold power, and those who

try to overthrow the powerful.

View the chart below to get an overview of some of the many chapters in the history of the English

language.

Celts 500BC-43BC 

Early

inhabitants

of these

islands

The Celts are the earliest inhabitants of the British Isles to leave a mark 

on our language.

Celtic words In fact, very few Celtic words have lived on in the English language. Butmany of our place names have Celtic origins, such as  London, Dover and

 Kent, & the rivers Thames & Wye.

Romans 43BC-c.450AD

Romansinvade and

rule British

Isles for over

400 years

Only around 200 Latin loanwords are inherited from the Romans -although by the 6th century the Church will have brought many more.

Roman

wordsMany of the words passed on from this era are those coined by Roman

merchants and soldiers. These

include win (wine), candel (candle), belt (belt) and weall ( wall).

 Anglo Saxons 449AD

Germanic

tribes -

Angles,

Saxons and

Jutes - begin

Anglo Saxon dialects form the basis of the language we now call OldEnglish. About 400 Anglo Saxon texts survive from this era, including

many beautiful poems - these tell tales of wild battles and heroic

 journeys.

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 21

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 22/93

to arrive

Anglo

Saxon

words

Approximately one third of Anglo-Saxon vocabulary survives into

modern English, including many of our most basic,

everyday words: earth, house, food, sing, night and sleep. By the 7thcentury Latin speakers refer to this country as Anglia - the land of 

the Angles - a name that will later develop into England .

St Augustine 597 AD

Christian

missionaries

arrive from

theContinent

Christian missionaries, led by St. Augustine, move through the land,converting the Anglo-Saxons from their Pagan beliefs to a Catholic

Christian faith. Throughout Europe, the language of the Church is Latin,

and the missionaries inject hundreds of new Latin words into the English

language. English is spoken differently in different counties, butfour main dialects exist and resemble the English we know today. These

dialects are Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon and Kentish.

Latin words Many of the new words derived from Latin refer to religion, such

as altar, mass, school , and monk , but others are more domestic andmundane such as fork, spade, spider, tower, and rose.

Vikings 789AD

The year

789 sees the

first Danish

invasion of 

Britain

For a hundred years the Vikings control most of Eastern England, before

 being pushed back into the North East of the country by King Alfred the

Great. They remain in power in the North East until the late 900s, in anarea then known as Danelaw. During this time King Alfred uses the

English language to develop a sense of national identity amongst the

English.

Norse words These raiders and settlers bring almost 2000 new words into the English

vocabulary. Words derived from Norse include anger, awkward, cake,die, egg, freckle, muggy, reindeer, silver, skirt and smile. Many Northern

English dialect words still bear traces of Scandinavian languages, as domany place names such as Whitby and Grimsby.

Normans 1066 

The Normans

invade

The Normans transform England, both culturally and linguistically. For over 300 years French is the language spoken by the most powerful

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 22

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 23/93

 people - royalty, aristocrats and high-powered officials - some of whom

can't speak English at all. French is used in political documents, in

administration, and in literature. Latin is still the language of thechurch and of scholars, but most of the general population speak 

English in their every day lives.

French words Thousands of French words become embedded in the English

vocabulary, most of which are words of power, such as crown, castle,

court, parliament, army, mansion, gown, beauty, banquet, art, poet,romance, chess, colour, duke, servant, peasant, traitor  and governor.

100 Years War 1337-1450s

100 Years

War foughtbetween

England and

France

Following the 100 Years War, many people regard French as the

language of the enemy. The status of English rises. The universities of 

Oxford & Cambridge are established. Literacy increases but books arestill copied by hand and are therefore extremely expensive.

New Latin

words

Many thousands of Latin words come into the language, most of whichare connected to religion, medicine, law or literature. These

words include scripture, collect, immortal, history, library, solar,

recipe and genius.

Renaissance 1476-1650 

A time of 

great

cultural and

intellectual

development

In 1476, Caxton introduces the printing press to England. He prints allkinds of texts: mythic tales, popular stories, poems, phrasebooks,

devotional pieces & grammars. In the following 150 years around 20,000

 books are printed. Books become cheaper and are therefore increasingly

 popular. Literacy rates rise. Printers have to make a choice about whichwords, grammar and spellings to use. The choices they make help to set

and spread a standard language. They base their decisions on the dialects

of the South East - the most socially and economically influential region.

But these rules are not set in stone, and people continue to speak indifferent accents and dialects, and to write with different spellings. Over 

the next 200 years wonderful discoveries and innovations are made in thefields of art, theatre and science. There is a fresh interest amongst scholars

in classical languages, while intrepid explorers and opportunistic traders

travel to the New World.

New words With these fresh findings come new words from across the globe,

including atmosphere, explain, enthusiasm, skeleton and utopian (from

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 23

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 24/93

Latin);bizarre, chocolate, explore, moustache and vogue (fromFrench); carnival, macaroni and violin (from Italian) harem, jar,

magazine and sherbet from Arabic); and coffee, yoghurt and kiosk (from

Turkish); tomato, potato and tobacco(from Spanish)

1700s

An age of 

dictionaries,

grammars and

rules and

regulations

Human knowledge continues to stretch into new areas, with discoveries

in the fields of medicine, astrology, botany & engineering. Many

scholars believe that the English language is chaotic, and in desperate

need of some firm rules. Books teaching 'correct' grammar, pronunciation & spelling are increasingly popular. Samuel Johnson

 publishes his famous dictionary in 1755.

Derided wordsWords hated by Johnson, and omitted from his dictionary, include bang,budge, fuss, gambler, shabby, and touchy.

 Industrial Revolution 1760-1800s

Transformation

of the western

world

In an age of inventions and contraptions, of science & industry, of 

expanding cities & smog-gurgling factories the language must swell toaccommodate new ideas.

New words  Newly coined words include biology, taxonomy, caffeine, cityscape,centigrade, watt, bacterium, chromosome and claustrophobia. In the

world of burgeoning capitalism, money can suddenly slump, inflate,

boom and cause depressions. Victorian writers pen over 60,000 novels.

1900s - Present Day 

English of 

today

A century of world wars, technological transformation, and

globalisation. The language continues to grow, expanding to incorporate

new jargons, slangs, technologies, toys, foods and gadgets.

Familiar

wordsIt is in this century that we get doodlebugs, gasmasks, gobstoppers, mini

 skirts and mods and rockers; we enjoy dim sum, cappuccino, chicken

tikka masala and pizzerias; we talk of chavs, mingers and weirdos; andwe are addicted totellies, websites, cybercafes and compact discs.

From: The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language by David Crystal

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 24

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 25/93

Words in Time by Geoffrey Hughes

 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 25

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 26/93

SESSION 2

World English vs World Englishes Definitions & Explanations

World English: is the concept of the English language as a global means of 

communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an

international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English,

World English, Common English, Continental English or General English.

Sometimes "international English" and the related terms above refer to a desired

standardisation, i.e. Standard English; however, there is no consensus on the path to

this goal.

World Englishes a definition:

„ Any language variety of English including those developed by communities inwhich English was not indigenous in modern history.“  

( The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics, 2007, p. 234)

World (New) Englishes

Why English Has Become a World Language?

- Forms of New Englishes, even if not uniform in characteristics share criteria:

•

developed through education system

•

developed in an area where English was not spoken by majority of people

•

has become „nativised“ by own language features

( after J.Jenkins, World Englishes,2003,p

22/23)

The Three Way Classification: ENL, ESL & EFL- Three distinct forms of users

- increasingly difficult to classify speakers belonging to only one group

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 26

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 27/93

- but important starting point to understand distinctions and spread of New & World

Englishes

1 ENL - English as Native Language- language of people born &raised in countries, where English is (historically) the 

first language

- countries like: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand

- as „traditional, cultural & linguistic bases“

- around 350 million ENL speakers around the world

- not one single variety, differences in territories (e.g. UK and US)

- Norm providing and spoken in the Inner Circle

2 . ESL - English as Second Language- people living in territories like India, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Singapore

- Countries former colonised by British

- English gained importance in administration

- English serves official purpose within the country in law, education and

government

- also worldwide around 350 million speakers

- Norm developing and labelled as non-standard, illegitimate, interlanguage, bad,

deviant, half baked

3. EFL - English as Foreign Language- For speakers of EFL English serves no purpose in own country

- Historically learned for communication with ENL speakers

- Nowadays used for communication with other non-native speakers

- Norm dependent and used in Expanding Circle

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 27

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 28/93

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 28

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 29/93

SESSION 3

The Spread of English: An outlineKey Facts:

Main factors for the initial spread of English:-Several geographical, historical, socio-cultural factors

-Colonialism

-Speakers migration

-technology development

-

17th and 18th centuries English is the language of the leading colonial nation

(Britain)

-

18th and 19th centuries is the language of leader of the industrial revolution

(Britain)

-

The late 19th and early 20th centuries is the language of the leading economic

 power (the USA)-

Beginning of 19th century Britain is the world’s leading industrial and trading nation

English emerges as a first-rank language in areas that affect all aspects of society:

-

The press, advertising, broadcasting, sound recording, movies, transport and

communications

Why English Has Become a World LanguageWhy English?

English dominates three key components of the global popular culture

(especially among young people)

-Motion picture industry

-Popular music

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 29

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 30/93

-The Internet

The Dominance Of English

English is the main language of:-

Tourist related industries (10% of world’s labour force)

-

International airports

-

Major international hotels (English staff)

-

Dissemination of information.

