Lecture 2 (a) Mgmt Yesterday & Today

ninth editionninth edition

STEPHEN P. ROBBINSSTEPHEN P. ROBBINS

PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie CookPowerPoint Presentation by Charlie CookThe University of West AlabamaThe University of West Alabama

MARY COULTERMARY COULTERManagement Yesterday and Today:Management Yesterday and Today:Traditional and Contemporary Issues

and Challenges

Management Yesterday and Today:Management Yesterday and Today:Traditional and Contemporary Issues

and Challenges

School Management & Supervision SGDU5033

School Management & Supervision SGDU5033

*** (.... Slide 1 – 101 only)

LECTURE 2 (a)

2

Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes

• After following this lecture, you should be able to:Justify the importance of history and theory to

management and discuss precursors to modern management theory.

Summarize and evaluate the classical perspective on management, including scientific and administrative management, and note its relevance to contemporary managers.

Summarize and evaluate the behavioral perspective on management, including the Hawthorne studies, human relations movement, and note its relevance to contemporary managers.

3

Learning Outcomes (cont’d)Learning Outcomes (cont’d)

• After following this lecture, you should be able to:Summarize and evaluate the quantitative perspective on

management, including management science and operations management, and notes its relevance to contemporary managers.

Discuss the systems and contingency approaches to management and explain their potential for integrating the other areas of management.

Identify and describe contemporary management issues and challenges.

4

Lecture OutlineLecture Outline

• The Role of Theory and History in Management The Importance of Theory and

History Precursors to Management Theory

• The Classical Management Perspective Scientific Management Administrative Management The Classical Management

Perspective Today

• The Behavioral Management Perspective The Hawthorne Studies The Human Relations Movement

• The Behavioral Management Perspective (cont’d) The Behavioral Management

Perspective Today

• The Quantitative Management Perspective Management Science Operations Management The Quantitative Management

Perspective Today

• Contemporary Management Issues and Challenges Contemporary Applied

Perspectives Contemporary Management

Challenges

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The Importance of Theory and The Importance of Theory and HistoryHistory

The Importance of Theory and The Importance of Theory and HistoryHistory

• Why Theory?– Theory – a coherent set of assumptions which explain the

relationship between 2 or more observable facts – A theory is a conceptual framework for organizing knowledge

and providing a blueprint for action.– Management theories, used to build organizations, are

grounded in reality. Most managers develop their own theories about how they should run their organizations.

• Why History?– An awareness and understanding of important historical

developments in management are also important to contemporary managers in furthering the development of management practices and in avoiding the mistakes of others in the past.

• Why Theory?– Theory – a coherent set of assumptions which explain the

relationship between 2 or more observable facts – A theory is a conceptual framework for organizing knowledge

and providing a blueprint for action.– Management theories, used to build organizations, are

grounded in reality. Most managers develop their own theories about how they should run their organizations.

• Why History?– An awareness and understanding of important historical

developments in management are also important to contemporary managers in furthering the development of management practices and in avoiding the mistakes of others in the past.

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Why Study Management TheoryWhy Study Management Theory ? ?Why Study Management TheoryWhy Study Management Theory ? ?• We have stated that the world we live in is a complex one – theories help us make

sense of that complexity.

• Management is a complex issue – management theory helps us to make sense of the complexities.

• Theories provide a stable focus for understanding what we experience and provides criteria for determining what is relevant – e.g. for a business to be viable a good product and compliant workforce are essential.

• Theories enable us to communicate efficiently and move into more complex relationships with others.

• Theories enable us to continue learning about our world.

• Theories have boundaries i.e. there is only so much that can be covered by any particular theory.

• We have stated that the world we live in is a complex one – theories help us make sense of that complexity.

• Management is a complex issue – management theory helps us to make sense of the complexities.

• Theories provide a stable focus for understanding what we experience and provides criteria for determining what is relevant – e.g. for a business to be viable a good product and compliant workforce are essential.

• Theories enable us to communicate efficiently and move into more complex relationships with others.

• Theories enable us to continue learning about our world.

• Theories have boundaries i.e. there is only so much that can be covered by any particular theory.

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Management: Science or Art?Management: Science or Art?Management: Science or Art?Management: Science or Art?

• The Science of Management– Assumes that problems can be approached using rational,

logical, objective, and systematic ways.– Requires technical, diagnostic, and decision-making skills

and techniques to solve problems.

• The Art of Management – Decisions are made and problems solved using a blend of

intuition, experience, instinct, and personal insights.– Requires conceptual, communication, interpersonal, and

time-management skills to accomplish the tasks associated with managerial activities.

• The Science of Management– Assumes that problems can be approached using rational,

logical, objective, and systematic ways.– Requires technical, diagnostic, and decision-making skills

and techniques to solve problems.

• The Art of Management – Decisions are made and problems solved using a blend of

intuition, experience, instinct, and personal insights.– Requires conceptual, communication, interpersonal, and

time-management skills to accomplish the tasks associated with managerial activities.

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Precursors of Management TheoryPrecursors of Management TheoryPrecursors of Management TheoryPrecursors of Management Theory• Management in Antiquity• Management in Antiquity

3000 B.C. 2500 B.C.

A Sumerians F Chinese

B Egyptians

C Babylonians

D Greeks

G Venetians

E Romans

2000 B.C. 1500 B.C. 1000 B.C. 500 B.C. A.D. 1500A.D. 500 A.D. 1000

A Used written rules and regulations for governance

B Used management practices to construct pyramids

C Used extensive set of laws and policies for governance

D Used different governing systems for cities and state

E Used organized structure for communication and control

F Used extensive organization structure for government

agencies and the arts

G Used organization design and planning concepts to

control the seas

9© 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Historical Background of ManagementHistorical Background of ManagementHistorical Background of ManagementHistorical Background of Management

• Ancient ManagementAncient Management Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall)Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall) Venetians (floating warship assembly lines)Venetians (floating warship assembly lines)

• Adam SmithAdam Smith Published Published ““The Wealth of NationsThe Wealth of Nations”” in 1776in 1776

Advocated the division of labor (job specialization) to Advocated the division of labor (job specialization) to increase the productivity of workersincrease the productivity of workers

• Industrial Revolution (18Industrial Revolution (18thth century) century) Substituted machine power for human laborSubstituted machine power for human labor Created large organizations in need of managementCreated large organizations in need of management

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Contemporary Management IssuesContemporary Management Issues and Challenges and Challenges

Contemporary Management IssuesContemporary Management Issues and Challenges and Challenges

How management theory and practice has evolved over timeHow management theory and practice has evolved over time

1890 200019801960 199019701940 195019301910 19201900

The Behavioral Perspective

The Quantitative Perspective

The Contingency Perspective

The Systems Perspective

Contemporary AppliedPerspectives

Theory Z and theExcellence Perspective

The Classical Perspective

SengeCoveyPetersPorterAdamsKotterHamel

2010

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The Historical PerspectiveThe Historical Perspective The Historical PerspectiveThe Historical Perspective

Classical ViewpointClassical Viewpoint

Emphasis on ways to

manage work more efficiently

Scientific ManagementScientific Management

Emphasized scientific study of work methods to improve productivity of individual workers

Proponents: Frederick W. Taylor Frank & Lillian Gilbreth

Administrative Administrative ManagementManagement

Concerned with managing the entire organization

Proponents: Henry Fayol, Max Weber

Behavioral Science ApproachBehavioral Science Approach

Relies on scientific research for developments theory to provide practical manager tools

Behavioral ViewpointBehavioral Viewpoint

Emphasis on importance of understanding human behavior & motivating & encouraging employees toward achievement

Early BehavioristsEarly Behaviorists

Proponents: Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follet, Elton Mayo

Human Relations MovementHuman Relations Movement

Proposed better human relations could increase worker productivity Proponents: Abraham Maslow

Douglas McGregor

Quantitative ViewpointQuantitative Viewpoint

Applies quantitative techniques to management

Operations ManagementOperations Management

Focuses on managing the production and delivery of an organization’s products or services more effectively

Management ScienceManagement Science

Focuses on using mathematics to aid in problem solving and decision making

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An Integrative Framework An Integrative Framework of Management Perspectivesof Management PerspectivesAn Integrative Framework An Integrative Framework

of Management Perspectivesof Management Perspectives

Systems Approach• Recognition of internal

interdependencies• Recognition of

environmental influences

Contingency Perspective• Recognition of the situational

nature of management• Response to particular

characteristics of situation

ClassicalManagementPerspectivesMethods forenhancingefficiency andfacilitating planning,organizing, andcontrolling

BehavioralManagementPerspectivesInsights for moti-vating performanceand understandingindividual behavior,groups and teams,and leadership

QuantitativeManagementPerspectivesTechniques forimproving decisionmaking, resourceallocation, andoperations

Effective and efficient management

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Classical Management TheoryClassical Management TheoryClassical Management TheoryClassical Management Theory

ClassicalManagement Theory

ClassicalManagement Theory

A theory that focused on finding the “one best way” to perform and manage tasks

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Early Management PioneersEarly Management PioneersEarly Management PioneersEarly Management Pioneers• Robert Owen (1771–1858)

– British industrialist who was one of the first managers to recognize the importance of human resources/ modern personnel management.

