Katoliko at Muslim

ADDED IN THE BIBLE(PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO AT MUSLIM)

(DAGDAG SA BIBLIA)

Jeremiah 8:8 How do ye say, We are wise, and the law of is with us? Lo, certainly the lying pen of the scribes hath made it falsehood. Jeremiah 8:9 The wise men are ashamed, they are dismayed and taken: lo, they have rejected the word of in them? ; and what wisdom is

Jeremiah 8:10 Therefore will I give their wives unto others, and their fields to them that shall inherit them: for every one from the least even unto the greatest is given to covetousness, from the prophet even unto the priest every one dealeth falsely. Jeremiah 8:11 For they have healed the hurt of the daughter of my people slightly, saying, Peace, peace; when there is no peace. Jeremiah 8:12 Were they ashamed when they had committed abomination? nay, they were not at all ashamed, neither could they blush: therefore shall they fall among them that fall: in the time of their visitation they shall be cast down, saith .

ni

Yahshua Datu-Aca Tabilog

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MGA NILALAMAN1.PAGKAIN NG BABOY AY IDINAGDAG SA BIBLIA NA PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO NGUNIT HINDI PINANIWALAAN NG MGA MUSLIM---------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE-------1

2. DAGDAG SA PANANAMPALATAYA NG KATOLIKO ANG DASAL NA HAIL MARY-------------PAGE-------31 3. 4. 5.ANG PANGALAN NG MESSIAH NA IPINANGANAK SA MUNDO 2,000 TAON NA ANG NAKALILIPAS AY TINAWAG NG KANYANG HEBREONG INA SA PANGALANG HEBREO NA YAHSHUA--------PAGE-------32 JACOB ITINAGO SA IPINALIT NA PANGALANG YAHSHEAR AY TINAWAG NA ISRAEL SA MASRY O EGYPT------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE------35 SALITANG KRISTO AY WALA SA ORIHINAL NA BIBLIA IDINAGDAG LANG ITO NA PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE-------39

6. ORIHINAL NA RELIGION NAGSIMULA SA JERUSALEM AY HINDI PINANIWALAAN NG KATOLIKO ATMUSLIM----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE------40

7. PAANO MAKIKILALA ANG TUNAY NA ARAL NG TUNAY NA PARI KUMPARA SA ARAL NG PEKENGPARI---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE------41

8.

IDINAGDAG SA BIBLIA ANG MGA ALAMAT NG GREEK-ROMAN MYTHOLOGY NA SIYANG PINAGMULAN NG ALAMAT NA NABUHAY NA MULI (RESURRECTION) AY PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO NGUNIT HINDI NG MGA MUSLIM-----------------------------------------------------------------PAGE------46

9.

ANG TANGING LAHI LAMANG NG LEVITA ANG MAY KARAPATANG HUMAWAK NG ARK OF THE COVENANT NI YAHWEH KAYA ANG LAHING LEVITA LAMANG ANG MAY TAMANG ARAL DAHIL ANG MGA BULAANG PARI NA HINDI LEVITA AY HINDI MAHAHAWAKAN ANG MGA AKLAT NI MOSES NA NAKALAGAK SA ARK OF THE COVENANT. GINAYA NILA ANG MGA ARAL NG TUNAY NA LEVITA NGUNIT HINDI NILA NAKILALA SI YAHWEH NA TANGING LEVITA LAMANG ANG NAKAKA-ALAM NG KANYANG BANAL NA PANGALAN NA SINAMBA NI ABRAHAM----------PAGE-------61

10. ANG KASULATANG GAWA NG MGA PEKENG-PARI NA HINDI LEVITA AY NADAGDAG SA BIBLIA AYPINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO AT MUSLIM--------------------------------------------------------PAGE-------63

11. ANG KASULATANG GAWA NG MGA PEKENG PARI (ILLEGITIMATE PRIESTS) NA HINDI LEVITA AYNADAGDAG SA BIBLIA-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE------66

12. KASALANAN NG SAMBAHAYAN NI HARING JEROBOAM NG YISRAWALE ANG MAGLAGAY NG PARINA HINDI LEVITA AY GINAYA NG KATOLIKO AT MUSLIM---------------------------------------------PAGE------69

13. ANG MGA TUNAY NA PROPETA AY NAGMULA SA LAHI NG LEVITA MULA KAY PROPETA SAMUELHANGGANG KAY DANIEL HANGGANG KAY ZECHARIYAH AY MGA LAHING LEVITA------PAGE-------75

14. ANG TAMANG PAGBASA NG BANAL NA KASULATAN----------------------------------------------------PAGE-------94 15. MGA PUNDASYON (FOREVER) MAGPAKAILANMAN SA BIBLIA NA HINDI PINANIWALAAN NGKATOLIKO AT MUSLIM-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PAGE-------97

MGA IDINAGDAG SA BIBLIA AY PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO AT MUSLIMMark 13:21 And then if any man shall say to you, Lo, here is the Messiah; or, lo, he is there; believe him not: Mark 13:22 For false Messiahs and false prophets shall rise, and shall shew signs and wonders, to seduce, if it were possible, even the elect. Mark 13:23 But take ye heed: behold, I have foretold you all things.

1. PAGKAIN NG BABOY AY IDINAGDAG SA BIBLIA NA PINANIWALAAN NG MGA KATOLIKO NGUNIT HINDI PINANIWALAAN NG MGA MUSLIM DAHIL NAIDAGDAG ITO SA BIBLIA SA PANAHONG NAITATAG NA ANG ISLAM NOONG 600 A.D.Mark 7:1-19The discussion is about washing of hands before eating not the food that they will eat and the evil things that come out of man NOT the eating of all food are clean to eat (In saying this, Jesus declared all foods clean is ADDED n the Bible that the Catholic accepted and believed But not by Muslim)

this four Hebrew letters found in Dead Sea Scroll pronounced YAHWEH this Modern Hebrew name pronounced YAHSHUA Leviticus 11:1 - 4And spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them, Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the beasts which ye shall eat among all the beasts that are on the earth. Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that shall ye eat. Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. King James Version on Mark 7:18-20Mark 7:18 And he saith unto them, Are ye so without understanding also? Do ye not perceive, that whatsoever thing from without entereth into the man, it cannot defile him; Mark 7:19 Because it entereth not into his heart, but into the belly, and goeth out into the draught, purging all meats? Mark 7:20 And he said, That which cometh out of the man, that defileth the man.