-

Scientific publishing-

85% of Biology, Physic Papers,

-

73% of Medical Papers

-

65% Mathematics and Chemistry Papers

INTERNET:

84% of Internet servers are in English

(Widdowson 1997):

“…One of the primary reason for the spread of English today is because it has

such a variety of specific purposes…” 

English plays a key role in the economic development of countries for:

RELEVANT INFORMATION

-

in political and intellectual areas-

International organizations, private funding sources information

-

Gives the access to the global community for economic development to obtain:

-

Public Health issues

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 30

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 31/93

-

Agricultural development

-

Transportation infrastructures

EDUCATION

- Medium of instruction

-

It gives access to higher education

World (New) Englishes•

Forms of New Englishes not uniform in characteristics, but share criteria:

•

developed through education system

•

developed in an area where English was

not spoken by majority of people

•

“…has become „nativised“ by own language features…”( J.Jenkins, World Englishes,2003,p 22/23)

Three-way model: ENL, ESL & EFL

-Three distinct forms of users

- increasingly difficult to classify speakers belonging to only one group

- important starting point to understand distinctions and spread of New &

World Englishes

English Today the Three Way Classification

Three main groups of users:Those who speak English respectively as

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 31

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 32/93

-a native language = ENL

-a second language = ESL

-a foreign language = EFL

 Neat classifications become increasingly difficult

Problems with the three-way Classification Models of the spread of English

Three circle model of World Englishes

Kachru‘s three circle model of world Englishes

•

It is the most influential model describing spread of World English

•Connected to the ENL, ESL, EFL concepts

•Kachru divides World Englishes in three concentric circles

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 32

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 33/93

Kachru‘s three circle model of World Englishes

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 33

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 34/93

The Three circle model of World Englishes:

a) The Inner CircleThe inner circle refers to the traditional bases of English, where it is the primary

language.Included in this circle are the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New

Zealand.

The varieties of English used here are, in Kachru's scheme, 'norm providing'.

b) The Outer CircleThe outer or extended circle involves the earlier phases of the spread of English in

non-native settings

- where the language has become part of a country's chief institutions, and plays animportant 'second language' role in a multilingual setting:

- Singapore, India, Malawi and over fifty other territories are included in the outer 

circle.

The varieties used here are what Kachru calls 'norm-developing':

- in regions using these varieties there has been a conflict between linguistic norm

and linguistic behaviour .

c) The Expanding Circle

It includes those nations which acknowledge the importance of English as anInternational Language.

- Historically, they do not belong to that group of countries which were colonised by

members of the inner circle, and English doesn't have any special intranational status

or function.

- constitute the context in which English is taught as a 'foreign' language as the most

useful vehicle of international communication.

- These are 'norm-dependent' varieties, and are essentially exonormative in Kachru's

terms.

The inner circle (UK, USA) is 'norm-providing', meaning: that Englishlanguage norms are developed in these countries and English is the first

language there.

 

The outer circle (mainly New Commonwealth countries) is 'norm-developing'.

 

The expanding circle (much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent', because it

relies on the standards set by native speakers in the inner circle. 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 34

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 35/93

D. Crystal while warning that such data should be carefully interpreted, lists some

seventy-five territories in which English “…'has held or continues to hold, a special 

 place as a member of either the inner or the outer circles'…”

What is more significant, though, is the growth in the expanding circle, which has

resulted in English being used by non-native speakers among themselves at least as

much as between native and non-native English speakers

The Inner Circle includes:ENL Countries: UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand

•

Spoken English as „norm providing“

•English-language standards determined by ENL speakers (Inner Circle)

The Outer Circle includes

ESL Countries : Bangladesh, Singapore, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,

Tanzania, Malaysia

- Spoken English regarded as „norm developing“ (developing own standards)

The Expanding Circle includes:

EFL Countries: China, Egypt, Indonesia, Taiwan, Korea, Israel,…

- Spoken English regarded as “norm performing“

- standards from Inner & Outer Circles are performed / taken over 

- But no official status, therefore dependent on standards set by Inner Circle

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 35

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 36/93

McArthur‘s circle of World English

The Inner Circle:

•World Standard English

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 36

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 37/93

•but not existing in identifiable form

The Outer Circle:

Band of regional varieties of English

standard forms standardising forms

McArthur‘s circle of World English Model

•

Divides the world into 8 seperate regions

•

Describes sub-varieties of the standard and standardising forms

•

Examples: Welsh English, Quebec English, ect

Summary example: American Standard English - Midland

The English - Today DebateKey points:

The Outer and Expanding Circles:

- English has become Englishes

- Local conditions + influence of other languages

The Inner Circle

Differences: accents, vocabulary, in less extent grammar 

Standard varieties: legitimate (world norms)

Some Country Standard “Superior to those of other ENL countries

The Outer and Expanding Circles point of view:

Their Varieties are institutionalised form of English

Should be seen comparable with the Inner Circles Englishes

Valid as a local Teaching Models

Inner Circle point of view:

The English of outer Circle:

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 37

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 38/93

- It is an Interlanguage (has not yet reached the target English)

- It is a fossilised language: (when learning as ceased short native competence)

SESSION 4

Some Features of New Englishes: a Framework - Variation in English

- Kachru’s Circle Model

-

Outer and Inner Circles

First Group of Englishes are: North America (US and Canada)

Australia

 New Zealand

South Africa

Englishes developed independently from English in Britain

- Spoken as a mother tongue

- has elements of continuity

Latter group of Englishes are:

Indian English

Philippine English

 Nigerian English

Singapore English (increasingly spoken as a mother tongue)

Were/are learnt as second languages

One language with wider multilingual repertoire of acquisition

The New Englishes should be considered in their own right, not in terms of their 

differences American English and British English are the world’s two prestigevarieties of Englishes

Defining a “New English”:

An umbrella Term, covering a large varieties of English

Far from uniform in their characteristics and current use

They share some features (Platt et all 1984)

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 38

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 39/93

-

Developed through the education system

-

Developed in areas where a native variety of English was not the spoken language

-

Used for a range of functions – speak/write

-

Became “localised”/”nativised” - language features of its own:

-

sounds, intonation, patterns, sentence structures, words, expression

New Englishes has to be considered:

on the basis of the status of its norms = innovative usesThe extents of acceptance despite the difference from the native model norms

Status of Innovation

Acceptance of innovations

Bangbose (1998) defines some internal factors of the status of an innovation in

English

- Demographic Factor (how many speakers of acrolet/standard

- Geographical factor (how widely diffused)

- Authoritative factor (where its use is sanctioned)

- Codification (appears in reference books (dictionaries/grammar)

- Acceptability factor (the attitude of users /non users towards it)

The most crucial factors:

Codification and acceptability:

any innovation is regarded as an error than a legitimate form

 

Standard Language in the Inner Circle

Term used for:

Variety of Language considered to be the NORM-

Optimum for education purposes

-

Yardstick against which other varieties of language are measured

-

Prestige Variety (spoken by a minority of people occupying position of power 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 39

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 40/93

-

speakers have high prestige

Language Standards

The Standardising Process

Selection: one variety rather than another is chosen

-

Social/Political process

Codification:

The chosen variety has to be fixed in grammar books/dictionaries

-access to the standard form

Elaboration of Function:

- fulfilment its role

- Perform a wide range of institutional and literary functions(government, law, education, science and literature, media…)

Acceptance:

- Relevant population accept the selected language as a standard

Standard English

In the Inner Circle context

Some definitions

-

Language of educated people throughout the British Isles

-

Used in writing, in school and University

-

Radio and television

-

spoken by educated speakers

-

Studied as a foreign/second language-

Formal instruction

-

Refers to grammar, vocabulary (dialect) not pronunciation (accent)

Standard English definitions

Set of grammar and lexis forms

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 40

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 41/93

-

The grammar and the core vocabulary of educated usage in English

-

Pronunciation cannot be labelled standard

-

Traditionally the medium of the upper and professional middle class

-

since the 1920s the accent has been called the Received Pronunciation (RP)

-

the Queen’s English

-

Oxford English, BBC English

Standard English

Trudgill: “…Primarily a matter of grammar and vocabulary promoted through theeducation system…”

Standard English is a dialect of great prestige

-

Not associated accent

-

Not part of geographical continuum

-

It is a SOCIAL DIALECT

Key Terms to consider:- Language, Dialect, Accent

- Not easily defined

LANGUAGE AND DIALECT (Not clear-cut difference)

LANGUAGE: autonomous

DIALECT: heteronymous

Language: related to names of independent political entities

(the definition doesn’t apply to English which is the official language of more than20 nations)

Some Features of the Dialect 

- often intelligible

- mainly spoken – no codified written form – used in certain DOMAINS

- DOMAINS: recurring limited situation type/contexts (situational use of language

- a definable context of life in a society)

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 41

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 42/93

- Typical Domain: the school, the family, work, the Church, the local media, a living

dialect is characterised by the use of several domain

LOSS OF DOMAIN means: endangered

DIALECT AND ACCENT

ACCENT: refers to the pronunciation of a variety

DIALECT: refers grammar and vocabulary

speaking a particular Dialect implies using a particular variant of pronunciation

What is a dialect?- a specific variety of English that differs from other varieties in three specific ways:

- lexis (vocabulary),

- grammar (structure)

- phonology(pronunciation or accent).

- may be different from each other - all speakers within the English-speaking world can still generally understand them.

What is an accent?

Accent, refers only to differences in the sound patterns of a specific dialect

we all speak with an accent.