– Implemented better working conditions, set a minimum age for child labor, provided meals, and reduced work hours.

• Charles Babbage (1792–1871)– Noted English mathematician who focused on creating efficiencies

of production through the division of labor, cooperation between management and labor, and the application of mathematics to management problems.

– Wrote “On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.” - In 1832, published On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures - Concluded that definite management principles existed:

-with broad applications -determined by experience

- Principle of “the division of labor amongst the persons who perform the work”

• Robert Owen (1771–1858)– British industrialist who was one of the first managers to recognize

the importance of human resources/ modern personnel management.

– Implemented better working conditions, set a minimum age for child labor, provided meals, and reduced work hours.

• Charles Babbage (1792–1871)– Noted English mathematician who focused on creating efficiencies

of production through the division of labor, cooperation between management and labor, and the application of mathematics to management problems.

– Wrote “On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.” - In 1832, published On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures - Concluded that definite management principles existed:

-with broad applications -determined by experience

- Principle of “the division of labor amongst the persons who perform the work”

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Historical Management Perspective: Classical Viewpoint

Historical Management Perspective: Classical Viewpoint

The Classical Viewpoint: The Classical Viewpoint: emphasized finding ways to manage work more efficiently—two branches: Scientific and Administrative

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Classical Management Classical Management PerspectivePerspective

Classical Management Classical Management PerspectivePerspective

• Consists of two different viewpoints:– Administrative Management

• A theory that focuses on managingthe total organization.

– Scientific Management• Concerned with improving the performance of individual workers

(i.e., efficiency).

• Grew out of the industrial revolution’s labor shortage at the beginning of the twentieth century.

• Consists of two different viewpoints:– Administrative Management

• A theory that focuses on managingthe total organization.

– Scientific Management• Concerned with improving the performance of individual workers

(i.e., efficiency).

• Grew out of the industrial revolution’s labor shortage at the beginning of the twentieth century.

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Classical Management Perspective (cont’d)Classical Management Perspective (cont’d)Classical Management Perspective (cont’d)Classical Management Perspective (cont’d)

• Administrative Management Theory– Focuses on managing the whole organization rather than

individuals.– Henri Fayol (1841–1925)

• Was first to identify the specific management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling

• Wrote “General and Industrial Management.”

• Helped to systematize the practice of management.

• Administrative Management Theory– Focuses on managing the whole organization rather than

individuals.– Henri Fayol (1841–1925)

• Was first to identify the specific management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling

• Wrote “General and Industrial Management.”

• Helped to systematize the practice of management.

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Classical Management ProponentsClassical Management ProponentsClassical Management ProponentsClassical Management Proponents

• Lyndall Urwick – Integrated the work of previous management theorists.

• Max Weber– His theory of bureaucracy is based on a rational set of

guidelines for structuring organizations.

• Chester Barnard– Wrote “The Functions of the Executive.”– Proposed a theory of the acceptance of authority (by

subordinates) as the source of power and influence for managers.

• Lyndall Urwick – Integrated the work of previous management theorists.

• Max Weber– His theory of bureaucracy is based on a rational set of

guidelines for structuring organizations.

• Chester Barnard– Wrote “The Functions of the Executive.”– Proposed a theory of the acceptance of authority (by

subordinates) as the source of power and influence for managers.

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Administrative ManagementAdministrative ManagementAdministrative ManagementAdministrative Management

Administrative Management: Administrative Management: concerned with managing the total organization (all organizations)

Among the pioneering theorists were Henry Fayol & Max Weber

20© 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Administrative Management (cont’d)Administrative Management (cont’d)Administrative Management (cont’d)Administrative Management (cont’d)

• Henri FayolHenri Fayol Believed that the practice of management was Believed that the practice of management was

distinct from other organizational functions distinct from other organizational functions Developed fourteen principles of management that Developed fourteen principles of management that

applied to all organizational situationsapplied to all organizational situations

• Max WeberMax Weber Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal

type of organization (bureaucracy)type of organization (bureaucracy) Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality,

technical competence, and authoritarianismtechnical competence, and authoritarianism

21

Fayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative Theory

• Henri Fayol (1841-1925)Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

General and Industrial Management Principles and Elements of Management - how

managers should accomplish their managerial duties PRIMARY FOCUS: Management

(Functions of Administration) More Respect for Worker than Taylor

Workers are motivated by more than money Equity in worker treatment

More PRESCRIPTIVE Believed specific management skills could be learned and Believed specific management skills could be learned and

taughttaught

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• Positioned communication as a necessary Positioned communication as a necessary ingredient to successful managementingredient to successful management

• Application in the Modern WorkplaceApplication in the Modern Workplace Fayol’s elements of management are recognized Fayol’s elements of management are recognized

as the main objectives of modern managersas the main objectives of modern managers Planning - more participatoryPlanning - more participatory Organizing - human relationships and Organizing - human relationships and

communicationcommunication Especially applicable for large organizations Especially applicable for large organizations

(military)(education)(military)(education)

Fayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative Theory

23

Henry Fayol & the Functions of ManagementHenry Fayol & the Functions of ManagementHenry Fayol & the Functions of ManagementHenry Fayol & the Functions of Management

Planning Planning

You set goals and You set goals and decide how to decide how to achieve themachieve them

OrganizingOrganizing

You arrange tasks, You arrange tasks, people, & other people, & other

resources to resources to accomplish the workaccomplish the work

LeadingLeading

You motivate, direct & You motivate, direct & otherwise influence otherwise influence

people to work hard to people to work hard to achieve the achieve the

organization’s goalsorganization’s goals

ControllingControlling

You monitor You monitor performance, compare it performance, compare it

with goals and take with goals and take corrective action as corrective action as

neededneeded

Henry Fayol Henry Fayol was the first to systematize management management behavior– he was the first to identify the major functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, controlling, as well as coordinating

1–24

And the principles are……….And the principles are……….And the principles are……….And the principles are……….

• Division of Labor: Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient

• Authority: Managers must be able to give orders. Authority and responsibility go together

• Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules of the organization.

• Unity of Command: every employee should receive orders from only ONE superior.

• Unity of Direction: Each group of organizational activities that has the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan.

24

25


• Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interests: the greater good. The organization’s interests come first.

• Remuneration: workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.

• Centralization: degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. What works best for the organization? Centralized: management-driven. Decentralized: subordinate-driven

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• Scalar chain: line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks. Communications should follow this chain whenever possible.

• Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.

• Equity: Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates

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• Stability of Tenure of Personnel: High employee turnover is inefficient.

• Initiative: Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort.

• Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.

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Weber’s Theory of BureaucracyWeber’s Theory of BureaucracyWeber’s Theory of BureaucracyWeber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

• Max Weber (1864-1920)Max Weber (1864-1920)–German Sociologist–Theory of Social and Economic Organization

(1947)–Principles and Elements of Management - describe

an ideal or pure form of organizational structure (general policy and specific commands

–PRIMARY FOCUS: Organizational Structure–Worker should respect the “right” of managers to

direct activities dictated by organizational rules and procedures

–More DESCRIPTIVE

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• Bureaucracy allows for the optimal form of Bureaucracy allows for the optimal form of authority - “rational authority”authority - “rational authority”

• Three types of Legitimate AuthorityThree types of Legitimate Authority–Traditional Authority - past customs; personal

loyalty–Charismatic Authority - personal trust in character

and skills–Rational Authority - rational application of rules or

laws

30


• Tenets of Bureaucracy Tenets of Bureaucracy –Rules–Specified sphere of competence–Hierarchy–Specialized Training–Workers do not own technology–No entitlement to “official position” by

incumbent–Everything written down–Maintenance of “ideal type” - bureaucracy

31

Weber’s Five Principles of BureaucracyWeber’s Five Principles of BureaucracyWeber’s Five Principles of BureaucracyWeber’s Five Principles of Bureaucracy

• Authority is the power to hold people accountable for their actions.

• Positions in the firm should be held based on performance, not social contacts.

• Position duties are clearly identified so that people know what is expected of them.

• Lines of authority should be clearly identified such that workers know who reports to who.

• Rules, standard operating procedures (SOPs), and norms guide the firm’s operations.

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• Application in the Modern WorkplaceApplication in the Modern Workplace–Large organizations guided by countless rules are

bureaucracies–Linked with inefficient, slow-moving organizations–Organizations have several characteristics of

bureaucracies–To Weber, this represented an ideal or completely

rational form of organization–Used to describe a structure based on the

sociological concept of rationalization of collective activities

–Had NONE of the negative connotations the terms has today (“red tape,” etc.)