BUT THE FAKE TEACHERS THE DECEIVERS ADDED IN THE BIBLE VERSE IN MARK 7:19 Because it entereth not into his heart, but into the belly, and goeth out into the draught, purging all meats? IN DECEIVERS TRANSLATION THEY ADD IN Mark 7:19 Because it entereth not into his heart, but into the belly, and goeth out into the draught, purging all meats? (In saying this Jesus declared all foods are clean to eat).

DAGDAG SA BIBLIA PINANIWALAAN NG KATOLIKO AT MUSLIM

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In NIV (New International Version)After he had left the crowd and entered the house, his disciples asked him about this parable. 18 Are you so dull? he asked. Dont you see that nothing that enters a person from the outside can defile them? 19 For it doesnt go into their heart but into their stomach, and then out of the body. (In saying this, Jesus declared all foods clean.)

Lets read the whole subject in Mark Chapter 7Mark 7:1 Then came together unto him the Pharisees, and certain of the scribes, which came from Jerusalem. Mark 7:2 And when they saw some of his disciples eat bread with defiled, that is to say, with unwashen, hands, they found fault. Mark 7:3 For the Pharisees, and all the Jews, except they wash their hands oft, eat not, holding the tradition of the elders. Mark 7:4 And when they come from the market, except they wash, they eat not. And many other things there be, which they have received to hold, as the washing of cups, and pots, brasen vessels, and of tables. Mark 7:5 Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him, Why walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands? Mark 7:6 He answered and said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you hypocrites, as it is written, This people honoureth me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. Mark 7:7 Howbeit in vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men. Mark 7:8 For laying aside the commandment of cups: and many other such like things ye do. , ye hold the tradition of men, as the washing of pots and

Mark 7:9 And he said unto them, Full well ye reject the commandment of tradition.

, that ye may keep your own

Mark 7:10 For Moses said, Honour thy father and thy mother; and, Whoso curseth father or mother, let him die the death: Mark 7:11 But ye say, If a man shall say to his father or mother, It is Corban, that is to say, a gift, by whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me; he shall be free. Mark 7:12 And ye suffer him no more to do ought for his father or his mother; Mark 7:13 Making the word of such like things do ye. of none effect through your tradition, which ye have delivered: and many

Mark 7:14 And when he had called all the people unto him, he said unto them, Hearken unto me every one of you, and understand: Mark 7:15 There is nothing from without a man, that entering into him can defile him: but the things which come out of him, those are they that defile the man.


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(entering into him can defile him: They were in Israel land where the swine is considered abominable and not permitted to eat. Matthew 8:31 So the devils besought him, saying, If thou cast us out, suffer us to go away into the herd of swine.) (but the things which come out of him: For from within, out of the heart of men, are those proceed evil thoughts, adulteries, fornications, murders, Thefts, covetousness, wickedness, deceit, lasciviousness, an evil eye, blasphemy, pride, foolishness: All these evil things come from within, and defile the man. The discussion is about washing of hands before eating not the food that they will eat and the evil things that come out of man NOT the eating of all food are clean to eat (In saying this, Jesus declared all foods clean is ADDED n the Bible that the catholic accepted and believed but not by Muslim) Mark 7:16 If any man have ears to hear, let him hear. Mark 7:17 And when he was entered into the house from the people, his disciples asked him concerning the parable. Mark 7:18 And he saith unto them, Are ye so without understanding also? Do ye not perceive, that whatsoever thing from without entereth into the man, it cannot defile him; Mark 7:19 Because it entereth not into his heart, but into the belly, and goeth out into the draught, purging all meats? Mark 7:20 And he said, That which cometh out of the man, that defileth the man. Mark 7:21 For from within, out of the heart of men, proceed evil thoughts, adulteries, fornications, murders, Mark 7:22 Thefts, covetousness, wickedness, deceit, lasciviousness, an evil eye, blasphemy, pride, foolishness: Mark 7:23 All these evil things come from within, and defile the man.

THESE ARE THE ABOMINABLE AND NOT TO EAT

Camel

Horse

Coney

these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.


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Harehare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.

Swine, pig, hog, boarsthe swine, though he divide the hoof, and be clovenfooted, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you. Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase shall ye not touch; they are unclean to you.

Octupus , Squid, Eel, Shark, shellfish, crabs, shrimps

And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you:They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination. Whatsoever hath no fins nor scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto you.


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Eagle, Ossifrage, Ospray, Vulture, Kite, Raven, Owl, Swan, Pelican, Gier eagle, Stork , Lapwing, BatAnd these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, And the vulture, and the kite after his kind; Every raven after his kind; And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl, And the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle, And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you. But all other flying creeping things, which have four feet, shall be an abomination unto you.

Weasel, Mouse,Tortoise, Ferret, Chameleon, Snail, MoleThese also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. These are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even.


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Leviticus 11Leviticus 11:1 And spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them,

Leviticus 11:2 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the beasts which ye shall eat among all the beasts that are on the earth. Leviticus 11:3 Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that shall ye eat. Leviticus 11:4 Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:5 And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:6 And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:7 And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be clovenfooted, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you. Leviticus 11:8 Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase shall ye not touch; they are unclean to you. Leviticus 11:9 These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. Leviticus 11:10 And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: Leviticus 11:11 They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination. Leviticus 11:12 Whatsoever hath no fins nor scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto you. Leviticus 11:13 And these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray, Leviticus 11:14 And the vulture, and the kite after his kind; Leviticus 11:15 Every raven after his kind; Leviticus 11:16 And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, Leviticus 11:17 And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl, Leviticus 11:18 And the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle, Leviticus 11:19 And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. Leviticus 11:20 All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you. Leviticus 11:21 Yet these may ye eat of every flying creeping thing that goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the earth;