DIFFICULT DISTINCTION BETWEEN DIALECT/LANGUAGE

WE USE A NEUTRAL TERM: VARIETY: covers both concepts:

the general term to refer to World Englishes

TYPES OF VARIATION

VARIATION in World Englishes is to be found at all level of language:

- Spelling

- Phonetics/phonology

- Morphology

- Syntax

- Lexis (vocabulary)

- Discourse 

Some Changes in Variation of EnglishesChange in Pronunciation

changes in pronunciation can come in a variety of forms.

Some changes merely affect the way a single word is pronounced:

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 42

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 43/93

the pronunciation of a particular vowel sound or consonant sound changes gradually

across successive generations and thus has an impact on a large group of words.

A change in pronunciation might initially take place only in one particular 

geographic location and remain local. Or it may over time spread nationally and thus

affect all varieties of English.

RP - Received Pronunciation is a Social Accent of English

Received Pronunciation, or RP for short, is the instantly recognisable accent

- described as ‘typically British’.

- Popular terms for this accent, such as ‘The Queen’s English’, ‘Oxford English’ or 

‘BBC English’ are all a little misleading.

- The Queen, for instance, speaks an almost unique form of English, while the

English we hear at Oxford University or on the BBC is no longer restricted to one

type of accent.

RP is an accent, not a dialect, since all RP speakers speak Standard English.

It avoids non-standard grammatical constructions and localised vocabulary

characteristic of regional dialects.

- RP is also regionally non-specific, that is it does not contain any clues about a

speaker’s geographic background.

- it does reveal a great deal about their social and/or educational background

There is more than one RP:

Conservative RP refers to a very traditional variety particularly associated with

older speakers and the aristocracy.

Mainstream RP describes an accent that we might consider extremely neutral in

terms of signals regarding age, occupation or lifestyle of the speaker.

Contemporary RP refers to speakers using features typical of younger RP speakers.

All RPs are united by the fact they do not use any pronunciation patterns that allowus to make assumptions about where they are from in the UK 

Social Variation

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 43

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 44/93

Making speech fit the situation

All native speakers adjust their speech patterns depending on context:

from relaxed conversation in familiar surroundings to a more formal setting.

Most of us have been accused of having a ‘telephone voice’.

We all have a range of different voices — for talking to children, talking to friends

in the pub, making a presentation or talking to a foreigner and we modify our speech

accordingly.

Lexical change

refers to a change in the meaning or use of a word, or a generational shift in

 preference for one word or phrase over another.

 Lexical change is probably the most frequent type of language change and certainly

the easiest to observe.

we can make confident assertions about the age of a speaker who uses the word

courting  to mean “going out with”, or one who uses the adjective  fit  to describe

someone they find attractive.

In most cases, the changes we make are extremely subtle but nonetheless noticeable,

perfectly natural way of making the people we are talking to feel at ease.

Often this process is subconscious simply expressing a shared identity or group

solidarity or attempting to present a certain image.

the range of any given speaker’s repertoire is defined by who he or she is.

People from different geographical places speak differently,

 but even within the same small community, people might speak differently

according to their age, gender, ethnicity and social or educational background

PHONOLOGICAL VARIATION

Different forms:

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 44

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 45/93

-

The way a single word is pronounced

-

The pronunciation of a singular vowel or consonant changes gradually across

successive generations

-

Has an impact on a large group of words

-

Can take place in a particular area and remain local

-

May spread nationally and affect many varieties of English

GRAMMAR VARIATION

distinction between standard and non-standard grammar,

Standard English refers to what many people consider a prestigious form,

Use by people in positions of authority and because of its universal acceptance as

the written norm.

Just as speakers with a broad accent do not reflect their pronunciation in writing,

most people whose speech is characterised by non-standard grammar, switch to

more standard forms in writing.

However, there is a great deal of difference between written and spoken language,

 both in terms of purpose and audience, and this is reflected in their different

grammars

-

RP samples

-

Dialect samples

-

Lexical Changes-

Phonological Changes

Grammar change

Students’ Listening activity Audio recordings from:

The British library: http://www.bl.uk/

-

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 45

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 46/93

SESSION 5

Varieties of EnglishesSome features:

 Inner Circle ) split in an extra vowel 

- USUALLY “schwa” /ə/ 

e.g. Irish and Australian Englishes:

Film and known = /filəm/ and /nouwən/ respectively

1st INFLUENCE:

Consonant Cluster languages vs Consonant-Vocal-Consonant

Consonant cluster at the ends of words, as in English past tenses and plurals

Speakers of C-V-C- simplify to a single consonant sound:

walked /wɔ:kt/ = /wɔ:k/ - or even /wɒʔ/

Books /bʊks/ = /bʊk/

(with a glottal stop /ʔ/ as final sound)

2nd INLUENCE

The main reason for Syntactic Simplification can be Phonological

Another major influence occurs whether they are:

STRESS-TIMED or - SYLLABLE TIMED Languages

 

- STRESS-TIMED: the number of stress points determines how long it will take to

say something (swallowing effect) (Australian) – syllables between stress point get

shortened and vowels are often sounded as schwas 

- SYLLABLE TIMED: equal time -each syllable takes more or less the same

amount of time to produce (easier to understand)

Some languages are more stressed-timed than syllable-timed

People with Syllable-Timed L1 develop Englishes characterised by syllable-timing,

for example Malaysian and Singaporean

Example:

Common words:

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 46

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 47/93

- Stress-Timed RP /fə’tɒgrəfə/ ( 1st, 3rd and 4th vowels are shortened to a

schwa)

- Singaporean: /foʊtoʊgræfə/

Similarity = the final schwa

the attitude variation are needed are natural not worries about them

VARIATION IN VOCABULARY

Different kinds of Varieties:

1.Variation in meaning: same word different meanings in different varieties or 

Englishes

Different usage of vocabulary can cause misunderstanding among different varieties

of English Speakers (reflect local culture and context)

2 Variation in Vocabulary

Different Varieties of Englishes have words that are unique to themvocabulary reflects ways of talking about common things and concept related to

 particular cultures

different varieties of English can adapt words to suit the culture in which they

are used 

For Example Australian Informality is a cultural value:

- gives rise to the shortening and clipping of common words

- gives them a special Australian informal flavour 

A Politician = a Pollie - a Journalist = a journo 

a refugee = a reffo

Vocabularies of varieties of Englishes enriched by words from local languages

(referred to local cultures, practices and traditions)

- Adoption of words from native language – ( not from a particular variety of 

English, from other languages)

- many Japanese words are now of common usage ( judo, suschi….)

- Word are adopted to describe peculiar geographical features, local flora andfauna, local phenomena

- remarkable the contribute of Australian Aboriginal Language:

kangaroo, koala, boomerang ;

now understood by speakers of many different varieties of Englishes

MORE VARIATION- Sound that cause learners of English more trouble than any other / θ/ or / ð/

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 47

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 48/93

- Voiceless nouns such as bath: θ and mau:th

- Voiced verbs: beth (bathe) and mouth

- RP has th sound at the beginning of words such as /θ/ thirty-three

- Irish and certain variety of American English have sounds closer to a /t/ in the

above words (bath – mouth)

- RP ð words, such a mother in other varieties the sound is more like /d/

It is difficult when these sounds do not exist in the learner’s language

It would be useful consider which sounds of English are important for no-native

speakers to master sand which can be ignored even if being intelligible

Functional Load

“Functional Load”: defines the relative meaning

 load a sound may refer to the importance of certain features in making distinctions

in a language.

how hard would it be to guess the identity of a phoneme in context when it has

not been heard? 

A vowel sound that carry high functional load in Standard American English may

carry a lower functional load in other varieties of English.

speaking/learning English does not necessarily mean speaking/learning RP or 

Standard American

MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX Variation in the way people use grammar 

Once English had a more complex inflected language structure(words change form according to grammatical function)

English maintains some elements of the Inflectional System as follows:

- Signs time by changing the form of the verb

- S for plurals – 

- S -3rd singular person present simple

- past tenses (ed),

- Saxon genitive

- Inflection are also way to sign the time – tense system

- -In English inflection can change the part of speech:For example: noun beauty = adjective beautiful by adding a suffix FUL

Beautifully + suffix FULLY (adverb)

Other languages (Chinese) the word do not change is not and inflective language.

Some languages use different ways of signalling time (use adverbs: yesterday, next – 

year)

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 48

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 49/93

SOME CHANGESDictionary Writers keep track of the changes in languages by recording (and,

ideally, dating) the appearance in a language of new words, or of new usages for 

existing words.

By the same token they may tag some words as "archaic" or "obsolete

Diachronic change

(takes place over a long period of time)

A process of syntactic simplification

-

use of inflections has reduced slowly over the centuries

-

The old inflectional system had: nominative – accusative – genitive – dative 

Today English- retains inflections on nouns the suffix S for plurals

the Old English: suffix EN still exist in irregular plurals such as: Children and oxen

For Example:

- The second singular person was Thou;

- the second person singular inflection was est

- the 3rd person singular inflection was – eth

- you make = thou makest

- He makes = he maketh

Genders and Causes markers have all disappeared

The accusative and genitive are restricted to WHOM and the S’

are dropping out of use except in formal writing

- The old inflectional system had two ways of marking the past tense: 

The strong form: by changing the internal vowel:

Rīdan –rād – (ride-rode)

Findan – fand (find – found)

Beran – baer (bear-bore)Sprecan – spraec (speak-spoke)

The weak form- by adding a suffix:

Endian – endode – endod (end-ended-ended)

Cysson-cyssede (kiss-kissed)

Cepan –cepte – ceped (keep-kept-kept)

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 49

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 50/93

Over time the strong forms have lost out to the weak forms

Today nearly all new verbs take ED as past tense marker

Therefore:

- the trend for New Varieties of English - NVE is in favour regular ED endings

- Mirroring a historical process

The Word OrderA change associated with the simplification of the inflectional system has been:

the move from a relatively free to a relatively fixed word order 

In Modern English:

“the king betrayed the queen” and

“ the queen betrayed the king ” (very different meaning)

In Old English:- “sēo cwēn besāc pone cynig ” and

- “ pone cynig besāc sēo cwēn”

mean the same:

“the queen betrayed the king”

despite the different word order, the subject and object are marked through

inflections

Inflections have disappeared from most modern varieties of Englishes

NOT in THE VARIETY of ENGLISH spoken In the Yorkshire (North West Of England)

- It still retains the more complex system of inflection

- Thou = you - st verb suffix

- Yorkshire = “Hast thou seen him?” = “have you seen him?”