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WeberWeber’’s Ideal Bureaucracys Ideal BureaucracyWeberWeber’’s Ideal Bureaucracys Ideal Bureaucracy

34

BureaucracyBureaucracy

Characteristics of an Ideal BureaucracyCharacteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy

• Clear division of laborClear division of labor: Jobs are well defined, and : Jobs are well defined, and workers become highly skilled at performing them. workers become highly skilled at performing them.

• Clear hierarchy of authority and responsibility Clear hierarchy of authority and responsibility are are well defined, and each position reports to a higher-well defined, and each position reports to a higher-level one. level one.

• Formal rules and proceduresFormal rules and procedures: Written guidelines : Written guidelines describe expected behavior and decisions in jobs; describe expected behavior and decisions in jobs; written files are kept for historical record. written files are kept for historical record.

• Impersonality Rules and procedures Impersonality Rules and procedures are impartially are impartially and uniformly applied; no one gets preferential and uniformly applied; no one gets preferential treatment. treatment.

• Careers based on meritCareers based on merit: Workers are selected and : Workers are selected and promoted on ability and performance; managers are promoted on ability and performance; managers are career employees of the organization. career employees of the organization.

35

Weber’s Weber’s Principles of Principles of BureaucracyBureaucracy

Weber’s Weber’s Principles of Principles of BureaucracyBureaucracy

36

Why bureaucracy still going strong? Why bureaucracy still going strong?

• Most successful organizational form Most successful organizational form • ““Large size loves bureaucracy”Large size loves bureaucracy”• Bureaucracy Bureaucracy is is efficientefficient• Western values fit bureaucracyWestern values fit bureaucracy• Today’s changes overstated?Today’s changes overstated?• Professional bureaucracy can be adaptiveProfessional bureaucracy can be adaptive• Bureaucracy supports control or top managements Bureaucracy supports control or top managements

interests interests

37

Bureaucratic organization (Max Weber)Bureaucratic organization (Max Weber)

Possible disadvantages of bureaucracy:

•Excessive paperwork or “red tape”Excessive paperwork or “red tape”

•Slowness in handling problemsSlowness in handling problems

•Rigidity in the face of shifting needsRigidity in the face of shifting needs

•Resistance to changeResistance to change

•Employee apathy (discriminate)Employee apathy (discriminate)

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Classical Management Perspective…TodayClassical Management Perspective…Today

• Contributions– Laid the foundation for later developments.– Identified important management processes, functions, and

skills.– Focused attention on management as a valid subject of

scientific inquiry.

• Limitations– More appropriate approach for use in traditional, stable,

simple organizations.– Prescribed universal procedures that are not appropriate in

some settings.– In some cases, employees are viewed as tools rather than as

resources.

• Contributions– Laid the foundation for later developments.– Identified important management processes, functions, and

skills.– Focused attention on management as a valid subject of

scientific inquiry.

• Limitations– More appropriate approach for use in traditional, stable,

simple organizations.– Prescribed universal procedures that are not appropriate in

some settings.– In some cases, employees are viewed as tools rather than as

resources.

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The Problem with the Classical ViewpointThe Problem with the Classical Viewpoint

The classical viewpoint tends to be too mechanisticmechanistic: it tends to view humans as cogs within a machine, not taking into account the importance of human needs

McDonald’s, Pizza Hut…

40

Scientific ManagementScientific ManagementScientific ManagementScientific Management

Scientific Management: Scientific Management: emphasized the scientific study of work methods to improve the productivity of individual workers. Scientific Management Theory – body of principles that addresses the efficiency of workers

Two of its chief proponents were Frederick W. Taylor, & Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

41

Steps in Scientific ManagementSteps in Scientific ManagementSteps in Scientific ManagementSteps in Scientific Management

Develop a sciencefor each element ofthe job to replace oldrule-of-thumb methods

Scientifically selectemployees and thentrain them to do the jobas described in step 1

Supervise employeesto make sure theyfollow the prescribedmethods for performingtheir jobs

Continue to plan the work, but use workers to get the work done

21 43

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Scientific Management TheoryScientific Management TheoryScientific Management TheoryScientific Management Theory• Frederick Taylor (1856–1915)

– Considered the “Father of Scientific Management.”– Replaced old rule-of-thumb methods of how to do work with

scientifically-based work methods to eliminate “soldiering” where employees deliberately worked at a pace slower than their capabilities.

– Believed in selecting, training, teaching, and developing workers.

– Used time studies of jobs, standards planning, exception rule of management, slide-rules, instruction cards, and piece-work pay systems to control and motivate employees.

– Organisations described as machine-like, concerned with continuous processing and mass production.

– Top down approach to planning, monitoring and controlling work.

• Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) – Considered the “Father of Scientific Management.”– Replaced old rule-of-thumb methods of how to do work with

scientifically-based work methods to eliminate “soldiering” where employees deliberately worked at a pace slower than their capabilities.

– Believed in selecting, training, teaching, and developing workers.

– Used time studies of jobs, standards planning, exception rule of management, slide-rules, instruction cards, and piece-work pay systems to control and motivate employees.

– Organisations described as machine-like, concerned with continuous processing and mass production.

– Top down approach to planning, monitoring and controlling work.

43

Scientific Management TheoryScientific Management TheoryScientific Management TheoryScientific Management Theory

• Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) – Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)

• The theory of scientific managementThe theory of scientific management

–Using scientific methods to define the “one best Using scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done:way” for a job to be done:

»Putting the right person on the job with the Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment.correct tools and equipment.

»Having a standardized method of doing the job.Having a standardized method of doing the job.

»Providing an economic incentive to the worker.Providing an economic incentive to the worker.

• Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) – Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)

• The theory of scientific managementThe theory of scientific management

–Using scientific methods to define the “one best Using scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done:way” for a job to be done:

»Putting the right person on the job with the Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment.correct tools and equipment.

»Having a standardized method of doing the job.Having a standardized method of doing the job.

»Providing an economic incentive to the worker.Providing an economic incentive to the worker.

44

Scientific Management Theory Scientific Management Theory (SMT)(SMT)

Scientific Management Theory Scientific Management Theory (SMT)(SMT)

• At the time Taylor felt that the success of these principles required a mental revolution on the part of management and worker.

• Rather that focus on profit both management and labour should focus on increasing production.

• SMT is based on production time-line studies – finding the quickest and best method to perform each component of a task.

• In this way the amount of work that an employee was able to perform with the amount of materials and equipment available was established.

• Employers are encouraged to pay the more productive workers at a higher rate – differential rate system

• At the time Taylor felt that the success of these principles required a mental revolution on the part of management and worker.

• Rather that focus on profit both management and labour should focus on increasing production.

• SMT is based on production time-line studies – finding the quickest and best method to perform each component of a task.

• In this way the amount of work that an employee was able to perform with the amount of materials and equipment available was established.

• Employers are encouraged to pay the more productive workers at a higher rate – differential rate system

45

TaylorTaylor’’s 4 P’s of Managements 4 P’s of ManagementTaylorTaylor’’s 4 P’s of Managements 4 P’s of Management

1.Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will replace the old rule-of-thumb method.

2.Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker.

3.Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.

4.Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workers.

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Classical Management Classical Management Perspective Perspective


• Other Scientific Management Pioneers– Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

• Frank reduced the number of movements in bricklaying, resulting in increased output of 200%.

• Both developed techniques and strategies for eliminating inefficiency.• Lillian made substantive contributions to the fields of industrial psychology and personnel management.• Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion.• Developed the micro chronometer to time worker motions and optimize work performance

• Other Scientific Management Pioneers– Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

• Frank reduced the number of movements in bricklaying, resulting in increased output of 200%.

• Both developed techniques and strategies for eliminating inefficiency.• Lillian made substantive contributions to the fields of industrial psychology and personnel management.• Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion.• Developed the micro chronometer to time worker motions and optimize work performance

47

Frank and Lillian GilbrethFrank and Lillian GilbrethFrank and Lillian GilbrethFrank and Lillian Gilbreth

• Refined Taylor’s work and made many Refined Taylor’s work and made many improvements to the methodologies of time improvements to the methodologies of time and motion studies.and motion studies.Time and motion studiesTime and motion studies

• Breaking up each job action into its components.Breaking up each job action into its components.

• Finding better ways to perform the action.Finding better ways to perform the action.

• Reorganizing each job action to be more efficient.Reorganizing each job action to be more efficient.

• Also studied worker-related fatigue problems Also studied worker-related fatigue problems caused by lighting, heating, and the design of caused by lighting, heating, and the design of tools and machines.tools and machines.