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Leviticus 11:22 Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind. Leviticus 11:23 But all other flying creeping things, which have four feet, shall be an abomination unto you. Leviticus 11:24 And for these ye shall be unclean: whosoever toucheth the carcase of them shall be unclean until the even. Leviticus 11:25 And whosoever beareth ought of the carcase of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even. Leviticus 11:26 The carcases of every beast which divideth the hoof, and is not clovenfooted, nor cheweth the cud, are unclean unto you: every one that toucheth them shall be unclean. Leviticus 11:27 And whatsoever goeth upon his paws, among all manner of beasts that go on all four, those are unclean unto you: whoso toucheth their carcase shall be unclean until the even. Leviticus 11:28 And he that beareth the carcase of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: they are unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:29 These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind, Leviticus 11:30 And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole. Leviticus 11:31 These are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even. Leviticus 11:32 And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, doth fall, it shall be unclean; whether it be any vessel of wood, or raiment, or skin, or sack, whatsoever vessel it be, wherein any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the even; so it shall be cleansed. Leviticus 11:33 And every earthen vessel, whereinto any of them falleth, whatsoever is in it shall be unclean; and ye shall break it. Leviticus 11:34 Of all meat which may be eaten, that on which such water cometh shall be unclean: and all drink that may be drunk in every such vessel shall be unclean. Leviticus 11:35 And every thing whereupon any part of their carcase falleth shall be unclean; whether it be oven, or ranges for pots, they shall be broken down: for they are unclean, and shall be unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:36 Nevertheless a fountain or pit, wherein there is plenty of water, shall be clean: but that which toucheth their carcase shall be unclean. Leviticus 11:37 And if any part of their carcase fall upon any sowing seed which is to be sown, it shall be clean. Leviticus 11:38 But if any water be put upon the seed, and any part of their carcase fall thereon, it shall be unclean unto you. Leviticus 11:39 And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth the carcase thereof shall be unclean until the even. Leviticus 11:40 And he that eateth of the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: he also that beareth the carcase of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.


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Leviticus 11:41 And every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten. Leviticus 11:42 Whatsoever goeth upon the belly, and whatsoever goeth upon all four, or whatsoever hath more feet among all creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat; for they are an abomination. Leviticus 11:43 Ye shall not make yourselves abominable with any creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean with them, that ye should be defiled thereby. Leviticus 11:44 For I am your Elohim: ye shall therefore sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy; for I am holy: neither shall ye defile yourselves with any manner of creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. Leviticus 11:45 For I am therefore be holy, for I am holy. that bringeth you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your Elohim: ye shall

Leviticus 11:46 This is the law of the beasts, and of the fowl, and of every living creature that moveth in the waters, and of every creature that creepeth upon the earth: Leviticus 11:47 To make a difference between the unclean and the clean, and between the beast that may be eaten and the beast that may not be eaten.

TrichinosisFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with Trichomoniasis or Trichuriasis.

Trichinosis

Classification and external resources

Trichinella spiralis larva displayed in a typical coil shape.


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Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. There are eight Trichinella species; five are encapsulated and three are not.[1] Only three Trichinella species are known to cause trichinosis: T. spiralis, T. nativa, and T. britovi.[1] The few cases in the United States are mostly the result of eating undercooked game, bear meat, or homereared pigs. It is common in developing countries where meat fed to pigs is raw or undercooked, but many cases also come from developed countries in Europe and North America, where raw or undercooked pork and wild game may be consumed as delicacies.[2]

Agent and taxonomy Agent The disease-causing agents include the eight species of Trichinella, but T. spiralis is the most important to humans due to its worldwide distribution and high pathogenicity.[3] Species and characteristics

T. spiralis is most adapted to swine, most pathogenic in humans and is cosmopolitan in distribution. T. britovi is the second most common species to infect humans; it is distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and northern and western Africa. T. nativa, which has a high resistance to freezing, is found in the Arctic and subarctic regions; reservoir hosts include polar bears, arctic foxes, walruses and other wild game. T. pseudospiralis infects birds and mammals, and has demonstrated infection in humans; [4] it is a nonencapsulated species. T. papuae infects both mammals and reptiles, including crocodiles, humans, and pigs; this species, found in Papua New Guinea and Thailand, is also nonencapsulated. T. nelsoni, found in eastern Africa, has been documented to cause a few human cases. T. murrelli also infects humans, especially from black bear meat; it is distributed among wild carnivores in North America. T. zimbabwensis can infect mammals and possibly humans; this nonencapsulated spiecies was detected in reptiles of Africa.

Taxonomy

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Nematoda Class: Adenophorea Order: Trichurida Family: Trichinellidae Genus: Trichinella

History of the discovery Discovery of the parasite The circumstances surrounding the first observation and identification of Trichinella spiralis are controversial due to a lack of medical records. In 1835, James Paget, a first-year medical student, first observed the larval form of T. spiralis while witnessing an autopsy at St. Bartholomews Hospital in London. Paget took special interest in the presentation of muscle with white flecks, described as a sandy diaphragm. Although Paget is most likely the first person to have noticed and recorded these findings, the parasite was named and published in a report by his professor, Richard Owen, who is now credited for the discovery of the T. spiralis larval form.[5] Discovery of the life cycle A series of experiments conducted between 1850 and 1870 by the German researchers Rudolf Virchow, Rudolf Leuckart and Friedrich Albert von Zenker, which involved feeding infected meat to a dog and performing the subsequent necropsy, led to the


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discovery of the life cycle of Trichinella. Through these experiments, Virchow was able to describe the development and infectivity of T. spiralis.[6] Signs and symptoms

Trichinella spiralis larvae in muscle tissue The great majority of trichinosis infections have either minor or no symptoms and no complications. [1] There are two main phases for the infection: enteral (affecting the intestines) and parenteral (outside the intestines). The symptoms vary depending on the phase, species of Trichinella, amount of encysted larvae ingested, age, gender, and host immunity.[7] Enteral phase A large burden of adult worms in the intestines promote symptoms such as nausea, heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrhea from two to seven days after infection, while small worm burdens generally are asymptomatic. Eosinophilia presents early and increases rapidly.[8] Parenteral phase The severity of symptoms caused by larval migration from the intestines depends on the number of larvae produced. As the larvae migrate through tissue and vessels, the body's inflammatory response results in edema, muscle pain, fever, and weakness. A classic sign of trichinosis is periorbital edema, swelling around the eyes, which may be caused by vasculitis. Splinter hemorrhage in the nails is also a common symptom.[9] The most dangerous case is worms entering the central nervous system (CNS). They cannot survive there, but they may cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as ataxia or respiratory paralysis), and even death. The CNS is compromised by trichinosis in 10-24% of reported cases of a rare form of stroke.[10] Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 46 weeks after the infection,[11] and is usually caused by myocarditis, encephalitis, or pneumonia.[3] Life cycle The typical life cycle for T. spiralis involves humans, pigs, and rodents. Pigs become infected when they eat infectious cysts in raw meat, often pork or rats (sylvatic cycle). Humans become infected when they eat raw or undercooked infected pork (domestic cycle). After humans ingest the cysts from infected undercooked meat, pepsin and hydrochloric acid help free the larvae in the cysts in the stomach.[7] The larvae then migrate to the small intestine, where they molt four times before becoming adults.[7] Thirty to 34 hours after the cysts were originally ingested, the adults mate, and within five days produce larvae. [7] The worms can only reproduce for a limited time because the immune system will eventually expel them from the small intestine. [7] The larvae then use their piercing mouthpart, called the stylet, to pass through the intestinal mucosa and enter the lymphatic vessels, and then enter the bloodstream.[5] The larvae travel by capillaries to various organs, such as the retina, myocardium, or lymph nodes; however, only larvae that migrate to skeletal muscle cells survive and encyst.[11] The larval host cell becomes a nurse cell in which the larvae will encapsulate. The development of a capillary network around the nurse cell completes encystation of the larvae.