- Yorkshire = “Where’st thou bin ?” / “Where hast thou been?” = “where have you

 been?

DIACHRONIC CHANGE IN SYNTACTIC SIMPLIFICATION

Some irregular are slowly getting dropped:

Centuries ago the past tens of WORK was WROUGHTstill occurs in the phrase “wrought iron” worked iron (metal shaped by

hammering)

- Many irregular past tense forms still exist

- There is evidence they have slowly been disappearing over time

- The trend: is to form the irregulars as the regulars by adding the suffix ED

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 50

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 51/93

SYNCHRONIC CHANGES

Change taking place at the moment:

- Among speakers of English whose first language do not have tense or inflections

are developing their-own simpler system of tense and inflections

Predictable future changes:

- loose the S of the singular 3rd person in the present simple

- simplification can be phonological (find it hard to pronounce inflections as it

occurs as consonant clusters)

Occurs more in the spoken language than in written form

DIFFERENCES IN TENSESDIFFERENCES IN THE WAY TENSES ARE USED AMONG VARITIES

Standard British Englishes- SBE vs Standard American Englishes - SAE- in

certain contexts:

SAE may use the SIMPLE PAST

While

SBE use the PRESENT PERFECT

For example:

SBE: “Have you bought that car yet?”

SAE: “Did you buy that car yet?”

COMMON FEATURE IN INDIAN ENGLISH (IE)

- the Use of the present continuous

- Where the SBE would use the Present Simple

IE: “I am knowing very well”

BE: “I know very well”

- Influence of first language Punjabi:

- the present continuous in English is the present simple in Punjabi

Cultural Conventions and Schemas - The language in real contexts- Cultural Conventions are cultural routines

- the way people greet / address each other 

- Fairly predictable sequences = follow a predictable schema

- For example Schema = is a word adopted from a language to another with the

consequent variations in meaning

Schemas of Cultural Conventions

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 51

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 52/93

-The way people greet in British, American, Australian English

- BE; How are you – Fine, thanks

- AE: How are you doing? _ Great (thanks)

- AusE: How are you going? - Good, thanks

- It may cause misunderstanding when people move from one culture to another 

Misunderstanding

- British people who move to live in Australia can be confused by being asked “how

are you going?” 

A British English sensible answer might well be : “by bus” 

CULTURAL CONVENTIONS

- In certain Asian Cultures is common to greet “have you eaten?” 

Some example of Cultural Conventions

- American Academic Culture: Students address to academic staff by title and family

name- In Australian Academic Culture: Students address to their lecturers by first names

This norm is like violating their own conventions

SOME MISUNDERSTANDINGS

- when a Speaker although using excellent English may use His/her own cultural

schema and cultural norms

For Example:

A Chinese variety of English

prefers a request schema that  places reason for a request  for before the request 

itself .

Varieties of English reflect the cultural conventions and norms of the different

speakers

VARIATION IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLAND

- debate over the number of major varieties of English spoken

- Non debate on the many varieties still existing

Ellis (1890) identifies 6 major dialects, he subdivided into 42 districts 

Viereck (1986) identifies 7 major dialect areas in England namely:

1 The North2. The North West

3. The County of Lincolnshire

4. East Anglia

5. The Midlands

6. The Extreme Southeast

7. The Extreme Southwest

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 52

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 53/93

Trudgill (1990) distinguishes between:

- Traditional/rural dialects - 13 listed

- Modern/urban dialects – 12 listed

From Ihalainen (1994),: some examples of distinctive grammar features:

The Northern Subject Rule:

- The plural present tense takes “S” if not preceded by a personal pronoun subject:

- “ they peel and boils them” instead: “birds sings”

- southern usage, in contrast the “S” is affixed after a personal pronoun subject:

“they peels and boils them” 

Scottish English and Variation in Scotland

Scots is described as a variety of English

 Is Scots a variety of English or is it a separate language?

For the Political status should be a LanguageMany varieties of English include many varieties of Scottish English

Kay (1988) identifies 7 dialects of Scots:

Southern

South

West and East Central

 Northern

Highland

Insular 

Northern dialect is called Doric or Buchan Doric

It is Spoken in the North of Aberdeen, Northeast of Scotland

Widely used, also in written form

Leopard magazine is edited and published in northeast Scotland and carries articles

about Doric written in Doric including a popular comic “Concillor Swick”

Common grammatical features of Scottish English

It suffix as a past tense ending

“I aye likit” (liked)/f/ for /w/ in wh -words

The use of the past simple where in Standard British English (SBE) the present

 perfect would be used

Summing upThere is a wide variation between varieties and also variation within varieties

- The most obvious variation between varieties occur in :

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 53

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 54/93

- pronunciation and vocabulary

- significant differences in syntax and grammar 

- differences are immediately noticeable and might cause temporary

misunderstandings

- more importantly varieties reflect the culture of the speakers this is a cause of 

difference between varieties as the ways cultural norm are expressed as a result

differ across varieties

All language is characterised by variation and change

- No language is pure

- Varieties develop to supply the needs of their speakers

- No matter how many rules – prescriptive grammarians or linguistic bureaucrats

will prescribe .

- Variation and change are powerful markers of cultural and linguistic convention

diversity

Burchhfield (1985): (scholar, writer, and lexicographer ) maintains that:

“…stability of meaning is rare in any language…” and that “…no construction is

everlasting stable, no cherished remains unbroken …”

- Without variation varieties English could not be a global language; variety is

the world cultural foundation 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 54

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 55/93

SESSION 6

AMERICAN ENGLISH: THE POWERFUL VARIETY

The Development of American EnglishAmerican English – AE- is the most influential and powerful variety of English in

the world today

REASONS:

1. The USA is the most powerful nation on earth (power brings influence)

  2 . The USA political influence extended through USA popular Culture: Films

and music mainly

Kahane (1992) points put: “The international dominant position of a culture results

in a forceful expansion of its language…. The expansion of language contributes…

to the prestige of the culture behind it”

3. the international prominence of American English is directly associated with

the extraordinary quick development of communication technology (Microsoft is

owned by the American Bill Gate) = a computer’s default setting for language is A

E

Development of AE:

there are too many varieties so we’ll focus on just two key issues

- African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

- Southern American English (SAE)

Background

FIRST OFFICIAL ENGL-SPEAKING GROUP arrived in 1497 with the leader

John Cabot

- In 1621 - English-speaking / English Puritans arrived on the Mayflower 

- Followed several waves of migration to America from Britain and many other 

countries in Europe

- Many where imported as slaves from African colonised countries (slave trade)

- America provided contact point for English and many other languages (European – African)

More complex issue:

1) migrants form Britain brought many different varieties of BE (also of poorly

educated people)

2) indigenous of America population spoke several different languages

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 55

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 56/93

3)The presence of so many languages gave rise to American Indian Pidgin English

(AIPE) and it was an important Lingua Franca (in the days of early settlers and

during the move west across the US)

- in 1776 America achieved independence from Britain and also Linguistic

Independence

Kahane (1992) points out: “…Four main influences that caused American

 English to break from Brit English are”:

1 ) A decline of Anglophilia

2) The standardization of informal speech (consequence of adopting democratic

 principles and a general levelling of society

3) The levelling of social dialects (no single dialect was associated with prestige)

4) Integration of foreign elements (influence from languages of African European

emigrants)

Kahane points out that:the 2nd and 3rd points are mainly consequence of democratisation

and Democratisation often pushes the Vernacular or a low form of variety into

 becoming the standard accepted form

The most noticeable difference between dialects was as still is pronunciation

America English – AE vs British English - BE

For examples:

J/ does not Glide (move smoothly) after certain consonants in AE

- Duke = /dju:k) is /du:k/ in AE 

- Stress pattern on words differs: British: “laboratory” has 4 syllables , main

stress on the second

- AE “laboratory” has 5 syllables – equal stress on each

- BE = Extraordinary = 4 syll. – main stress in the 2nd

- AE = has 6 syll – main stress on the 1st and 3rd syll.

- BE “/privəsi/

- AE: /praivəsi/

There are many differences in vocabulary - in different areas:

- Examples in CARS and DRIVING issues:

BE: bonnets, boots, gear levers, number plates, tyres, windscreensAE: hoods, trunks, stick shifts, licence plate, tires, windshields

BE: drive on motorways, ring roads, pull off at junctions and pull up on the hard

shoulder 

AE: drive on interstates, and beltways and exit at exits and pull off at pull offs

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 56

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 57/93

REMARKABLE GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCE:

- In the same contexts: AE can use the past simple

While

- BE uses the present perfect.