48



- Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (cont’d)- Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (cont’d)

• Felt that the aim of Scientific Management was to help workers reach Felt that the aim of Scientific Management was to help workers reach their full potential as human beingstheir full potential as human beings

• Focused on fatigue and motion studies in order to promote the Focused on fatigue and motion studies in order to promote the worker’s welfareworker’s welfare

• Every motion that was eliminated helped reduceEvery motion that was eliminated helped reduce

fatigue – using movie cameras tried to ascertain fatigue – using movie cameras tried to ascertain

the most economical motions for each task – result: the most economical motions for each task – result:

upgrade performance and reduce fatigueupgrade performance and reduce fatigue• Argued the motion studies would raise worker Argued the motion studies would raise worker

morale due physical benefits and management’s morale due physical benefits and management’s

concern for workerconcern for worker

- Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (cont’d)- Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (cont’d)

• Felt that the aim of Scientific Management was to help workers reach Felt that the aim of Scientific Management was to help workers reach their full potential as human beingstheir full potential as human beings

• Focused on fatigue and motion studies in order to promote the Focused on fatigue and motion studies in order to promote the worker’s welfareworker’s welfare

• Every motion that was eliminated helped reduceEvery motion that was eliminated helped reduce

fatigue – using movie cameras tried to ascertain fatigue – using movie cameras tried to ascertain

the most economical motions for each task – result: the most economical motions for each task – result:

upgrade performance and reduce fatigueupgrade performance and reduce fatigue• Argued the motion studies would raise worker Argued the motion studies would raise worker

morale due physical benefits and management’s morale due physical benefits and management’s

concern for workerconcern for worker

49



• Other Scientific Management Pioneers– Henry Gantt

• Was an early associate of Fredrick Taylor. Colleague of Taylor, later a consulting industrial engineer, became skeptic of SMT’s differential rate system

• Developed other techniques, including the Gantt

chart, to improve working efficiency

through planning/scheduling.

• Felt that the differential rate system

had too little motivational impact.

• Moved away from authoritarian Moved away from authoritarian

managementmanagement

• Other Scientific Management Pioneers– Henry Gantt

• Was an early associate of Fredrick Taylor. Colleague of Taylor, later a consulting industrial engineer, became skeptic of SMT’s differential rate system

• Developed other techniques, including the Gantt

chart, to improve working efficiency

through planning/scheduling.

• Felt that the differential rate system

had too little motivational impact.

• Moved away from authoritarian Moved away from authoritarian

managementmanagement

50



• Each worker’s progress was recorded in a bar chart and rated Each worker’s progress was recorded in a bar chart and rated publiclypublicly

• Developed the Gantt chart for production schedulingDeveloped the Gantt chart for production scheduling• The Gantt chart became the basis for the The Gantt chart became the basis for the Critical Path Method Critical Path Method (CPM) (CPM)

developed by Du Pont and Program Evaluation and Review developed by Du Pont and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) developed by the US Navy Technique (PERT) developed by the US Navy

• CPM and PERT are typically used to assist CPM and PERT are typically used to assist

in planning, managing and controlling complex in planning, managing and controlling complex

organizationsorganizations

• Each worker’s progress was recorded in a bar chart and rated Each worker’s progress was recorded in a bar chart and rated publiclypublicly

• Developed the Gantt chart for production schedulingDeveloped the Gantt chart for production scheduling• The Gantt chart became the basis for the The Gantt chart became the basis for the Critical Path Method Critical Path Method (CPM) (CPM)

developed by Du Pont and Program Evaluation and Review developed by Du Pont and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) developed by the US Navy Technique (PERT) developed by the US Navy

• CPM and PERT are typically used to assist CPM and PERT are typically used to assist

in planning, managing and controlling complex in planning, managing and controlling complex

organizationsorganizations

51



• He suggested the following: Assigning a number of tasks to each worker and rewarding them if they completed their daily tasks. In addition the supervisor would earn a

bonus for each worker that achieved his daily target• He felt that this would encourage supervisors

to train workers to do a better job

• Harrington Emerson– Advocated job specialization in both managerial

and operating jobs.

• He suggested the following: Assigning a number of tasks to each worker and rewarding them if they completed their daily tasks. In addition the supervisor would earn a

bonus for each worker that achieved his daily target• He felt that this would encourage supervisors

to train workers to do a better job

• Harrington Emerson– Advocated job specialization in both managerial

and operating jobs.

52

Scientific Management (contScientific Management (cont’’d)d)Scientific Management (contScientific Management (cont’’d)d)

• How Do TodayHow Do Today’’s Managers Use Scientific s Managers Use Scientific Management?Management? Use time and motion studies to increase productivityUse time and motion studies to increase productivity Hire the best qualified employeesHire the best qualified employees Design incentive systems based on outputDesign incentive systems based on output

53

Limitations of Scientific TheoryLimitations of Scientific Theory

• SMT led to dramatic increases in production and higher SMT led to dramatic increases in production and higher pay for some.pay for some.

• Trade unions opposed SMT – they felt that working Trade unions opposed SMT – they felt that working efficiently would exhaust all the work available and lead efficiently would exhaust all the work available and lead to retrenchmentsto retrenchments

• Critics of SMT felt that it put workers under to perform in Critics of SMT felt that it put workers under to perform in unrealistic time expectations – this exploitation led to unrealistic time expectations – this exploitation led to more workers joining trade unionsmore workers joining trade unions

• This led to decades of distrust between labour and This led to decades of distrust between labour and management ( the relationship issue)management ( the relationship issue)

54

Historical Management Perspective: Historical Management Perspective: The Behavioral ViewpointThe Behavioral Viewpoint

Historical Management Perspective: Historical Management Perspective: The Behavioral ViewpointThe Behavioral Viewpoint

Behavioral Viewpoint: Behavioral Viewpoint: emphasized the importance of understanding human behavior and motivating employees toward achievement—developed over three phases: early behaviorism, the human relations movement, &

behavioral science

55

Behavioral School of Management

• An organization was viewed as a social system of people-to-people and people-to-work networks in which employees have both social needs and the desire to make meaningful contributions toward the accomplishment of organizational goals.

Behavioral Management PerspectiveBehavioral Management Perspective

56

Behavioral Management Behavioral Management PerspectivePerspective


• Behavioral Management– Emphasized individual attitudes and behaviors, and group

processes.– Recognized the importance of behavioral processes in the

workplace.

Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916)– A German psychologist, considered the father of industrial

psychology, wrote “ Psychology and Industrial Efficiency,” a pioneering work in the practice of applying psychological concepts to industrial settings.

• Behavioral Management– Emphasized individual attitudes and behaviors, and group

processes.– Recognized the importance of behavioral processes in the

workplace.

Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916)– A German psychologist, considered the father of industrial

psychology, wrote “ Psychology and Industrial Efficiency,” a pioneering work in the practice of applying psychological concepts to industrial settings.

57



• Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) - Recognized the importance of the role of human behavior in

the workplace.

- Focused on how organizations cope with conflict and the importance of sharing goals.

- Emphasized the need to discover and enlist individual and group motivation.

- The first principle for individual and group success is the “capacity for organized thinking”

• Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) - Recognized the importance of the role of human behavior in

the workplace.

- Focused on how organizations cope with conflict and the importance of sharing goals.

- Emphasized the need to discover and enlist individual and group motivation.

- The first principle for individual and group success is the “capacity for organized thinking”

58

The Early Behaviorists: The Early Behaviorists: MunsterbergMunsterberg

The Early Behaviorists: The Early Behaviorists: MunsterbergMunsterberg

1. Study jobs and determine which people are best suited to specific jobs

2. Identify the psychological conditions under which employees did their best work

3. Devise management strategies to influence employees to follow the management’s interests

1. Study jobs and determine which people are best suited to specific jobs

2. Identify the psychological conditions under which employees did their best work

3. Devise management strategies to influence employees to follow the management’s interests

Hugo Munsterberg & The First Application of Hugo Munsterberg & The First Application of Psychology to IndustryPsychology to Industry

Munsterberg felt psychologists could contribute to industry in three ways:

“Industrial Psychology”

59

The Early Behaviorists: Follett The Early Behaviorists: Follett (cont’d)(cont’d)

The Early Behaviorists: Follett The Early Behaviorists: Follett (cont’d)(cont’d)

1. Organizations should be operated as “communities” with managers and subordinates working together in harmony

2. Conflicts should be resolved by having the managers and workers talk over differences and find solutions that would satisfy both parties: integration

3. The work process should be under the control of workers with relevant knowledge rather than of managers who should act as facilitators

1. Organizations should be operated as “communities” with managers and subordinates working together in harmony

2. Conflicts should be resolved by having the managers and workers talk over differences and find solutions that would satisfy both parties: integration

3. The work process should be under the control of workers with relevant knowledge rather than of managers who should act as facilitators