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Diagnosis Diagnosis of trichinosis is confirmed by a combination of exposure history, clinical diagnosis, and laboratory testing. Exposure history An epidemiological investigation can be done to determine a patient's exposure to raw infected meat. Often, an infection arises from home-preparation of contaminated meat, in which case microscopy can be used to determine the infection. However, exposure does not have to be directly from an infected animal. Other exposure includes the consumption of products from a laboratory-confirmed infected animal or by sharing a common exposure as a laboratory-confirmed infected human.[11] Clinical diagnosis Clinical presentation of the common trichinosis symptoms may also suggest infection. These symptoms include circumorbital edema, splinter hemorrhage, nonspecific gastroenteritis, and muscle pain.[11] The case definition for trichinosis at the European Center for Disease Control states "at least three of the following six: fever, muscle soreness and pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, facial edema, eosinophilia, and subconjuctival, subungual, and retinal hemorrhages." [11] Laboratory testing Serological tests and microscopy can be used to confirm a diagnosis of trichinosis. Serological tests include a blood test for eosinophilia, increased levels of creatine phosphokinase, IgG, and antibodies against newly hatched larvae. Immunoassays, such as ELISA, can also be used.[11] Treatment and vaccines As is desirable with most diseases, early treatment is better and decreases the risk of developing disease. If larvae do encyst in skeletal muscle cells, they can remain infectious for months to years.[11]


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Primary treatment Early administration of anthelmintics, such as mebendazole or albendazole, decreases the likelihood of larval encystation, particularly if given within three days of infection [9] Unfortunately, most cases are diagnosed after this time.[11] Mebendazole (200400 mg three times a day for three days) or albendazole (400 mg twice a day for 814 days) are given to treat trichinosis.[12] These drugs prevent newly hatched larvae from developing, but should not be given to pregnant women or children under two years of age.[7] Secondary treatment After infection, steroids, such as prednisone and pyrantel, may be used to relieve muscle pain associated with larval migration. Vaccine research There are currently no vaccines for trichinosis, although experimental mice studies have suggested a possibility. In one study, microwaved Trichinella larvae were used to immunize mice which were subsequently infected. Depending on dosage and frequency of immunization, results ranged from a decreased larval count to complete protection from trichinosis. [13] Another study, Dea-Ayuela et al. (2006) used extracts and excretory-secretory products from first stage larvae to produce an oral vaccine.[14] To prevent the gastric acids from dissolving the antigens before reaching the small intestine, scientists encapsulated the antigens in a microcapsule made of copolymers. This vaccine significantly increased CD4+ cells and increased antigen-specific serum IgGq and IgA, resulting in a statistically significant reduction in the average number of adult worms in the small intestine of mice. The significance of this approach is that if the white blood cells in the small intestine have been exposed to Trichinella antigens (through vaccination) then, when an individual gets infected, the immune system will respond to expel the worms from the small intestine fast enough to prevent the female worms from releasing their larvae. Yuan Gu et al. (2008) tested a DNA vaccine on mice which induced a muscle larvae burden reduction in BALB/c mice by 29% in response to T. spiralis infection. [15] Researchers trying to develop a vaccine for Trichinella have tried to using either larval extracts, excretory-secretory antigen, DNA vaccine, or recombinant antigen protein. [15] Epidemiology As early as 1835, trichinosis was known to have been caused by a parasite, but the mechanism of infection was unclear at the time. A decade later, American scientist Joseph Leidy pinpointed undercooked meat as the primary vector for the parasite, and it was not until two decades afterwards that this hypothesis was fully accepted by the scientific community.[2] About 11 million individuals are infected with Trichinella; Trichinella spiralis is the species responsible for most of these infections.[16] Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the developed world. The incidence of trichinosis in the U.S. has decreased dramatically in the past century. From 1997 to 2001, an annual average of 12 cases per year were reported in the United States. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork products. [17] In the developing world, most infections are associated with undercooked pork. For example, in Thailand, between 200 and 600 cases are reported annually around the Thai New Year. This is mostly attributable to a particular delicacy, larb, which calls for undercooked pork as part of the recipe. In parts of Eastern Europe, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports some swine herds have trichinosis infection rates above 50%, and there are correspondingly large numbers of human infections. [3] Reemergence The disappearance of the pathogen from domestic pigs has led to a relaxation of legislation and control efforts by veterinary public health systems. It has since been thought of as a reemerging zoonosis supplemented by the increased distribution of meat products, political changes, a changing climate, and increasing sylvatic transmission.[18] It is also important to keep in mind major socio-political changes can produce conditions that favor the resurgence of Trichinella infections in swine and, consequently, humans. For instance, the overthrow of the social and political structures in the 1990s in Romania led to an increase in the incidence rate of trichinosis.[19] There is also a high incidence of trichinosis among refugees from Southeast Asia.[11] China reports approximately 10,000 cases every year, and is therefore the country with the highest numbers of cases.[11] In China, between 1964-1998 over 20,000 people were infected with Trichinosis and over 200 people died. [20] The kashrut and halal dietary laws of Judaism and Islam prohibit eating pork. In the 19th century, when the association between trichinosis and undercooked pork was first established, it was suggested this association was the reason for the prohibition,