STANDARD AMERICAN ENGLISH or GENERAL AMERICAN

Codification began in 1828, Noah Webster published An American Dictionary

of The English Language” the American counterpart of Johnson’s

- Yet the concept of standard in USA is not easy to define both in pronunciation

and vocabulary

- Classification of Standardness is somewhat flexible respect to the regional

varieties

- The Term General America refers to American accents without a great deal of 

regional colouring “Network English Standard”

Phonology FeaturesComparison between the accents representing: New England – New York City and

the South

SEE THE US LEXICAL SETS (handout)

 New York: the variable rhoticity (letter /r/ after a vowel)

GRAMMAR:

- Share the features of Regional non-standard AE:

- Unmarked plurality- Multiple negation

- Simplified verb agreement system

- Double modals

- Preference of construction: my hair needs combed – instead of need combing

- Positive anymore: They watch a lot of videos anymore -meaning nowadays

VARIATION IN AMERICAN ENGLISH

There are a number of varieties of  AE that differ markedly from one another 

A Controversy:

- differences between African American Vernacular English (AAVEs) - and White American English Vernaculars (WAEVs)

There are two competitive theories

1) Colonial lag Theory = WAEVs developed by preventing or introducing

features from varieties of B E (white Americans: perhaps a need to legitimize

AE by proving that they use little nothing that has not been previously by use by

Brit E

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 57

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 58/93

2) Language Contact Teheory: AAVEs differs from WAEVs because they

developed from the contact of English with other languages, primarily African

Languages; this is the most accepted Theory

AAVE and\SOUTH AMRERICAN ENGLISH influenced each other

similarities among them; this can be explained by some 200 years of common

history and regular interaction between speakers

Other factors influencing the American Varieties:

There are 3 specific forces:

1.accelerating metropolitanisation

2.increasing migration (both domestic and foreign)

3.Expanding of ethnic diversity

- 1860 = 80% of American Population lived in rural communities

- Today = 80% live in 280 metropolitan areas

The population growth in major cities:

- Los Angeles, Houston, Dallas, San Diego,

- Miami and New York City is mostly by foreign immigration

- The majority of the population are not native of the community

- The varieties of English spoken are likely to undergo further significant changes

- Urban varieties show observable language change in progress

- Rural varieties (especially in isolated areas) are likely to be more stable

There are different acronyms:

Different acronyms and terms are used to describe different varieties of 

American Englishes:

BEV - Black English Vernacular (black people)

AEV = African English Vernacular 

AAE African American Vernacular 

AAE = African American English

AAVE = African American Vernacular English

EBONICS = Black American English “a variety of African Languages rather than

English variety”

SAE = Standard American English

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 58

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 59/93

WAEV= White American English Vernacular(s)

GA = General American

The main ethnic variety:African American Vernacular English - AAVEs

Once: no one American Accent used / variety was considered to be more prestigious

than another 

This democratic principle, unfortunately has changed in recent times:

 Nowadays AAVE is the variety that currently attracts negative prejudices

Lippi- Green (1997) points out that: “… AAVE Speakers is likely to be not capable

of certain types of works…”

It can be successfully in sports and entertainment but not in other (intellectual) fields

(teaching subjects)- Centuries of Controversy if legitimate/not the AAVE

- AAVE can be seen as symbolic of black resistance to the cultural mainstream

FEATURES OF THE AAVEs

AAVE is used by black population, not by all and to a\varying degree it depends on:

Social class

Style

Religion

Differences: young speakers use more AAVE features than older speakers as a

marking identity

The debate on its origins- No definitive agreement

1)  The most common theory: it is a Creole Language, a native speaker variety

descended from pidgin (it is believed to arise when a pidgin, which was developed by adults for use as a second language, becomes the native and primary language of 

their children — a process known as nativization;

2)It is a dialect of English based on the varieties the slaves learnt from their masters

(many southern feature);

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 59

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 60/93

3) it is derived from West African languages

AAVEs Grammar Features

Complex and systemic grammar:

- The use of BE as a linking verb Infinitive form

”they be walking up too early”, occurs with the first person sing pronoun (I’m), and

neutral third person sing (it’s)

- It is obligatory in the past tense

- Occasionally “BE” can be used with an “-s” inflection

- “That’s the way it bes”

Trudgil (1995) points out that: “… AAVE is a separate ethnic group variety /black 

speakers:

(SEE THE HANDHOUT: ALICE WALKER’S The Colour Purple extract )

There are distinct lexical items and phonetic features

- Posses distinct lexical items and phonetical features (from other languages

 particularly African ones)

Some examples:

Item: Tote

Meaning: carry

Language: Bantu

Item goober

Meaning: peanut

Language: Bantu 

Item: bogus

Meaning: fake

Language: Hausa

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 60

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 61/93

Item: dig

Meaning: like, appreciate

Language: Wolof 

Different phonological features:

- Non-use of consonant clusters (especially final position)

- Wes for West

- Boyfren for boyfriend

- The sound /θ/ and / ð/ do not occur so “the, “that” become “de” and “dat ”

- ‘Nothing’ and ‘South’ sound “nofing ” and “souf”

SOUTHERN AMERICAN ENGLISH – SAEDebate and research

- The South: Are not easy to define: geographically and culturally

It includes:

- The States of Virginia – North Carolina _ South Carolina – Tennessee – Georgia – 

Florida – Alabam – Mississipi – Arkansas – Texas and Louisiana

- Remarkable Geographical Spread the SAE cannot be considered a single

variety

Algeo (2003) identifies: Four major hierarchical levels of SAE:

Coastal – Interior – Delta – South Midland

These 4 level can be further classified to give a total of 18 sub-varieties

Some Common Features

- SAE developed in response to 3 major influences

- English core Basis

- the 2nd and the 3rd are from Scot-Irish and African Languages

Common phonological feature:

- The so called: “southern drawl” (inflection)= prolongation of certain vowel

sound and “ breaking of vowels and diphthongs into triphthongs

There : / ðajæ/ and bad /bæeɛd/

Another distinctive feature:

-The merging of vowel /I/ and /e/ as in the words : ‘pin and pen’

Common conviction: people speaking the SAE is ill-educated

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 61

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 62/93

Main syntax features:Feature: a-verb-ing - Ex: he left a-running

Feature: plural verb-s - Ex: folks sits there

Feature: perfective ‘done’ - She’s done left

Feature: you-all: yal - we say yallFeature: fixin’to - I’m fixin’ to eat

Feature: multiple modals - we might can make it

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 62

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 63/93

SESSION 7

CANADIAN ENGLISH - CanE

Its origins:

- In the 16th

century French explorers began their settlement in Canada- Later arose conflict between British and French interests

- In 1763 French were forced to give their North American colonies to Britain

Base of Canadian English

The base of Canadian English is derived from a large group of pro-British loyalists

who left The USA for Canada after the War of Independence: settled on the

Canadian Coast, later moved into Ontario and Quebec. Other groups from

Pennsylvania, New Jersey, NewYork and Vermont, settled in areas around the Great

Lake

- In the early 19 th century in connection with 1812-14 War, a large group of 

immigrants came from the USA and from Britain and Ireland and

- in 1850 another massive group from Scotland and Ireland

- From mid 19th century to late1970 general immigration on a large scale was

encourage by Canadian Government:

- Demographic diversity is a value “mosaic”

- People of diverse origins and communities are free to preserve and enhance their 

cultural heritage while participating as equal partners in Canadian society

CANDIAN AS LINGUISTIC AREALinguistic situation

- Policy of promotion of multiculturalism and Multilingualism

- Ability to speak, at some level, more than one language

- Implemented in the media and education “immersion schools” the second language

is the media of instruction in all subject

There are two official languages:

1.English: mother tongue of about 63 % of the population “the Anglophones”

2.French: with about 25% native speakers “the Francophones”

The two languages have equal status in all federal departments, judicial bodies,

administrative agencies

- Three Provinces are officially bilingual: Quebec, Manitoba, New Brunswick 

- Canadian bilingualism is characterized by fluctuation more than stability

SOME FEATURES OF CANADIAN ENGLISH – CanE:

- Hypercorrection in phonology due to conflicting British and American norms and

standards

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 63

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 64/93

Linguistic hypercorrection occurs when a real or imagined grammatical or 

 phonetical rule is applied in a mistaken or non-standard context, so that a attempt to

 be "correct" leads to an incorrect result:

- Faced with enough exceptions to a rule, the speaker might mistake the exception

for the general rule, applying it to situations where it never was meant to occur.

- Hypercorrection also in spelling, vocabulary, and in some extent grammar 

- Nowadays is fashionable to imitate British English speech as well as manners and

Anti-American attitudes

REGIONAL DIVERSITY

The most distinctive region ethnography as well as linguistic is Newfoundland

which has the longest history of the English speaking communities

- English-speaking immigrants were from linguistically distinctive areas such as :

- Devon, Cornwall, Scotland and Ireland and joined the Canadian federation only in

1949- Prince Edward is another Island-based community regionally distinctive

Many interesting enclave varieties are:

- German-influenced dialect of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia in Atlantic provinces and

Ottawa River Valley

- Other rural areas dialect reflect input from settlements of various language

groups: Ukrainian, Italian, Dutch, Scandinavian and French

CANADIAN ENGLISH -

- Features lexical sets: Price and Mouth = the starting point of the diphthongs /au/

and /ai/ is raised , i.e. closer than in the reference accent when followed by voiceless

consonants: Out, house, knife, night

- Not consequently in loud, houses, knives, ride

- the use of tag eh =

- the occurrence of BE lexical –incidental pronunciation: shone with a short vowel,

corollary, capillary with stress on 1st syllable

- The unique use of certain lexical items: recycled English words and French

 borrowings

PHONOLOGY:

There is a vacillation between British and American norms

The Canadian raising

Canadian raising is a phonetic phenomenon that occurs in varieties of the English 

language, in which certain diphthongs are "raised" before

voiceless consonants (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /f/).