Mary Parker Follett & Power Sharing Among Mary Parker Follett & Power Sharing Among Employees & ManagersEmployees & Managers

Follett thought organizations should become more democratic, with managers and employees working cooperatively“Self-managed teams,

worker empowerment”

60

The Early Behaviorists: Elton Mayo & the The Early Behaviorists: Elton Mayo & the Supposed Hawthorne EffectSupposed Hawthorne Effect


1. In later experiments, variables such as wage levels, rest periods and length of the work day were varied

2. Worker performance seemed to increase over time leading Mayo and his colleagues to hypothesize the Hawthorne Effect

3. That employees worked harder if they received added attention, if they thought managers cared about their welfare and that supervisors paid attention to them

4. They succeeded in drawing attention to the “social man” and how managers using good human relations could improve worker productivity

1. In later experiments, variables such as wage levels, rest periods and length of the work day were varied

2. Worker performance seemed to increase over time leading Mayo and his colleagues to hypothesize the Hawthorne Effect

3. That employees worked harder if they received added attention, if they thought managers cared about their welfare and that supervisors paid attention to them

4. They succeeded in drawing attention to the “social man” and how managers using good human relations could improve worker productivity

Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted studies at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant and began with an investigation to see if different lighting affected workers’ productivity

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5. Emphasises social relations and psychological needs at work (Mayo, 1945);

6. Depends on collaboration, co-operation and motivation of employees;

7. Established relationships between job satisfaction, team work and the output or the quality of work done.

5. Emphasises social relations and psychological needs at work (Mayo, 1945);

6. Depends on collaboration, co-operation and motivation of employees;

7. Established relationships between job satisfaction, team work and the output or the quality of work done.

Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted studies at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant and began with an investigation to see if different lighting affected workers’ productivity

62

Behavioral Management Perspective Behavioral Management Perspective (cont’d)(cont’d)


• The Hawthorne Studies– Conducted by Elton Mayo and associates at Western Electric

(1927–1935)– Illumination study—changes in workplace lighting affected

both the control group and the experimental group of production employees.

– Group study— the effects of a piecework incentive plan on production workers.• Workers established informal levels of acceptable individual output.

• Over-producing workers were labeled “rate busters” and under-producing workers were considered “chiselers.”

– Interview program• Confirmed the importance of human behavior in the workplace.

• The Hawthorne Studies– Conducted by Elton Mayo and associates at Western Electric

(1927–1935)– Illumination study—changes in workplace lighting affected

both the control group and the experimental group of production employees.

– Group study— the effects of a piecework incentive plan on production workers.• Workers established informal levels of acceptable individual output.

• Over-producing workers were labeled “rate busters” and under-producing workers were considered “chiselers.”

– Interview program• Confirmed the importance of human behavior in the workplace.

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•A series of productivity experiments conducted A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.

•Experimental findingsExperimental findingsProductivity unexpectedly increased under imposed Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions.adverse working conditions.The effect of incentive plans was less than The effect of incentive plans was less than expected.expected.

•Research conclusionResearch conclusionSocial norms, group standards and attitudes more Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.than do monetary incentives.

The Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies

64

Hawthorne experiments

• a Western Electric factory, late 1920s• experiment to find optimal level of lighting• work groups of 6, in separate rooms:

experimental group & control group no change in lighting for control group

• findings: increasing brightness raises productivity reducing brightness raises productivity members of the control group also increased

productivity• outcome of first experiments: puzzled engineers• next round of studies: try to understand what’s

going on in these groups change work schedules: length & timing of

breaks production kept going up, even when back to

the original (no rest break) schedule

The Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies

65

Hawthorne experiments

• further investigation showed thatwork teams regulated the pace of work

of their members

the group raised its productivity because it felt involved in the project,

and listened tobecause the experimental conditions

presented it with a challenge

The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)

66

• lessons for managers, the importance of

teams, not just individuals workers aren’t machines, they make choices,

and their choices are affected by how others treat them

expert-specified tasks still have a lot of room for improvement (slack), and workers often know where that slack is

these findings contributed to the development of the human relations approach to management

for researchers people participating in an experiment are likely

to behave differently than they do at other times (Hawthorne effects)

The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)The Hawthorne Studies (cont’d)

67

• Norms: The way we do things around here.• Grapevines: The way information traveled through

the organization• Informal leaders• Cliques• Informal norms: “No squealing!” “No rate busting!”

“Be a regular guy!” “Don’t make me look bad!”

Mayo found that within the formal organizations there were informal organizations. Within these

informal organizations, there were:

Mayo found that within the formal organizations there were informal organizations. Within these

informal organizations, there were:

68

Behavioral Management Perspective…TodayBehavioral Management Perspective…TodayBehavioral Management Perspective…TodayBehavioral Management Perspective…Today

• Contributions– Provided important insights into motivation, group dynamics,

and other interpersonal processes.– Focused managerial attention on these critical processes.– Challenged the view that employees are tools and furthered

the belief that employees are valuable resources.

• Limitations– Complexity of individuals makes behavior difficult to predict.– Many concepts not put to use because managers are

reluctant to adopt them.– Contemporary research findings are not often communicated

to practicing managers in an understandable form.

• Contributions– Provided important insights into motivation, group dynamics,

and other interpersonal processes.– Focused managerial attention on these critical processes.– Challenged the view that employees are tools and furthered

the belief that employees are valuable resources.

• Limitations– Complexity of individuals makes behavior difficult to predict.– Many concepts not put to use because managers are

reluctant to adopt them.– Contemporary research findings are not often communicated

to practicing managers in an understandable form.

69

The Human Relations MovementThe Human Relations MovementThe Human Relations MovementThe Human Relations Movement

• The Basic Premises of the Human Relations Movement– people respond to their social environment– motivation depends more on social needs than on economic

needs– satisfied employees work harder then unsatisfied ones

• This perspective represented a fundamental shift away from the philosophy and value of scientific management and classical organizational theory.

• The Basic Premises of the Human Relations Movement– people respond to their social environment– motivation depends more on social needs than on economic

needs– satisfied employees work harder then unsatisfied ones

• This perspective represented a fundamental shift away from the philosophy and value of scientific management and classical organizational theory.

70

The Human Relations ModelThe Human Relations ModelThe Human Relations ModelThe Human Relations Model

Worker Satisfaction

leads to . . .

Enhanced WorkerPerformance

A management model that views the employee as socially motivated and operates from the assumption that a social need-satisfied worker is a productive worker.

71

The Human The Human Relations View Relations View

of of ManagementManagement

SupervisorSupervisorSupervisorSupervisor

Individual Needs and MotivesIndividual Needs and MotivesIndividual Needs and MotivesIndividual Needs and Motives

Social Social ContextContext

Social Social ContextContext

Individual Responses

Individual Responses

TaskTaskTaskTask

Source: Van Fleet, David D., Contemporary Management, Second Edition. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

72



• Human Relations Movement– Grew out of the Hawthorne studies.

– Proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work, including social conditioning, group norms, and interpersonal dynamics.

– Assumed that the manager’s concern for workers would lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved worker performance.

• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)– Advanced a theory that employees are

motivated by a hierarchy of needs that

they seek to satisfy.

• Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)– Proposed Theory X and Theory Y concepts of

managerial beliefs about people and work.

• Human Relations Movement– Grew out of the Hawthorne studies.

– Proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work, including social conditioning, group norms, and interpersonal dynamics.

– Assumed that the manager’s concern for workers would lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved worker performance.

• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)– Advanced a theory that employees are

motivated by a hierarchy of needs that

they seek to satisfy.

• Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)– Proposed Theory X and Theory Y concepts of

managerial beliefs about people and work.

73

The Human Relations Movement: The Human Relations Movement: Pioneered by Maslow & McGregorPioneered by Maslow & McGregorThe Human Relations Movement: The Human Relations Movement: Pioneered by Maslow & McGregorPioneered by Maslow & McGregor

1. What motivates you? Food, Security, Love, Recognition, Self-fulfillment?

2. Probably all of these, though some more than others

3. Maslow proposed that the needs are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.

1. What motivates you? Food, Security, Love, Recognition, Self-fulfillment?

2. Probably all of these, though some more than others

3. Maslow proposed that the needs are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.

Human Relations Movement: Human Relations Movement: proposed that better human relations could increase worker productivity

One of the earliest to study motivation, Maslow proposed his “hierarchy of human needs” in 1943.

Abraham Maslow & the Abraham Maslow & the Hierarchy of NeedsHierarchy of Needs

74

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.