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reminiscent of the earlier opinion of the medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides that food forbidden by Jewish law was "unwholesome". This theory was controversial and eventually fell out of favor. [21] International Commission on Trichinellosis The International Commission on Trichinellosis (ICT) was created in 1958 in Budapest and is aiming to exchange information on the biology, the physiopathology, the epidemiology, the immunology, and the clinical aspects of trichinellosis in humans and animals. Prevention is a primary goal. Since the creation of the ICT, its members (more than 110 from 46 countries) have regularly gathered and worked together during meetings held every four years : the International Conference on Trichinellosis. Prevention Legislation Laws and rules required of food producers may improve food safety for consumers, such as the rules established by the European Commission for inspections, rodent control, and improved hygiene.[11] Similar protocol exists in the United States in the USDA guidelines for establishment responsibilities in inspecting pork.[22] Education and training Public education about the dangers of consuming raw and undercooked meat, especially pork, may reduce infection rates. Hunters are also an at-risk population due to their contact and consumption of wild game, including bear. As such, many states, such as New York, require the completion of a course in such matters before a hunting license can be obtained. [23] Food preparation Larvae may be inactivated by the heating, freezing (caution), or irradiation of raw meat. Freezing may only be effective for T. spiralis, since some other species, such as T. nativa, are freeze resistant and can survive long-term freezing.[11]

Cooking meat products to an internal temperature of 165 F (74 C) for a minimum of 15 seconds. Cooking pork to a minimum uniform internal temperature per USDA Title 9 section 318.10 Table below. It is prudent to use a margin of error to allow for variation in internal temperature and error in the thermometer.

F C Minimum Time 120 49 21 hours 122 50.0 9.5 hours 124 51.1 4.5hours 126 52.2 2 hours 128 53.4 1 hours 130 54.5 30 minutes 132 55.6 15 minutes 134 56.7 6 minutes 136 57.8 3 minutes 138 58.9 2 minutes 140 60.0 1 minute 142 61.1 1 minute 144 62.2 Instant

Freezing pork less than 6 inches thick for 20 days at 5 F (15 C) or three days at 4 F (20 C) kills larval worms. Cooking wild game meat thoroughly. Freezing wild game meats, unlike freezing pork products, even for long periods of time, may not effectively kill all worms. This is because the species that typically infects wild game is more resistant to freezing than the species that infects pigs.

Unsafe and unreliable methods of cooking meat include the use of microwave ovens, curing, drying, and smoking, as these methods are difficult to standardize and control.[11] Hygienic pig farming


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Cooking all meat fed to pigs or other wild animals Keeping pigs in clean pens with floors that can be washed (such as concrete) Not allowing hogs to eat uncooked carcasses of other animals, including rats, which may be infected with Trichinella Cleaning meat grinders thoroughly when preparing ground meats Control and destruction of meat containing trichinae, e.g., removal and proper disposal of porcine diaphragms prior to public sale of meat

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention makes the following recommendation: "Curing (salting), drying, smoking, or microwaving meat does not consistently kill infective worms."[24] However, under controlled commercial food processing conditions, some of these methods are considered effective by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).[25] The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for the regulations concerning the importation of swine from foreign countries. The Foreign Origin Meat and Meat Products, Swine section covers swine meat (cooked, cured and dried, and fresh). APHIS developed the National Trichinae Certification Program; this is a voluntary preharvest program for U.S. swine producers that will provide documentation of swine management practices to reduce the incidence of Trichinella in swine.[26] The CDC reports 0.013% of U.S. swine is infected with Trichinella.[26] See also

List of parasites (human) Trichinella spiralis

References 1. 2. 3. ^ a b Pozio, E., & Murrell, D. K. (2006). Systematics and Epidemiology of Trichinella. Advances in Parasitology, 63, 368439. ^ Gottstein, B et al: "Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Trichinellosis", Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 22(1)127-145. Jan 2009. ^ a b Pozio E, et al. Trichinella zimbabwensis n.sp. (Nematoda), a new non-encapsulated species from crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in Zimbabwe also infecting mammals. Int J Parasitol. 2002 Dec 19;32(14):1787-99. < http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12464425>. ^ Jongwutiwes S et al First outbreak of human trichinellosis caused by Trichinella pseudospiralis. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Jan;26(1):111-5. ^ a b Cook GC, "Outbreak of trichinosis (trichiniasis)contracted in London in 1879" Postgrad Med J 2001;77:62-63 ^ Blumer G. Some remarks on the early history of Trichinosis (1822-1866). Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 1(6)581-588. ^ a b c d e f Capo, V. & Despommier, D. D. (1996). Clinical Aspects of Infection with Trichinella spp. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 9, 47-54. ^ Bruschi F, Murrell KD. New aspects of human trichinellosis: the impact of new Trichinella species. Postgrad Med J 2002;78:15-22 doi:10.1136/pmj.78.915.15, ^ a b John D and William A. Petri. Markell and Voge's Medical Parasitology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2006. ^ Evans, R.W. & Patter, B.M. (1982) Trichinosis associated with superior sagittal sinus thrombosis. Annals of Neurology, 11 (2), 216-217. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Gottstein B, et al. Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Trichinellosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, January 2009, p. 127-145, Vol. 22, No. 1. ^ "Monograph - Mebendazole". medscape.com. http://www.medscape.com/druginfo/monograph?cid=med&drugid=4254&drugname=Mebendazole+Misc&monotype=mo nograph. Retrieved 2009-02-24. ^ Ali SM, et al. Immunization against trichinellosis using microwaved larvae of Trichinella spiralis. J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2007 Apr;37(1):121-33. ^ Dea-Ayuela, M. A., Iniguz, S.R., Fernandez, F.B. (2006). Vaccination of mice against intestinal Trichinella spiralis infections by oral administration of antigens microencapsulated in methacrilic acid copolymers. Vaccine, 24, 27722780. ^ a b Gu, Y., Li, J., Zhu, X., Yang, J., Li, Q., Liu, Z., Yu, S., Li, Y. (2008). Trichinella spiralis: Characterization of phagedisplayed specific epitopes and their protective immunity in BALB/c mice. Experimental Parasitology, 118, 6674. ^ Gideon (1994). Gideon Informatics Inc. Retrieved January 31, 2009, from http://web.gideononline.com/web/epidemiology/?gdn_form=dmlldz1HZW5lcmFsJmRpc2Vhc2U9MTI0MTA= ^ "Trichinellosis Fact Sheet Division of Parasitic Diseases". Centre for Disease Control, US Government. 2004. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/trichinosis/factsht_trichinosis.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-25.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

External links

International Commission on trichinellosis web pages CDC Department of Parasitic Diseases - Trichinosis