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 64

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 65/93

/aɪ / (the vowel of "eye") becomes [ʌi], while the outcome of /aʊ/ (the vowel of 

"loud") varies by dialect, with[ʌu] more common in the west and a fronted

variant [ɛʉ] commonly heard in Central Canada.

- In any case, the /a/-component of the diphthong changes from a low vowelto a mid-low vowel ([ʌ] or [ɛ]).

GRAMMAR FEATURES

- Found in morphology rather than syntax

- the initial “as well as” = “as well as, I include my CV”

- the tag “eh” = “it’s way out in suburbs , eh,…so I can’t get there by bike”

Found in morphology rather than syntax

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 65

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 66/93

SESSION 8

AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZELAND VARITIES

AUSTRALIA AN OVERVEW

- The Anglophone Australia and New Zealand are two of the youngest nations inthe world.

- The first Europeans who took their residence in Australia came 205 years ago.

- Australia was founded as a penal colony.

- were eventually followed by voluntary immigrants

- Until now, the Australian with British ancestor are the predominant part of the

 population

- Among them, the area where a nowadays Australian most probably can find their 

ancestors is the region around London

- The second important group of immigrants were Irish, mainly responsible for the

huge number of Catholics in Australia compared with Britain

-

- According to Hammarström (1980) Australian pronunciation is more or less the

Cockney one of the last 18th century,

- having developed independently ever since -it missed the RP-contact arising in

Britain in the 19th century-,

-  but conservatively -like most exported languages are.

- Australian English is different from any accent existing in England (Wells,

1982b: 593).

Australianisms

Most of the Australian specialties in vocabulary derive from English local dialects.

On the other hand, in recent years the influence of American English has been

apparent... Thus we find American truck, elevator , and freeway alongside

British petrol, boot (of a car) and tap." (Crystal, 1988: 240)

Few aboriginal words were borrowed, though a third of the place names is taken

from their languages, with in increasing number in our days (Bähr, 1974:

274)

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 66

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 67/93

A short excerpt from Aussie vocabulary (including slang words, which are more

accepted than in Mother England; Bähr, 1974; Crystal, 1988; Baker, 1978):Australian English British English

this arvo this afternoon

 footpath pavement 

weekender holiday cottage

 sheila girl 

lolly sweet  

drongo fool  

 paddock field 

 singlet vest 

 Aussie Australian

cobber mate

 Dinkum honest 

 shanty pub

chromo prostitute

broke for in need of  

 fed with tired of 

chunder vomit  

Educated and Broad Australian

Regional variation is practically absent in Australia.

However, in opposition to the situation in America, Australian English knows are

a great social range of different speeches.

SOCIALLY BASED

Educated and Broad Australian Regional variation is practically absent in Australia. However,in opposition to the situation in America, Australian English knows are a great social

range of different speeches.

Through this influence you can distinguish Educated Australian from Broad Australian (Bähr, 1974:

2AusE has been described along a continuum that ranges from BROAD to GENERAL

to CULTIVATED

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 67

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 68/93

Through this influence you can distinguish Educated Australian

from Broad Australian (Bähr, 1974: 274).

The vowel system of Broad Australian is very similar to Cockney.

Educated Australian is close to RP

The main specialties of the former (Cockney) is:

- [ ] in unstressed position within a word where the English use [ ],

- and the ending -y, which is pronounced [ ]

The sounds on the continuum at the left border of the vowel diagram are less

open, e.g. that is sounds for an Englishman as if it were thet .

[ ] is produced as [ ] in most positions, in words like dance even [æ].

Like in the American South SAE [ ] occurs in words like pound (Bähr, 1974:

276f.).

As for the consonants, there are no glottal stops (in spite of all the similarities of 

BA to Cockney).

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 68

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 69/93

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 70/93

The main peculiarity that makes an Australian be recognized as such is the

particular intonation pattern (Wells, 1982b: 604)

As a whole, the accent is marked by a pronunciation reminding of southern - -

-English, but with a "nasal twang" exaggerated nasality in speech (as in

some regional dialects) described as being slightly different from NewEngland twang)

and a "drawl" as in America. In fact, the broadest dialect is defined by the longest

vowels.

AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH (AusE) – descriptive account

A shortlist of particularly salient features

- the front /a:/ (in palm and start (see NZE) – 

- the wide(ample) Cocknye like diphthongs (fleece – face – price – goose – goat – 

mouth)

- The close front vowel , (dress

Use of 2 extremely productive noun suffixes : ie and o (wharfie – docker , smoko

“a stop for the rest and a smoke)

- special use of she as a generic pronoun: she’s jake – “it’s fine”

- highly characteristic vocabulary: e.g.: sheila (girl) – tucker (food) , billabong  

(waterhole formed by

broken meander of river) , drongo (idiot) yacker (work)

SPELLING

-Basically follows the British English

- we can find: both color and colour 

- Australian Labor party Spells its name without u

- or instead of our 

- verbs: realize and sympathize AE spelling

- reference spelling dictionary: Macquaire Dictionary

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 70

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 71/93

PHONOLOGY

- Well (1987): “phonologically all Australian English is very close to RP ,

Phonetically it is not”- The phonemic inventory: the number and distribution of distinctive units is

as the RP

- The quality of virtually of virtually all vowels is different (front rather than

back vowel in Palm and Start

- SEE handout of the 6 distinctive lexical set PAGE 105

- Note: the Cultivate AusE approximates to RP in “unshifted” diphthongs

- BROAD = differs: having wider more radically shifted diphthongs length

(mouth = beginning with a nasal vowel a “twang”  

- Listening Australian Speaker of The Track 

- Ten /tin/

- Bath followed by a nasal sound + another consonant

-  Schwa often replaced by /I/ (also in RP) in a number of unstressed affixes

- AusE nonrothic

- Tendency towards intervocalic TVoicing

- H dropping my occur as hypercorrected form (Aboriginal E)

- very common HRT intonation pattern “uptalk / upspeak) “the interview

Tune

- predominantly used by teenagers, females, lower class

- the HRT function is to request participation of the listener

VOCABULARY

- Unique vocabulary items / describing a range of phenomena and concepts

that exist only in their natural environment and culture

- Borrows from indigenous / Aboriginal languages

- - words for plant and animals- Most common: kangaroo, koala, boomerang

- Words in English used with different meaning to reflect local culture and

concepts

- Example: Bush is a particular Astralian concept that suits different local

contexts

- LISTENING CD – page 73

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 71

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 72/93

- Clipping vocabulary = shows the Australian value of informality

- Example: arvo: afternoon –  Aussie: an Australian – barbie: barbeque – 

-  cozzie: swimming costume –  journo: journalist –  pollie: politician

- Also people’s first names and surnames

- Sport names

GRAMMAR:

- morphological feature: striking productivity of – ie and o suffixes

- common clipping = beaut for beauty or beautiful

- Uni for university Oz for Australia – roo for kangaroo

-

IN Australia English was the only significant language fro the outset (start) of 

colonization

Killer language is an appropriate definition:

The death of Aboriginal Language is directly/indirectly due by the presence of 

English

In 18th and 19th the founder population was almost exclusively English

Australian English (AusE) is an English variety in its own rights

AusE is the 3rd reference variety (British English – General American)

It is increasingly used in teaching , especially in East and SouthEast-Asia

It is codified in major dictionaries (macquariesdictionary.com.au)

THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

- it was a penal colony- the first variety of language observed is in connection with prison life – 

roughness (violence) – vulgarity

- Called : Flash Language

- Cant (slang) or Jargon of thieves

- Mainly a slang used to assert group solidarity

- Many “keywords” have survived in AusE

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 72

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 73/93

- Paradoxically now are use “deviating” speakers in Aboriginal Communities

using le language of educated whites

- Cockney-like speech

- Parallel: “pure speech “non regional” – not American – not cockney

SIMILARITY WITH COCKNEY

The accent can easily be distinguished

- Different lexical features

INFLUENCES

- AusE is currently subject to influence from AE = word stress on the second

syllable: as in harass (bother)

- AE-like phonological feature: the voicing of intervocalic /t/ (not so clear in

AusE)

- There is a degree of Americanization in spelling

- AusE seem to master both BE and AE very well

Regional Variation:

Limited in AusE if considering the vastness of the country

Area: 7,686,85 sq .km

Physical and social distance will eventually have the effect of increasing regional

differences

It is possible to exemplify regional differences in vocabulary and also phonological

variation

Among the feature of PV :

L vocalization = a new feature in AusE

Social Variation

Mitchell and Delbridge (1960) distinguished:

- AusE Broad 34%– General 55% – Cultivated 11%

- LISTENING SAMPLES CD

- Cultivated = acrolect affinity with the RP

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 73

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 74/93

CULTURAL CONVENTIONS AND PRAGMATIC NORMS

Australian tend to address each other by their first names

- Age, gender, status of people is not so important

- Greetings: “good day, how are you going, mate?- The majority of AusE speakers are able to use all 3 varieties (broad, general

and cultivated) depending on what the context requires

- Trend frequent use of the GENERAL

ABORIGENAL ENGLISH

- 1770 British arrived in Australia there were 250 Aboriginal languages

Aboriginal Australia was a richly multilingual ana multicultural society

possessing 250 mutually unintelligible languages (not dialects).