75

Physiological

Safety

Belonging

Esteem

Self-actualization

Abraham Maslow’s HierarchyAbraham Maslow’s Hierarchy

Based on needs satisfaction

OrganizationalExamples

Challenging Job

Job Title

Friends

Retirement Plan

Wages

GeneralExamples

Self-fulfillment

Status

Friendship

Stability

Shelter

76

The Human Relations Movement: The Human Relations Movement: Douglas McGregor Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)(1906-1964)The Human Relations Movement: The Human Relations Movement: Douglas McGregor Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)(1906-1964)

•Articulated basic principles of human relations theory•The Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985)•To understand human behavior, one must discover the theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is based•Especially interested in the behavior of managers toward workers•“Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations, and hypotheses--that is to say, on theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable.”Two Objectives:

- Predict and control behavior - Tap Unrealized potential

•Theory X - Classical Theory•Theory Y - Human Relations Theory•FOCUS: Manager’s assumptions about HUMAN NATURE

77

Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

• Douglas McGregor proposed the two different Douglas McGregor proposed the two different sets of assumptions about workers.sets of assumptions about workers.Theory X assumes the average worker is Theory X assumes the average worker is

lazy, dislikes work and will do as little as lazy, dislikes work and will do as little as possible.possible.

• Managers must closely supervise and control through Managers must closely supervise and control through reward and punishment.reward and punishment.

Theory Y assumes workers are not lazy, want Theory Y assumes workers are not lazy, want to do a good job and the job itself will to do a good job and the job itself will determine if the worker likes the work.determine if the worker likes the work.

• Managers should allow workers greater latitude, and Managers should allow workers greater latitude, and create an organization to stimulate the workers.create an organization to stimulate the workers.

78

Theory X and Theory Y (cont’d)Theory X and Theory Y (cont’d)Theory X and Theory Y (cont’d)Theory X and Theory Y (cont’d)

• McGregor’s McGregor’s The Human Side of EnterpriseThe Human Side of EnterpriseSeparated managers into two beliefs / stylesSeparated managers into two beliefs / styles

1.1.Theory X ManagersTheory X Managers

• Believe employees generally dislike work, lack ambition, act Believe employees generally dislike work, lack ambition, act irresponsibly, resist change and prefer to follow.irresponsibly, resist change and prefer to follow.

• Use classical directive “command and control” styleUse classical directive “command and control” style

2.2.Theory Y ManagersTheory Y Managers

• Believe employees are willing to work, capable of self Believe employees are willing to work, capable of self control and self direction, responsible and creativecontrol and self direction, responsible and creative

• Use behavioral “participative” style Use behavioral “participative” style

79

Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

Theory X Assump-tions

1. People do not like work and try to avoid it.

2. People do not like work, so managers have to control, direct, coerce, and threaten employees to get them to work toward organizational goals.

3. People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, and to want security; they have little ambition.

Theory Y Assump-tions

1. People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their lives.

2. People are internally motivated to reach objectives to which they are committed.

3. People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive personal rewards when they reach their objectives.

4. People seek both seek responsibility and accept responsibility under favorable conditions.

5. People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organizational problems.

6. People are bright, but under most organizational conditions their potentials are underutilized.

Source: Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, Copyright © 1960 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.

80

The Human Relations Movement:The Human Relations Movement: Douglas McGregor & Theory X versus Douglas McGregor & Theory X versus

Theory YTheory Y

The Human Relations Movement:The Human Relations Movement: Douglas McGregor & Theory X versus Douglas McGregor & Theory X versus

Theory YTheory Y

• Pessimistic negative view towards workers

• Workers are irresponsible

• Workers are resistant to change

• Workers lack ambition, hate to work

• Workers would rather be led than lead

• Pessimistic negative view towards workers

• Workers are irresponsible

• Workers are resistant to change

• Workers lack ambition, hate to work

• Workers would rather be led than lead

• Optimistic positive view of workers: human relations proponents’ view

• Workers are capable of accepting responsibility

• Workers are capable of self-direction

• Workers are capable of self-control

• Workers are capable of being

imaginative and creative

• Optimistic positive view of workers: human relations proponents’ view

• Workers are capable of accepting responsibility

• Workers are capable of self-direction

• Workers are capable of self-control

• Workers are capable of being

imaginative and creative

Theory XTheory X Theory YTheory Y Y

Source: Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, Copyright © 1960 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.

81

Implications of Theory X and Theory YImplications of Theory X and Theory Y

Implications of Theory X and Theory YImplications of Theory X and Theory Y

– Managers create self-fulfilling prophecies (predictions)– Theory X managers create situations where workers

become dependent and reluctant.– Theory Y managers create situations where workers

respond with initiative and high performance.

• Central to notions of empowerment and self-management.

– Managers create self-fulfilling prophecies (predictions)– Theory X managers create situations where workers

become dependent and reluctant.– Theory Y managers create situations where workers

respond with initiative and high performance.

• Central to notions of empowerment and self-management.

82

Hourly WagesHourly Wages

CounselingCounseling

PunishmentPunishment

Routine Tasks/JobsRoutine Tasks/Jobs

TrainingTraining

Curing Theory X PeopleCuring Theory X PeopleCuring Theory X PeopleCuring Theory X People

83

Tips for Dealing withTips for Dealing withTheory X PeopleTheory X People

Tips for Dealing withTips for Dealing withTheory X PeopleTheory X People

Carrot & Stick TechniquesCarrot & Stick Techniques

Close SupervisionClose Supervision

PunishmentPunishment

Making ConnectionsMaking Connections

84

Contributions and Limitations of the Contributions and Limitations of the

Behavioral ManagementBehavioral Management Contributions and Limitations of the Contributions and Limitations of the

Behavioral ManagementBehavioral Management

Contributions– Raised awareness of the need to

design open, flexible organizations

– Introduced the growth needs model of the employee

Contributions– Raised awareness of the need to

design open, flexible organizations

– Introduced the growth needs model of the employee

Limitations– Lacks a language for

communicating its ideas to managers

– Haven’t gotten top management’s attention and respect

– Persistence in the belief that there is “one best way” to manage

Limitations– Lacks a language for

communicating its ideas to managers

– Haven’t gotten top management’s attention and respect

– Persistence in the belief that there is “one best way” to manage

85

The Behavioral Science The Behavioral Science ApproachApproach

The Behavioral Science The Behavioral Science ApproachApproach

Behavioral Science Behavioral Science relies on scientific research for developing theories about human behavior that can be used to provide practical tools for managers. Combination of classical organization thought and human relations approach + propositions drawn from psychology, sociology, political science, and economics

Its focus: Work behavior in formal

organizations.

Behavioral Science Behavioral Science relies on scientific research for developing theories about human behavior that can be used to provide practical tools for managers. Combination of classical organization thought and human relations approach + propositions drawn from psychology, sociology, political science, and economics

Its focus: Work behavior in formal

organizations.

“Psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics”

86

The Behavioral Science InfluenceThe Behavioral Science InfluenceThe Behavioral Science InfluenceThe Behavioral Science Influence

• Behavioral science movement– A movement that stressed the need to conduct a

systematic and controlled field and laboratory studies of workers and their motivation, attitudes, and behavior.

– Introduced the growth model of the employee.– The movement eventually gave rise to

organizational behavior as

a discipline.

• Behavioral science movement– A movement that stressed the need to conduct a

systematic and controlled field and laboratory studies of workers and their motivation, attitudes, and behavior.

– Introduced the growth model of the employee.– The movement eventually gave rise to

organizational behavior as

a discipline.

87

Behavioral Sciences Behavioral Sciences ApproachApproach

Behavioral Sciences Behavioral Sciences ApproachApproach

• Develops theories about human behavior based on scientific methods & study.

• Sub-field of the Humanistic Perspective.• Applies social science in an

organizational context.• In understanding employees

draws from economics, psychology,

sociology.

• Develops theories about human behavior based on scientific methods & study.

• Sub-field of the Humanistic Perspective.• Applies social science in an

organizational context.• In understanding employees

draws from economics, psychology,

sociology.

88

Behavioral Science PrinciplesBehavioral Science PrinciplesBehavioral Science PrinciplesBehavioral Science Principles

1. Shared participation in problem solving is basis for growth, development, and contribution

2. Mutual trust and respect underpins productive human relationships

3. Open communication supports mutual understanding

4. Conflict management by direct problem-solving confrontation promotes personal health

5. Responsibility for one’s own actions stimulates initiative

1. Shared participation in problem solving is basis for growth, development, and contribution

2. Mutual trust and respect underpins productive human relationships

3. Open communication supports mutual understanding

4. Conflict management by direct problem-solving confrontation promotes personal health

5. Responsibility for one’s own actions stimulates initiative

89

The Problem with the Behavioral Viewpoint:The Problem with the Behavioral Viewpoint:The Problem with the Behavioral Viewpoint:The Problem with the Behavioral Viewpoint:

-Vague (unclear) & simplistic, satisfying does not guarantee higher morale and productivity

90

Quantitative Management Quantitative Management PerspectivePerspective

Quantitative Management Quantitative Management PerspectivePerspective

• Quantitative Management– Emerged during World War II to help the Allied forces

manage logistical problems.– Focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness,

mathematical models, and the use of computers to solve quantitative problems.