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THE SWINELeviticus 11:7 And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be clovenfooted, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you. Deuteronomy 14:8 And the swine, because it divideth the hoof, yet cheweth not the cud, it is unclean unto you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch their dead carcase. Proverbs 11:22 As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion. Isaiah 65:4 Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which eat swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their vessels; Isaiah 66:3 He that killeth an ox is as if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog's neck; he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine's blood; he that burneth incense, as if he blessed an idol. Yea, they have chosen their own ways, and their soul delighteth in their abominations. Isaiah 66:17 They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith . Matthew 7:6 Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you. Matthew 8:30 And there was a good way off from them an herd of many swine feeding. Matthew 8:31 So the devils besought him, saying, If thou cast us out, suffer us to go away into the herd of swine. Matthew 8:32 And he said unto them, Go. And when they were come out, they went into the herd of swine: and, behold, the whole herd of swine ran violently down a steep place into the sea, and perished in the waters. Mark 5:11 Now there was there nigh unto the mountains a great herd of swine feeding. Mark 5:12 And all the devils besought him, saying, Send us into the swine, that we may enter into them. Mark 5:13 And forthwith gave them leave. And the unclean spirits went out, and entered into the swine: and the herd ran violently down a steep place into the sea, (they were about two thousand;) and were choked in the sea. Mark 5:14 And they that fed the swine fled, and told it in the city, and in the country. And they went out to see what it was that was done. Mark 5:16 And they that saw it told them how it befell to him that was possessed with the devil, and also concerning the swine. Luke 8:32 And there was there an herd of many swine feeding on the mountain: and they besought him that he would suffer them to enter into them. And he suffered them. Luke 8:33 Then went the devils out of the man, and entered into the swine: and the herd ran violently down a steep place into the lake, and were choked. Luke 15:15 And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. Luke 15:16 And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him.


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History of the Catholic Church

Catholic doctrine asserts that the Catholic Church is the same Church founded by Jesus Christ at the Confession of Peter. It interprets the Confession of Peter as acknowledging Christ's designation of Apostle Peter and his successors to be the temporal head of his Church. Thus, it asserts that the Bishop of Rome has the sole legitimate claim to Petrine authority and the primacy due to the Roman Pontiff.[ The Catholic Church claims legitimacy for its bishops and priests via the doctrine of apostolic succession and authority of the Pope via the unbroken line of popes, claimed as successors to Simon Peter. In 313, the struggles of the Early Church were lessened by the legalisation of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine I. In 380, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire by the decree of the Emperor, which would persist until the fall of the Western Empire, and later, with the Eastern Roman Empire, until the Fall of Constantinople. During this time (the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils) there were considered five primary sees according to Eusebius: Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, known as the Pentarchy. After the destruction of the western Roman Empire, the church in the West was a major factor in the preservation of classical civilization, establishing monasteries, and sending missionaries to convert the peoples of northern Europe, as far as Ireland in the north. In the East, the Byzantine Empire preserved Orthodoxy, well after the massive invasions of Islam in the mid-7th century. The invasions of Islam devastated three of the five Patriarchal sees, capturing Jerusalem first, then Alexandria, and then finally in the mid8th century, Antioch. The whole period of the next five centuries was dominated by the struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The battles of Poitiers, and Toulouse preserved the Catholic west, even though Rome itself was ravaged in 850, and Constantinople besieged. In the 11th century, already strained relations between the primarily Greek church in the East, and the Latin church in the West, developed into the East-West Schism, partially due to conflicts over Papal Authority. The fourth crusade, and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the final breach. In the 16th century, in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a process of substantial reform and renewal known as the Counter-Reformation. In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world despite experiencing a reduction in its hold on European populations due to the growth of Protestantism and also because of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment. The Second Vatican Council in the 1960s introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent three centuries before. Catholic tradition holds that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles, and his instructions to them to continue his work. The Catholic Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church. While there is no particular narrative of Peter being "consecrated by Jesus," and then by "Peter traveling to Rome founding a church there" in Church tradition, this came to be the Catholic view. Peter is also thought to be Rome's first bishop and the consecrator of Linus as its next bishop, thus starting the line which includes the current pontiff, Pope Benedict XVI. This view is often repeated in the Catholic Church. The narratives of the appointment of the twelve Apostles and the appointing of Matthias as an Apostle are both found directly in the Scriptures. Exactly when Christians first appeared in Rome is difficult to determine, see Godfearers and Proselytes for the historical background. The Acts of the Apostles claims that the Jewish Christian couple Priscilla and Aquila had recently come from Rome to Corinth when, in about the year 50, Paul reached Corinth, indicating that Christianity in Rome had preceded Paul. While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans to them from Corinth, about AD 57, he greets some fifty people in Rome by name, but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two year stay there in chapter 28 of Acts, about AD 60-62. Church historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero, in AD 64 such as after the Great Fire of Rome which, according to Tacitus, Nero blamed on the Christians. The tradition that the See of Rome was founded as an organized Christian community by Peter and Paul and that its episcopate owes to them its origin can be traced back only as the second-century, with Irenaeus, but there is no conclusive evidence, scripturally, historically or chronologically, that Peter was in fact the Bishop of Rome. Irenaeus does not say that either Peter or Paul was "bishop" of the Church in Rome, and some historians have questioned whether Peter spent much time in Rome before his martyrdom. Oscar Cullmann sharply rejected the claim that Peter began the papal succession, and concludes that while Peter was the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession. Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's well-defined network of roads and waterways allowed for easier travel, while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. The government had encouraged inhabitants, especially those in urban areas, to learn Greek, and the common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. Jesus's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea, and over 40 Christian communities