- Multilingual nature of AbA = meant a single ab language was unlikely to

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 74

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 75/93

assume the role of communication language among all the AB A

- The role has been assumed by English in the form of AbAEnglish – has

become a Lingua franca

- AAE is now the primary form of communication for Australian Aboriginal

- AAE must provide its speakers with aboriginal identity- Language characterized by the transfer of pragmatic and cultural norms

from ab lang.

- Harkins (2000): “AAE is an indigenised variety of English in the sense that it 

was adopted, however involuntarily, by an indigenous population for whom it 

is now the primary language of internal and wider communication, and has

undergone changes at all levels of language structure to become a distinct 

dialect with a unique set of linguistic features”-

- Relative homogeneity remarkable similarities:

- Malcolm et all (19nn) - Aboriginal English has now \become a verysignificant marker of identity for indigenous Australians” 

Best researched ethnic variety of AusE

Not easy to define – covers “the full range from broken Pidgin E through a creole

to non-standard to a complete mastery of standard English First and

second Language

AbE Features:

- retroflex articulatory setting- some non-standard grammatical features (reminiscence of AAVE):

- copula deletion

- unmarked plurality (how many huncle you got?)

- bin = marker of past tense (that man bin come inside bar)

SYNTAX OF AbAusE

- double subjects: “my mother, she came from down there”

- multiple negative marking: “they didn’t give us nothing”- noun phrase ellipsis (contraction):

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 75

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 76/93

GRAMMAR:

-transfer from aboriginal language mainly aboriginal L Kaytetye language

Central Australia: Use of marker “ gether ” indicates kinship – father- gether =

father \and child – “brother-gether” \elder and younger bothers

 Belonginto: is used as a preposition

CULTURAL/CONVENTIONAL AND PRAGMATIC NORMS

- communicative strategies:

- - indirectness = avoiding making direct requests “ask trigger questions”

- Way to respond to direct questions: use “yes of gratuitous concurrence

(agreement)” used as a strategy for accommodating the directness of 

interacting with white , olr migrant Australians.- “yes” lets the speaker know that the listener is attending to what is being

said

- Tolerance for silence

- Silence. A sign of comfortable deepening of communication - preparation

for a seriously considered response

Aborigines in urban settings

-have lost their indigenous language- speak varieties closer the English end

- Usually non-standard language

- Forms shared in worldwide

- Multiple negation

- Differences in verb agreement

- Non-standard form of irregular verbs

- Standard English is not considered a prestigious variety within aboriginal

community

- More is the use of flash language

OVERALL CONSIDERATION

- Two major function of language are communication and identity

- The identity-communication continuum

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 76

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 77/93

NEW ZEALAND / AOTEROA 

2 names:

1 New Zealand originally called Niew Zeeland  after the province of Zeeland in

the Netherlands by the Dutch explorers in the 17th century

2 Aotearoa: “land of the long white cloud” named by the Maori settlers more

than a thousand years ago

- only in 1840 the British established their colonization and most of Maori

chiefs were induced to accept Queen’s Victoria guardianship.

- New Zealand was granted self-government in 1852 – full parliamentary

system set in 1856

- following decades were characterised by a great deal of turbulence - conflict

between the white settlers and Maori especially in the North Island

1872 it resulted in loss of land and general submission of the Maori

- - thing have improved

In 1987 the Maori Language Act was passed – official status to Maori co-

equally with English

- established a Maori Language Commission- Today Maori constitute about 14% of the population

- 3% immigrants from South Pacific

- Sizeable groups of immigrants from various European Contries - Chinese

and Indian minorities

- 3 main types of English-speaking immigrants :

- - 1840 up to 1880s immigrants from various distinctive parts of british isles

(London – West Country – Scotland) mainly for religios /ideological reasons

- Early 1860s Australians dominated a wave of immigrants who came for the

discovery of gold on the west coast of South island

- 1870s immigration took place on large scale mainly from Southern England

- Immigration is an important factor in the growth of NZ population

- 19th century there were more New Zeland born Europeans rather

- NZ cabn be described as a an unusually monolingual country

- Only pacific Island Polynesian settled in NZ in 1950s + very recent

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 77

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 78/93

immigrant groups (from Asia) use their native languages extensively outside

the home domain

- It is not characterized by strongly stratified social classes

- Can be described as an egalitarian society

- Neither a land-owing upper class aristocracy nor an industrial proletariat- Most significant social parameter is ethnicity Maori vs Pakeha English

NEW ZEALAND ENGLISH - NZE

- Shortlist of particularly significant of NZE:

- The centralized quality of the KIT vowel: /ə/ rather than /I/.-

The short front vowels

In New Zealand English the short-i of KIT is a central vowel not phonologically

distinct from schwa /ə/, the vowel in unstressed "the".

It thus contrasts sharply with the [i] vowel heard in Australia.

Recent acoustic studies featuring both Australian and New Zealand voices show

that the accents were more similar before the Second World War and that the

KIT vowel has undergone rapid centralisation in New Zealand English.

Because of this difference in pronunciation, some New Zealanders claim that

Australians say "feesh and cheeps" for  fish and chips while some Australians

counter that New Zealanders say "fush and chups".

The short-e /ɛ/ of YES has moved to fill in the space left by /ɪ/, and it is phonetically in the region of [ɪ].

Likewise, the short-a /æ/ of TRAP is approximately [ɛ], which sounds like a

short-e to other English speakers.

- The merging of diphthongs in NEAR and SQUARE / i.e. words like BEER and

BEAR are homophonous

- The front /a:/ in BATH ; PALM ; START

- Rounding and fronting of NURSE vowel – Maori elements in lexicon – 

increasingly used in everyday conversation

SPELLING

it follows British conventions

- alternative spelling for certain entry and Maori words

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 78

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 79/93

PHONOLOGY

- apart from The NEAR/SQUARE merger the phonemic inventory remains alike

the RP- Until fairly recently RP enjoyed high prestige in NZ

- Increasingly awareness of national identity

- Attitude to American accents are positive (not significant influence in NZE

 phonology

- SEE NEW ZEALAND LEXICAL SETS COMPARISON: NZE and RP

-  Note: the diphthongs in FACE –PRICE _ GOAT – SQUARE in comparison with

RP are generally wider 

- Merging diphthongs in NEAR and SQUARE is variable

- SCOTTISH-LIKE FEATURES:

- Is the realisation of <wh> as <hw> i.e. making a distinction between words such

as WINE , WAIL and WHALE – 

- On the suprasegmental level striking feature of NZE is the frequent use of hifìgh

rising terminal(HRTs) Maori influence

GRAMMAR 

- Preference for certain variants rather than categorically different grammatical

rules:- - ves plurals rather than –fs in words such as hoof – roof – wharf 

- Increasingly use of unmarked plurality in words on Maori origin: iwi for tribes

- Use of indicative in mandative sentences: “ I recommend that this meeting

 passes a motion commissioning me to travel to Wellinghton”

- Use of plural you(s)

- She as a non referring pronoun

-

- LEXIS- Salient feature: the impact of Maori

- The New Zealand dictionary contains 6000 main headwords entries

- The bulk of NZ vocabulary is definitely shared with other inner circle varities

especially Standard EE

- Features: alternation of meaning

- y/ie suffixes in creating familiar forms names – common objects – creatures and

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 79

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 80/93

 people

- Many words related to NZ society , topography, flora and fauna

- Also items a wide range of domains related everyday life

- - borrowing from Maori: (about 700 words): kia ora : hello

SESSION 9

THE ENGLISH IN ASIA AND EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW

Asia and Europe - Similarities and Differences

They are tow large non-Inner Circle Nations

- Asia: Outer Circle

- Europe: Expanding Circle

The Euro-EnglishEuropean English / Euro-English

-

In the early years of the 21st century,

-

Just emerging as distinctive variety

-

Or

-

More accurately group of varieties

-

With its own identity

-

Reject the concept of “having to defer to British English”

-

Evolving as European Lingua Franca

-

 Not only in restricted fields (business and commerce)

-

Increasingly used as language of SOCIALIZATION

Asian-English

English as Asian Language

Outer Circle Variation

Asian Englishes can be categorised both

regionally and functionally

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 80

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 81/93

REGIONALY:

Divided into three grouping:

- South-Asian Varieties

- South-East and Pacific variety

- East Asian Varieties

(South-East and East Asian varieties are sometimes grouped together)

FUNTIONALLY

Are divided into two categories:

Depending on whether they are institutionalised varieties of the Outer Circle

Or

 Non –institutionalised varieties of the Expanding Circle

Asian VarietiesL2 English (reasonable) competence range among the Regional and Functional

Groups of Asian Englishes:

- India 200 million

-Philippines 40 million

- Pakistan 17 million

-

Hong Kong, Singapore, Sri Lanka about 2 million

-

Brunei 134,000

-

Bhutan 75,000

(in some of these areas the L2 English is spoken by large percentage of 

population)

Less than 50% of Indian speak L2 English (reasonable competence)

The total population is over 1 million

The number of L2 Indian English speakers is Vast

Asian-Englishes are:

-

South-Asian Englishes belong to Outer Circle

-

Exception of the Maldives

-

Indian

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 81

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 82/93

-

Lankan

-

Pakistani

-

Bangladesh

-

Often grouped together 

Indian and Lankan Englishes are:

The most developed and documented

-

Bhutan

-

The Maldives

-

 Nepal

-

Little documented

SHARED FEATURES:

- Postcolonial territories

- English was introduced mainly by military force

- During the process of colonization by English speaking Countries

- Became independent in 1947-1965

- The independent postcolonialism states rejected to use English

- Many countries replaced English with their local Languages

For Example: Malaysia Policy since 1969 replaced English with Malay

- Education system and administration

- Codified the Malay Language as a national language

- Reform favoured indigenous people and disfavoured non-Malay speaking and

Chinese and Indian groups- English remains dominant in business sectors

Asian countries have much in commonIn terms of history and culture:

-

Different positions towards English

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 82

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 83/93

-

Favourable position: English as a vehicle of modernization that poor nations need

- Ra

dical position: poor countries are poor because rich ones subdue them

-

The use of English is seen as a tool for maintaining of dominance of the USA and

Britain

-

Language PyramidShows a common situation in postcolonial territories

-

3 layers of competitive languages with national value

-

At the top is English (ruling class /educated in English)-

2° one of the several national languages (nationalist values spoken by a majority/

dominant groups)

3° regional/ethnic Languages (languages of minority groups)

-

Large group use the national languages

Also as\medium of instruction

-

Minority groups prefer EnglishEthnically neutral

Language of any group no ethnic group is superior 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 83

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 84/93

LANGUAGE PYRAMID

Many postcolonial states continue to use English for many functions

 – only a minority of citizens master the language

-

This leads to unequal access to power and justice-

In many countries proficiency in English is a prerequisite for public and political

activities

In many countries law court are conducted in English

-

The accused only understands proceedings via interpreters.