• Quantitative Management– Emerged during World War II to help the Allied forces

manage logistical problems.– Focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness,

mathematical models, and the use of computers to solve quantitative problems.

Quantitative School

Quantitative School

Emphasized mathematical approaches to management problems

91

Quantitative Management Perspective Quantitative Management Perspective

(cont’d)(cont’d) Quantitative Management Perspective Quantitative Management Perspective

(cont’d)(cont’d)

• Management Science– Focuses on the development of representative mathematical

models to assist with decisions.

• Operations Management– Practical application of management

science to efficiently manage the production and distribution of products and services.

• Management Science– Focuses on the development of representative mathematical

models to assist with decisions.

• Operations Management– Practical application of management

science to efficiently manage the production and distribution of products and services.

92

Quantitative Approach to ManagementQuantitative Approach to ManagementQuantitative Approach to ManagementQuantitative Approach to Management

• Quantitative ApproachQuantitative Approach Also called Also called operations researchoperations research or or management management

sciencescience Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods

developed to solve WWII military logistics and developed to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problemsquality control problems

Focuses on improving managerial decision making Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying:by applying: Statistics, optimization models, information models, and Statistics, optimization models, information models, and

computer simulationscomputer simulations

93

Quantitative Management Perspective…Quantitative Management Perspective…TodayToday

Quantitative Management Perspective…Quantitative Management Perspective…TodayToday

• Contributions– Developed sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in

decision making.– Application of models has

increased our awareness and understanding of complex processes and situations.

– Has been useful in the planning and controlling processes.

• Contributions– Developed sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in

decision making.– Application of models has

increased our awareness and understanding of complex processes and situations.

– Has been useful in the planning and controlling processes.

94

Quantitative Management Perspective…Quantitative Management Perspective…Today (cont’d)Today (cont’d)

Quantitative Management Perspective…Quantitative Management Perspective…Today (cont’d)Today (cont’d)

• Limitations– Quantitative management cannot fully explain or predict the

behavior of people in organizations.

– Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other managerial skills.

– Quantitative models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions, limiting their general applicability.

• Limitations– Quantitative management cannot fully explain or predict the

behavior of people in organizations.

– Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other managerial skills.

– Quantitative models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions, limiting their general applicability.

95

The Systems ApproachThe Systems ApproachThe Systems ApproachThe Systems Approach

• System DefinedSystem Defined A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a A set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a

manner that produces a unified whole.manner that produces a unified whole.

• Basic Types of SystemsBasic Types of Systems Closed systemsClosed systems

Are not influenced by and do not interact with their Are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment (all system input and output is internal). environment (all system input and output is internal). A system that does little or no interacting with its environment and receives little feedback

Open systemsOpen systems Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs Dynamically interact to their environments by taking in inputs

and transforming them into outputs that are distributed into and transforming them into outputs that are distributed into their environments. their environments. A system that operates in continual interaction with its environment

Systems Approach

Systems Approach

The theory that an organization comprises various parts that must perform tasks necessary for the survival and proper functioning of the system

96

•Based on the idea that organisations can be visualised as systems •System: A set of interrelated parts that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals.

The Systems ApproachThe Systems ApproachThe Systems ApproachThe Systems Approach

Developed through the sciences of Biology and Physical Science

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InputsInputsTransformationTransformation

ProcessesProcessesOutputsOutputs

Feedback from EnvironmentFeedback from Environment

ResourcesResources•HumanHuman•MaterialsMaterials•EquipmentEquipment•FinanceFinance•InformationInformation

AbilitiesAbilities•PlanningPlanning•OrganisingOrganising•LeadingLeading•ControlControl•TechnologyTechnology

OutcomesOutcomes•ProductsProducts•ServicesServices•Profit & LossesProfit & Losses•Employee Employee Growth & Growth & SatisfactionSatisfaction

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The Systems Perspective of The Systems Perspective of OrganizationsOrganizations

The Systems Perspective of The Systems Perspective of OrganizationsOrganizations

Inputs from theenvironment:material inputs,human inputs,financial inputs, andinformation inputs

Transformationprocess: technology,operating systems,administrativesystems, andcontrol systems

Outputs intothe environment:products/services,profits/losses,employee behaviors,and informationoutputs

Feedback

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The Systems PerspectiveThe Systems PerspectiveThe Systems PerspectiveThe Systems Perspective

• Synergy– Subsystems are more successful working together in a

cooperative and coordinated fashion than working alone.– The whole system (subsystems working together as one

system) is more productive and efficient than the sum of its parts.

• Synergy– Subsystems are more successful working together in a

cooperative and coordinated fashion than working alone.– The whole system (subsystems working together as one

system) is more productive and efficient than the sum of its parts.

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The Systems Perspective (cont’d)The Systems Perspective (cont’d)The Systems Perspective (cont’d)The Systems Perspective (cont’d)

• Entropy – a sense of adaptability– A normal process in which an organizational system declines

due to failing to adjust to change in its environment– Entropy can be avoided and

the organization re-energized through organizational change and renewal.

• Entropy – a sense of adaptability– A normal process in which an organizational system declines

due to failing to adjust to change in its environment– Entropy can be avoided and

the organization re-energized through organizational change and renewal.

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Implications of the Systems ApproachImplications of the Systems ApproachImplications of the Systems ApproachImplications of the Systems Approach

• Coordination of the organizationCoordination of the organization’’s parts is s parts is essential for proper functioning of the entire essential for proper functioning of the entire organization.organization.

• Decisions and actions taken in one area of the Decisions and actions taken in one area of the organization will have an effect in other areas of organization will have an effect in other areas of the organization.the organization.

• Organizations are not self-contained and, Organizations are not self-contained and, therefore, must adapt to changes in their therefore, must adapt to changes in their external environment.external environment.

2–102

Schools as Social SystemsSchools as Social Systems

A bounded set of elements (subsystems) and activities that interact and constitute a single social entity (Hoy & Miskel, 1991).

2–103

Basic Assumptions for Social Systems Model (Hoy and Miskel)

Basic Assumptions for Social Systems Model (Hoy and Miskel)

1. Social systems are comprised of interdependent parts, characteristics, and activities that contribute to and receive from the whole. When one part is affected, a ripple goes through the social system.

Example: Decreased funding from the ministry; increased class size.

2. Social systems are goal-oriented, and indeed they have multiple goals.

Example: Student learning is our main goal, but we have many other goals – discipline, balancing the budget, etc.

3. Social systems are peopled. Different roles in the school: principal, teacher, students, community, etc.

2–104

6. Social systems are structured – modern bureaucracy

7. Social systems are normative. People are expected to act in a certain way.

Example: How should new teachers act?8. Social systems are sanction bearing: Norms are

reinforced with reward and punishment. What happens when a teacher or a student is late to school?

9. Social systems are open systems: Schools are impacted by values of community, by politics, and by history.

Basic Assumptions for Social Systems Model (Hoy and Miskel) cont’d

Basic Assumptions for Social Systems Model (Hoy and Miskel) cont’d

2–105

Key Elements of the School as a Social SystemHoy & Miskel (2004)

Key Elements of the School as a Social SystemHoy & Miskel (2004)

• Structure: Roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy.

• Individual: The individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position, people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive understanding of the job.

• Culture: Represents the unwritten feeling part of the organization: its shared norms and values

• Politics: Informal power relations that develop spontaneously.

• Core: The teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.

2–106

• Environment: Everything outside the organization; source of inputs

• Outputs: The products of the organizations, e.g. educated students

• Feedback: Communication that monitors behavior, e.g. state test scores, community feedback

• Effectiveness: Congruence between expected and actual outcomes

Key Elements of the School as a Social SystemHoy & Miskel (2004) cont’d

Key Elements of the School as a Social SystemHoy & Miskel (2004) cont’d

2–107

EnvironmentEnvironment

• Social, legal, economic, political, demographic, and technological trends

• Constituencies and stakeholders: parents, taxpayers, unions, regulatory agencies, colleges and universities, state legislatures, accrediting agencies, and educational associations

2–108

Individual

Work Group

Dept. or Grade Level

School

Community

A Social Systems View of the Individual in a School Organization

2–1092–109

The Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency Approach

Contingency Approach DefinedContingency Approach Defined

A viewpoint that argues that appropriate managerial action depends on the

circumstances of the situation.

In other words ………..

there is no single right way to managethere is no single right way to manage

2–110

UniversalUniversalManagementManagementPrincipalsPrincipals

Contingency ViewContingency ViewAppropriateAppropriatemanagerialmanagerialaction depends onaction depends onsituationsituation

Situation ASituation A

Situation BSituation B

Situation CSituation C

The Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency Approach

2–1112–111

The Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency ApproachThe Contingency Approach• Contingency Approach DefinedContingency Approach Defined

Also sometimes called the situational approach. It depends upon what – in what way

There is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which to manage organizations.

Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing.

To identify which technique will, in particular situation, under particular circumstances and at a particular time – best contribute to the attainment of goals.

For Examples: Unskilled workers – work simplification Skilled workers – job enrichment might be effective

2–112

The Contingency PerspectiveThe Contingency Perspective

• Universal Perspectives– Include the classical, behavioral, and quantitative

approaches.– An attempt to identify the “one best way” to manage

organizations.

• The Contingency Perspective– Suggests that each organization is unique.– The appropriate managerial behavior for

managing an organization depends (is contingent) on the current situation in the organization. Approaches depend on the variables of the situations

• Universal Perspectives– Include the classical, behavioral, and quantitative

approaches.– An attempt to identify the “one best way” to manage

organizations.

• The Contingency Perspective– Suggests that each organization is unique.– The appropriate managerial behavior for

managing an organization depends (is contingent) on the current situation in the organization. Approaches depend on the variables of the situations

2–113

The Contingency PerspectiveThe Contingency Perspective

• Draws on all past theories in attempting to analyze and solve problems

• Is integrative• Summarized as an “it all depends” device• Tells managers to look to their experiences

and the past and to consider many options before choosing• Encourages managers to stay flexible

• Draws on all past theories in attempting to analyze and solve problems

• Is integrative• Summarized as an “it all depends” device• Tells managers to look to their experiences

and the past and to consider many options before choosing• Encourages managers to stay flexible

2–114

The Contingency Perspective The Contingency Perspective (cont’d)(cont’d)

• An Integrative Framework– Is a complementary way of thinking about theories of

management.– Involves the recognition of current system and subsystem

interdependencies, environmental influences, and the situational nature of management.

• An Integrative Framework– Is a complementary way of thinking about theories of

management.– Involves the recognition of current system and subsystem

interdependencies, environmental influences, and the situational nature of management.

2–115



Problem or SituationProblem or SituationProblem or SituationProblem or Situation

Solution or Solution or Action BAction B

Solution or Solution or Action BAction B

Solution or Solution or Action AAction A

Solution or Solution or Action AAction A

Solution or Solution or Action CAction C

Solution or Solution or Action CAction C

Important Important ContingenciesContingencies

Important Important ContingenciesContingencies

Source: Van Fleet, David D., Contemporary Management, Second Edition. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

2–116© 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 2–116

Popular Contingency VariablesPopular Contingency Variables Popular Contingency VariablesPopular Contingency Variables

• Organization size• As size increases, so do the problems of coordination.

• Routineness of task technology• Routine technologies require organizational structures,

leadership styles, and control systems that differ from

those required by customized or nonroutine technologies.

• Environmental uncertainty• What works best in a stable and predictable environment

may be totally inappropriate in a rapidly changing and unpredictable environment.

• Individual differences• Individuals differ in terms of their desire for growth,

autonomy, tolerance of ambiguity, and expectations.

2–117

Contemporary Management IssuesContemporary Management Issues and Challenges (cont’d) and Challenges (cont’d)

Contemporary Management IssuesContemporary Management Issues and Challenges (cont’d) and Challenges (cont’d)

• Contemporary Applied Perspectives– William Ouchi’s “Theory Z,” Peters and Waterman’s “In

Search of Excellence”– Popular authors: Senge, Covey, Porter, Kotter, and Hamel

• Contemporary Management Challenges– Acute shortages of labor in high-technology job sectors– Management of an increasingly diverse workforce– Rapid and constant environmental and technological change– Complex array of new ways of structuring organizations– Increasing globalization of markets– Renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility– Quality as the basis for competition– Shift to a predominately service-based economy

• Contemporary Applied Perspectives– William Ouchi’s “Theory Z,” Peters and Waterman’s “In

Search of Excellence”– Popular authors: Senge, Covey, Porter, Kotter, and Hamel

• Contemporary Management Challenges– Acute shortages of labor in high-technology job sectors– Management of an increasingly diverse workforce– Rapid and constant environmental and technological change– Complex array of new ways of structuring organizations– Increasing globalization of markets– Renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility– Quality as the basis for competition– Shift to a predominately service-based economy

2–118

Integrating Perspectives for Integrating Perspectives for ManagersManagers

Integrating Perspectives for Integrating Perspectives for ManagersManagers

• Systems Perspective– A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a

whole.

• Open system– An organizational system that interacts with its environment.

• Systems Perspective– A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a

whole.

• Open system– An organizational system that interacts with its environment.

2–119

Integrating Perspectives for Integrating Perspectives for Managers (cont’d)Managers (cont’d)

Integrating Perspectives for Integrating Perspectives for Managers (cont’d)Managers (cont’d)

• Closed system– An organizational system that does not interact with its

environment.

• Subsystems– A system within another system.

Their importance is due to their interdependence on each other within the organization.

• Closed system– An organizational system that does not interact with its

environment.

• Subsystems– A system within another system.

Their importance is due to their interdependence on each other within the organization.

2–120

Contemporary Management Contemporary Management IssuesIssues

and Challenges and Challenges


and Challenges and Challenges

• Acute labor shortages in high-technology job sectors and an oversupply of less skilled labor

• An increasingly diverse and globalized workforce• The need to create challenging, motivating, and

flexible work environments• The effects of information technology on how people

work• The complex array of new ways of structuring

organizations

• Acute labor shortages in high-technology job sectors and an oversupply of less skilled labor

• An increasingly diverse and globalized workforce• The need to create challenging, motivating, and

flexible work environments• The effects of information technology on how people

work• The complex array of new ways of structuring

organizations

2–121


and Challenges (cont’d) and Challenges (cont’d)

• Increasing globalization of product and service markets

• The renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility

• The use of quality as the basis for competition• The shift to a predominately service-based economy

• Increasing globalization of product and service markets

• The renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility

• The use of quality as the basis for competition• The shift to a predominately service-based economy

2–1222–122

Current Trends and Issues (contCurrent Trends and Issues (cont’’d)d)

• Quality ManagementQuality Management A philosophy of management driven by continual A philosophy of management driven by continual

improvement in the quality of work processes and improvement in the quality of work processes and responding to customer needs and expectationsresponding to customer needs and expectations

Inspired by the total quality management (TQM) ideas Inspired by the total quality management (TQM) ideas of Deming and Juranof Deming and Juran

Quality is not directly related to costQuality is not directly related to cost

Poor quality results in lower productivityPoor quality results in lower productivity

2–1232–123

What is Quality Management?What is Quality Management? What is Quality Management?What is Quality Management?

Intense focus on the customer.

Concern for continual improvement

Process-focused.

Improvement in the quality of everything.

Accurate measurement.

Empowerment of employees.

1–124

Comparing TheoriesComparing TheoriesComparing TheoriesComparing Theories

ClassicalClassical

BehavioralBehavioral

Management Management ScienceScience

Systems Systems TheoryTheory

Attempts to develop the best way to manage in all organizations Attempts to develop the best way to manage in all organizations by focusing on the jobs and structure of the firm.by focusing on the jobs and structure of the firm.

Attempts to develop a single best way to manage in all Attempts to develop a single best way to manage in all organizations by focusing on people and making them productive.organizations by focusing on people and making them productive.

Recommends using math (computers) to aid in problem solving Recommends using math (computers) to aid in problem solving and decision making.and decision making.

Manages by focusing on the organization as a whole and the Manages by focusing on the organization as a whole and the interrelationship of its departments, rather than on individual interrelationship of its departments, rather than on individual parts.parts.

Sociotechnical Sociotechnical TheoryTheory

Recommends focusing on the integration of people and Recommends focusing on the integration of people and technology. technology.

Contingency Contingency TheoryTheory

Recommends using the theory or the combination of theories thatRecommends using the theory or the combination of theories thatbest meets the given situation.best meets the given situation.

1–125

DiscussionDiscussion

•Break into four groups: Taylor, Fayol, Gullick and WeberBreak into four groups: Taylor, Fayol, Gullick and Weber

•Refer to the power point notes you have been given to Refer to the power point notes you have been given to examine a classical organizational theorist’s principles examine a classical organizational theorist’s principles

•Consider what you discussed about each principleConsider what you discussed about each principle

•Analyze how the theorists beliefs exist, don’t exist, or are Analyze how the theorists beliefs exist, don’t exist, or are modified within today’s educational world modified within today’s educational world

•Please have someone take notes on your work Please have someone take notes on your work

•Lead a discussion of how your theorist’s ideas relate to the Lead a discussion of how your theorist’s ideas relate to the current system of educational management. current system of educational management.

DiscussionDiscussionDiscussionDiscussion

Documents

Lecture 2 (a) Mgmt Yesterday & Today