Latin America and the United States:Independence to Mexican American War

W. Frank RobinsonDepartment of HistoryVanderbilt University

Presentation 2

Hapsburgs

Bourbon Monarchs

Philip V(1701-1746)

Ferdinand VI(1746-1759)

Charles III(1759-1788)

Charles IV(1788-1808)

Seven Years War (1756-1763)

1. French and Indian War – colonial extension

2. bloodiest American war of 18th century

3. French outnumbered and outgunned

4. Native American alliances

5. results: reworked colonial map of North America, end to French political influence, erosion of relations between Great Britain and its colonies

European Wars on a Global Stage

Seven Years War

Global War

War for Independence, 1776-1781

French Revolution

Haitian Revolution, 1791-1804

First Independent Black Republic

Age of Warfare in Spanish America

I. Interpretations− creole resentments− Jay Kinsbruner: causes

• the Enlightenment• Bourbon reforms• creole-peninsular controversy• late colonial revolts and protests

− John Lynch: external shock + long process of alienation

− Jaime E. Rodríguez O. – political process and cultural continuities rather than rupture with Spain

2. Wars of National Liberation1. three theaters: guerrilla warfare

2. counterinsurgency techniques3. violent protracted struggles 4. disillusionment

Threats to the Status Quo

Security Issues

1. strengthen defenses

2. mobilization of creoles and castas

3. shockwaves from Haitian Revolution

Bourbon Reforms: Rebellion and Unrest

1. creole grievances

2. expulsion of Jesuits provoked riots

3. questioning of Spanish regime

4. Bourbon failures to resolve issues of race, class, ethnicity

Napoleonic Empire, 1812

Palacio de mineria, Bourbon reforms era

Alegoría de la Compañía de Jesús y su labor misional en los cuatro continentes (San Pedro, Lima, s. XVIII)

Plaza Túpac Amarú

Haitian Revolution

Peninsular War

Simón Bolívar

José de San Martín

José de San Martín

Argentine National Hero

Campaigns

Bolívar and San Martín

Father Miguel Hidalgo

The combat of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato on September 28, 1810, Oil on canvas, José Díaz del Castillo

Father of Mexican Independence

Félix Calleja

José María Morelos

Morelos

Agustín de Iturbide

1. American Revolution - roles of France and Spain

2. expansionist U.S. – threat to Spanish New World

3. European conflicts – opportunities for U.S.

4. dream of restoring French New World empire

5. central importance of St. Domingue

6. Louisiana Purchase (1803) – “a noble bargain”

7. new expansionist pressures – Floridas and Texas

United States

Louisiana Purchase

The U.S. and Latin American Independence

1. Napoleon’s invasion of Iberian peninsula in 1807

2. difficulties for U.S. in formulating policy

a. differing causes, goals, leaders

b. duration of movements

3. U.S. neutrality – caution and restraint

4. expansion into borderlands

5. U.S. recognition of independence

6. pursuit of unilateral policy

7. hemispheric identity – common history, aspirations

Monroe Doctrine

1. American uniqueness

2. U.S. destined to expand

3. “exclude European influence from this hemisphere”

4. desire to penetrate Latin American markets

5. conservatism of Congress of Vienna

6. Monroe’s two concepts:

a. noncolonization

b. two-spheres principle

Monroe Doctrine

Responses:

1. bold challenge to European powers

2. mixed reaction in Latin America

3. British and U.S. commercial trade interests

The Mexican-American War

Departments of Mexico

Mexico and the Loss of Texas

I. Rising Discontent

A. Background

1. northern province of New Spain

2. sparsely populated

3. Spanish grant to Moses Austin

4. concession to Stephen F. Austin

a. Roman Catholicism

b. recognition of Mexican law

5. influx of Anglos: cheap land, tax exemptions

B. Remedial Measures

1. emancipation proclamation of 1829

2. colonization law of 1830

a. forbade future immigration into Texas

b. strengthening of Mexican garrisons

c. improvement of economic ties between Texas and rest of Mexico

d. Mexican colonization plan

3. Santa Anna - centralist tendencies

eAntonio López de Santa Anna

Hostilities

proclamation of independence - Lone Star Republic

1. Santa Anna’s response

2. San Antonio mission - Alamo

a. William Barrett Travis, Davy Crockett,

Jim Bowie

b. siege of Alamo - fight to the death,

no quarter, heavy losses

Alamo

3. Goliad

a. General José Urrea vs. Colonel James W. Fannin

b. rights of prisoners of war

c. law of piracy - Lt. Col. Nicolás de la Portilla

d. executions

4. excesses crystalized opposition

5. capture of Santa Anna at San Jacinto River

Goliad

Texas Declaration of IndependenceMarch 1836

The Mexican War

I. Prelude to Conflict

A. Posturing

1. joint resolution of Congress: Texas annexation

2. rupturing of diplomatic relations

3. military preparations

4. boundary dispute

a. Nueces River v. Rio Grande

b. claim included half of New Mexico and Colorado

Border Dispute

B. Final Preparations

1. Mexican internal differences

2. turmoil/division

3. President James K. Polk - finds excuse for war

a. distortion and provocation

b. “American blood has been shed on American soil!” c. quick declaration of war

4. return of Santa Anna from exile

James K. Polk

Course of the War

Opposing Forces and Strategies

1. decisive moves by United States forces

2. three-pronged offensive

a. Army of West - occupy New Mexico and California

b. Army of Center - sent into northern Mexico

c. Army of Occupation - carry fight to Mexico City

Theaters of War

Campaigns of Mexican War

Hostilities

1. success of General Stephen W. Kearny in West

2. struggle in northern Mexico - Zachary Taylor

a. battle of Buena Vista - loss of northeast Mexico

3. major fighting in Mexican heartland and capital

a. General Winfield Scott

b. bombardment and surrender of Veracruz

c. Cerro Gordo

d. bloody fighting in Mexico City: Churubusco district, Molina del Rey, Chapultepec Castle and the Niños Héroes

Molina del Rey

Chapultepec Castle

Monument to the Niños Héroes

Chapultepec

U.S. Troops Parading in the Zócalo

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Treaty Stipulations

1. United States gained title to Texas and received California and New Mexico territories

2. payment to Mexico of $18,250,000

3. loss of more than half of Mexican territory

Mexican Territorial Losses

Legacy

1. deep-seated hostility

2. reinforcement of stereotypes

3. xenophobia, national humiliation, and Mexican nationalism

4. Gadsden Purchase

5. political ideology and last hurrah of Santa Anna

6. civil wars