-

Who may not be proficient both in the specific dialect spoken

New EnglishesThe name refers to the English varieties spoken in the outer circle

- No linguistic characteristics is common to all

- All varieties are recreated by children from a mixture group of features

-

Are new all new in every generation

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes

ENGLISH

NATIONAL LANGUAGE

(S)

REGIONAL/ETHNIC LANGUAGE(S)

84

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 85/93

-

All the countries share some features

-

The outer circle varieties mostly a substratum

-

Very different from English acquired by formal education

Some shared featuresVarieties spoken are seen as part of multilingual repertoire (more language in use)

Different languages spoken in different contexts:

1 English at work 

2 local language at home

3 another language with peer groups

Some Common Features

-

Internal variation of proficiency

-

Local feature of the variation in the degree of English in a given situation

-

Variation in the proficiency of English

-Basilect is the English of low-proficiency learners, characterised by limited

vocabulary

-

Efficiency as a meaning of communication

The Inner circle has a vowel system with 20-24 different phonemes

Substrates tends to result a simplified system Phonologically

The Outer Circle varieties tend to eliminate marker features of inner circle

SYNTAX FEATURES:There is a greater tolerance in relation to the status of local variation

Both local usage and metropolitan standard usages may co-occor without the

speakers regarding each other as alien

Some varieties are more influenced by the British English while other by American

English may co-exist

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 85

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 86/93

Kachru identifies three main features of Indian English shared with other varieties:

1. distinctive use / non use of articles

2 . reduplication of words

3 Yes-no confusion: “You have no objection? – Yes, (i have no objection)”

Other features:- interrogative word order in direct questions : “tell me where can you meet us”

- Invariant tag question: “you know it, isn’t it?”

- Use of present continuous instead of the present simple (verbs: know and stative

verbs)

Especially Indian English –IE: direct transfer of L1 language

“We are having our house in Thana”

LEXISSimplification of the Inner Circle complex lexis system:

- set of words singular but refer to plural /collective concepts

The Outer circle tends to simplify and make these words ordinary singulars with

general sense

Pragmatics Cultural Convention:

Use of greetings, curses

- Common in outer circle use more formal or hierarchical types of address

The Changing Role of English in EuropeThe European Union is linguistically very rich:

- 23 EU Languages have an official status:

Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German,

Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese,

Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish

Three Languages dominate,

THE BIG LANGUAGES:

English

French

German

Graddol points out:

“…Europe as in India, there may e who are monolingual in a regional language,

but those who speak one of the big languages will have better access to material 

 success…”

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 86

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 87/93

By the end of the 20° century

- A single of the three big languages became the biggest = English

Common opinions:

- Those who speak English will have the best access to material success

- Significant popularity of learning English

- especially among Young European

BECAUSE:

- It’s easier for all Europeans than to learn each other language

- Rather than having several working languages and use of translation machineries

- The EU should opt officially for English as its Lingua Franca

-

English language for communication

-

 Not to express the social identity of the European speakers

-

European mother tongues remain the language for identification

Increasingly European English is developing the potential to express emotional

aspects among young people:

Hybrids compounds as telefon junkie Drogenfreal and Metallfan

New Emerging features

Identity markers:- Recent Position as Lingua Franca

- European English contains a number of grammatical, lexical, phonological and

discoursal features

Found in individual continental European Languages along with some items

common to many languages of nostandard British or American

Nativization process English is undergoing:

It carries out three roles:

 Native

Foreign

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 87

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 88/93

International language

European introduce innovation = Effect: de-Americanise and de-Anglicise

English Language

European English:Use English for Intra-European communication

Indicates: not-British / America /Canadian

In this view

British English can be considered: merely as one of a number of European Varieties

Alongside nativised variety such as French English – Dutch English , Danish

English and the like

Berns maintains: “… European English speakers are in the midst of an exciting,

challenging, creative social and linguistic phase … in which their potential to have significant influence on the spread of English…”

It is a sort of “Sociolinguistic-History-in –the-making”

It needs regularly revision as empirical evidence became increasingly available

The Future of EnglishThere are two main theories:

1) English as a language of others

2) The language(s) of “others” as a world language(s)

Potential shift: English could lose its international role altogether or come to

share it with a number of equals.

Due to native speaker resistance to the spread of non-native speakers

Consequence: abandoning of English by large numbers of non-native speakers.

1 English as a language of others

English is already numerically the language of “others” as the century proceeds it

 becomes more overtly so

- The centre of gravidity is almost certain to shift in the direction of others

- Years to come we are very likely to witness increasing claims for speakers

Especially outside the Inner Circle: In growing economies such as:

Brazil, Russia, China

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 88

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 89/93

In this paradigm English spreads and adapts according to the linguistic and cultural

 preferences of its users in the outer and expanding Circles

- If the English is to become the language of others.

The others have to be accorded/accord themselves at least the same English

language rights as those claimed by mother-tongue speakers

This includes the right to innovate without every difference from standard native

variety of English, being labelled wrong

This is by definition what it means for a language to be international:

It spread and becomes a global Lingua Franca for the benefit of all rather than being

distributed to facilitate communication with the natives.

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 89

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 90/93

KEY REFERENCES

Algeo, J. (1991) A meditation on the varieties of English. English Today, 7, 3-4

Bangbose, A (2006) World English and Globalization: World Englishes, 20 (3) 357-

64Berns, M. (1995) English in the European Union. English Today, 43, 11 (3): 3-11

Burchefield, R. (1981) The English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language: Cambridge, Cambridge

University Press

Graddol, D. (1997) The Future of English? London: The British Council

Ihalainen O. (1994) The Dialects of England since 1776, In Burchefield, R (ed.) in

Cambridge History of the English Language, Vol 5: English in Britain and

Overseas, Origin and development: Cambridge University Press pp197 -274

Kahane, H. (1992) American English: From a colonial substandard to prestige

language, in Kachru, B B, (ed) (1982/1992) The Other Tongue – Chicago: Illinois

University Press, pp. 229-36

Kachru, Braj B. (ed) (1982) The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures. Urbana,

IL: University of Illinois Press.

Kachru, Braj B. (1985) Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The

English Language in the outer circle. In English in the World: Teaching and 

 Learning the Language and Literatures. Edited by Randolph Quirk and Henry G.

Widdowson. Cambridge University Press, pp 11-30

Kachru, Braj B. (1992) World Englishes: Approaches, issues and resources.

 Language Teaching, 25, 1-14Kachu Braj B., Kachru Y., Nelson C. L., (2009) (edited by) The Handbook of 

World Englishes, - Wiley-Blackwell, publication, United Kingdom

Kay, W. (1988) Scots – The Mother Tongue, Edinburgh: Grafton Book 

Kirkpatrick A. (2007), World Englishes, Implications for international 

communication and English language teaching ,. Cambridge University Press

Lippi-Green, R (1997)  English with an Accent. Language, ideology and 

 Discrimination in the United States, London: Routledge

McArthur, T. (2001) World English and World Englishes: Trends, tensions,

varieties and standards. Language Teaching, 34, 1-20

Platt J., Weber, H. & Ho M. L. (1984 ) The New English, London: Routledge

Quirk, R. (1985) The English Language in a global context, In English in the

World, Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures. Edited by Randolph

Quirk and Henry G. Widdowson . Cambridge University Press.

Quirk, R. and Widdowson H. G. (eds) (1985) English in the World: Teaching and 

 Learning 

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 90

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 91/93

Trudgil P. and Chamber, J.K (eds) (1995),  English Dialects: Studies in

Grammatical Variation. London: Longman

Widdowson, H. (1997): "EIL, ESL and EFL: Global Issues and Local Interests", in:

Melvia, H. et al. (1997): Across the West African Divide. Dakar: British Council and

USIS, 22–34.

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 91

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 92/93

REFFERENCE BOOKS FOR STUDENTS

 ____________________________________________________________________ 

Jenkins J. (2005), World Englishes, A Resource Book for Students, 2nd edition.

Routledge Taylor and Francis Group , London and New York 

Melchers G. and Shaw P. (2003), World Englishes: An introduction, Arnold

editions, Oxford University Press.

Prof.ssa MT Maurichi - Lecture Notes 92

7/28/2019 Lectures Notes World Englishes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/lectures-notes-world-englishes 93/93

FURTHER READINGS

A SELECTION OF RELATED ARTICLES

&

STUDENTS’ ASSIGNMENTS AND HANDOUTS