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had been established by 100. Although most of these were in the Roman Empire, notable Christian communities were also established in Armenia, Iran and along the Indian Malabar Coast. The new religion was most successful in urban areas, spreading first among slaves and people of low social standing, and then among aristocratic women. At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity, but within twenty years of Jesus's death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship. As preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles, Christianity began growing away from Jewish practices to establish itself as a separate religion, though the issue of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still debated today. To resolve doctrinal differences among the competing factions within the Church, in or around the year 50, the apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem. This council affirmed that Gentiles could become Christians without adopting all of the Mosaic Law. Growing tensions soon led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Christians refused to join in the Bar Khokba Jewish revolt of 132, however some groups of Christians retained elements of Jewish practice. The early Christian Church was very loosely organized, resulting in diverse interpretations of Christian beliefs. In part to ensure a greater consistency in their teachings, by the end of the 2nd century Christian communities had evolved a more structured hierarchy, with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city, leading to the development of the Metropolitan bishop. The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire; bishops in politically important cities exerted greater authority over bishops in nearby cities. The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome held the highest positions. Beginning in the 2nd century, bishops often congregated in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues.[ Duffy claims that by the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve. Doctrine was further refined by a series of influential theologians and teachers, known collectively as the Church Fathers. From the year 100 onward, proto-orthodox teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to other things, such as Gnosticism. In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo. Persecutions Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism, see Idolatry. Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christiansincluding government authoritiesto fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. In addition, the peculiar intimacy of Christian society and its secrecy about its religious practices spawned rumors that Christians were guilty of incest and cannibalism; the resulting persecutions, although usually local and sporadic, were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century. A series of more centrally organized persecutions of Christians emerged in the late 3rd century, when emperors decreed that the Empire's military, political, and economic crises were caused by angry gods. All residents were ordered to give sacrifices or be punished. Jews were exempted as long as they paid the Jewish Tax. A small number of Christians were executed; others fled or renounced their beliefs. Disagreements over what role, if any, these apostates should have in the Church led to the Donatist and Novatianist schisms. Relations between the Church and the Empire were not consistent: " Tiberius wanted to have Christ placed in the Pantheon and refused first of all to persecute the Christians. Later on his attitude changed. [-] How are we to explain the fact that men like Trajan and above all Marcus Aurelius should have so relentlessly persecuted the Christians? On the other hand Commodus and other villainous emperors rather favoured them." In spite of these persecutions, evangelization efforts persisted, leading to the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in 313. By 380, Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire. Religious philosopher Simone Weil : " By the time of Constantine, the state of apocalyptic expectation must have worn rather thin. [The imminent coming of Christ, expectation of the Last Day constituted 'a very great social danger.'] Besides , the spirit of the old law, so widely separarted from all mysticism, was not so very different from the Roman spirit itself. Rome could come to terms with the God of Hosts. Late antiquity When Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 312, he attributed his victory to the Christian God. With Licinius, (Eastern Roman emperor), he issued the Edict of Milan which mandated toleration of all religions in the empire. The edict had little effect on the attitudes of the people. New laws were crafted to codify some Christian beliefs and practices. Constantine's biggest effect on Christianity was his patronage. He gave large gifts of land and money to the Church and offered tax exemptions and other special legal status to Church property and personnel. These gifts and later ones combined to make the Church the largest landowner in the West by the 6th century. Many of these gifts were funded through severe taxation of pagan cults. Some pagan cults were forced to disband for lack of funds; when this happened the Church took over the cult's previous role of caring for the poor. In a reflection of their increased standing in the Empire, clergy began to adopt the dress of the royal household, including the cope. During Constantine's reign, approximately half of those who identified themselves as Christian did not subscribe to the mainstream version of the faith.[ Constantine feared that disunity would displease God and lead to trouble for the Empire, so he took military and judicial measures to eliminate some sects. To resolve other disputes, Constantine began the practice of calling ecumenical councils to determine binding interpretations of Church doctrine.


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Decisions made at the Council of Nicea (325) about the divinity of Christ led to a schism; the new religion, Arianism flourished outside the Roman Empire. Partially to distinguish themelves from Arians, Catholic devotion to Mary became more prominent. This led to further schisms. Theodosius I In 380, mainstream Christianityas opposed to Arianismbecame the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity became more associated with the Empire, resulting in persecution for Christians living outside of the empire, as their rulers feared Christians would revolt in favor of the Emperor. In 385, this new legal authority of the Church resulted in the first use of capital punishment being pronounced as a sentence upon a Christian 'heretic', namely Priscillian. Priscillian's execution was only the first use of this new Church authority after which, down through the centuries, many more heretics would be executed by the authority of the Catholic Church. During this period, the Bible as it has come down to the 21st century was first officially laid out in Church Councils or Synods through the process of official 'canonization'. Prior to these Councils or Synods, the Bible had already reached a form that was nearly identical to the form in which it is now found. According to some accounts, in 382 the Council of Rome first officially recognized the Biblical canon, listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament, and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made. Other accounts list the Council of Carthage of 397 as the Council that finalized the Biblical canon as it is known today. The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation, declaring that he was both fully man and fully God. Two decades later, the Council of Chalcedon solidified Roman papal primacy which added to continuing breakdown in relations between Rome and Constantinople, the see of the Eastern Church. Also sparked were the Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus which led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church. Early Middle Ages After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes. The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, saw the beginning of a steady rise of the faith in the West. In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Its message spread to monasteries throughout Europe. Monasteries became major conduits of civilization, preserving craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. They functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers as well as a focus for spiritual life. During this period the Visigoths and Lombards moved away from Arianism for Catholicism. Pope Gregory the Great played a notable role in these conversions and dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structures and administration which then launched renewed missionary efforts. Missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, who was sent from Rome to begin the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, and, coming the other way in the Hiberno-Scottish mission, Saints Colombanus, Boniface, Willibrord, Ansgar and many others took Christianity into northern Europe and spread Catholicism among the Germanic, and Slavic peoples, and reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians in later centuries. The Synod of Whitby of 664, though not as decisive as sometimes claimed, was an important moment in the reintegration of the Celtic Church of the British Isles into the Roman hierarchy, after having been effectively cut off from contact with Rome by the pagan invaders. In the early 700s, Byzantine iconoclasm became a major source of conflict between the Eastern and Western parts of the Church. Byzantine emperors forbade the creation and veneration of religious images, as violations of the Ten Commandments. Other major religions in the East such as Judaism and Islam had similar prohibitions. Pope Gregory III vehemently disagreed A new Empress Irene siding with the pope, called for an Ecumenical Council In 787, the fathers of the Second Council of Nicaea "warmly received the papal delegates and his message" At the conclusion, 300 bishops, who were led by the representatives of Pope Hadrian I. "adopted the Pope's teaching" , in favor of icons. With the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800, his new title as Patricius Romanorum, and the handing over of the keys to the Tomb of Saint Peter, the papacy had acquired a new protector in the West. This freed the pontiffs to some degree from the power of the emperor in Constantinople but also led to a schism, because the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople interpreted themselves as the true descendants of the Roman Empire dating back to the beginnings of the Church. Pope Nicholas I had refused to recognize Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople ,who in turn had attacked the pope as a heretic, because he kept the filioque in the creed, which referred to the Holy Spirit emanating from God the Father and the Son. The papacy was strengthened through this new alliance, which in the long term created a new problem for the Popes, when in the Investiture Controversy succeeding emperors sought to appoint bishops and even future popes. After the disintegration of the Charlemagne empire and repeated incursions of Islamic forces into Italy, the papacy, without any protection, entered a phase of major weakness. High Middle Ages The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords, thus eliminating a major source of corruption. This sparked a great monastic renewal. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries, and often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth. After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower grammar schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning. It was here where notable theologians worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.


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The most notable of these theologians, Thomas Aquinas, produced Summa Theologica, a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and the Gospel.[89] Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy, the introduction of new crops, the invention of musical notation and the creation and preservation of literature. During the 11th century, the EastWest schism permanently divided Christianity. It arose over a dispute on whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily and led to mutual excommunications in 1054. The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Orthodox Church. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism. Some Eastern churches have since reunited with the Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the pope. Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965. The 11th century saw the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Pope over the right to make church appointments, the first major phase of the struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe. The Papacy were the initial victors, but as Italians divided between Guelphs and Ghibellines in factions that were often passed down through families or states until the end of the Middle Ages, the dispute gradually weakened the Papacy, not least by drawing it into politics. The Church also attempted to control, or exact a price for, most marriages among the great by prohibiting, in 1059, marriages involving consanguinity (blood kin) and affinity (kin by marriage) to the seventh degree of relationship. Under these rules, almost all great marriages required a dispensation. The rules were relaxed to the fourth degree in 1215 (now only the first degree is prohibited by the Church - a man cannot marry his stepdaughter, for example). Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 when he received an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion. Urban further believed that a Crusade might help bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity. Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians, the series of military campaigns known as the Crusades began in 1096. They were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack. In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier Romanesque style combined massive walls, rounded arches and ceilings of masonry. To compensate for the absence of large windows, interiors were brightly painted with scenes from the Bible and the lives of the saints. Later, the Basilique Saint-Denis marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized Gothic architecture. This style, with its large windows and high, pointed arches, improved lighting and geometric harmony in a manner that was intended to direct the worshiper's mind to God who "orders all things". In other developments, the 12th century saw the founding of eight new monastic orders, many of them functioning as Military Knights of the Crusades. Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux exerted great influence over the new orders and produced reforms to ensure purity of purpose. His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law. In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmn which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings. 12th century France witnessed the growth of Catharism in Languedoc. It was in connection with the struggle against this heresy that the Inquisition originated. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a papal legate in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade. Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future massacres and root out the remaining Cathars. Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height. Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Moorish invasion or for political purposes. The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning. A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France[ during a period known as the Avignon Papacy. The papacy returned to Rome in 1378 at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who felt the See of Peter should be in the Roman church. With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and Frenchbacked candidates leading to the Western schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third compromise pope was elected in 1409. The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.

Renaissance and reformsDiscoveries and Missionaries Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, in the papal bull Inter caetera, awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal. Under the patronato system, state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican. On December 1511, the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use


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in dealing with these innocent people". King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. Enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain. An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights and the birth of modern international law. In 1521, through the leadership and preaching of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines. The following year, Franciscan missionaries arrived in what is now Mexico, and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well-being by establishing schools and hospitals. They taught the Indians better farming methods, and easier ways of weaving and making pottery. Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism, Pope Paul III in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or Sublimis Deus (1537) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people. Afterward, the conversion effort gained momentum. Over the next 150 years, the missions expanded into southwestern North America. The native people were legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, often enforced with corporal punishment. Elsewhere, in India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by Thomas the Apostle. Renaissance Church In Europe, the Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. It also brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs. Cathedrals and churches had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated. The stained glass windows, frescoes, statues, paintings and panels retold the stories of the saints and of biblical characters. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, who created some of the world's most famous artworks. The acceptance of humanism had its effects on the Church, which embraced it as well. In 1509, a well known scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church. The Papacy itself was questioned by councilarism expressed in the councils of Constance and the Basel. Real reforms during these ecumenical councils and the Fifth Lateran Council were attempted several times but thwarted. They were seen as necessary but did not succeed in large measure because of internal feuds within the Church, ongoing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire andSaracenes and the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries. As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy. Reformation Era wars The Fifth Lateran Council issued some but only minor reforms in March of 1517. A few months later, on October 31, 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses in public, hoping to spark debate. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences. Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others also criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges, supported by powerful political forces in the region, developed into the Protestant Reformation. In Germany, the Reformation led to war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, which broke out in 1618. In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League. This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants. England The English Reformation was ostensibly based on Henry VIII's desire for annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and was initially more of a political, and later a theological dispute. The Acts of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated. When he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were destroyed or dissolved. Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions. After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children. Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions and persisted under subsequent English monarchs. Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland but were less effective than in England. In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church. Council of Trent Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, in his book The Reformation, A History noted that through all the slaughter of the Reformation era emerged the valuable concept of religious toleration and an improved Catholic Church which responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the Council of Trent (15451563). The council became the driving-force of the CounterReformation, and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia. The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits, some of which became the great missionary orders of


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later years. Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri whose writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church (Oratorians, Carmelites, Salesian), etc. Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era, with a proliferation of secondary schools reinvigorating higher studies such as history, philosophy and theology. To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture. Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor. Elsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to Japan, and by the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians. Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century. Baroque, Enlightenment and revolutions Christianity in the 17th century and Modern history of Christianity#Age of Enlightenment (16401740) The Council of Trent generated a revival of religious life and Marian devotions in the Roman Catholic Church. During the Reformation, the Church had defended its Marian beliefs against Protestant views. At the same time, the Catholic world was engaged in ongoing Ottoman Wars in Europe against Turkey which were fought and won under the auspices of the Virgin Mary. The victory at Battle of Lepanto (1571) was accredited to her and signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions, focusing especially on Mary, the Queen of Heaven and Earth and her powerful role as mediatrix of many graces. The Colloquium Marianum, a elite group, and the Sodality of Our Lady based their activities on a virtuous life, free of cardinal sins. Pope Paul V and Gregory XV ruled in 1617 and 1622 to be inadmissible to state, that the virgin was conceived non-immaculate.] Alexander VII declared in 1661, that the soul of Mary was free from original sin. Pope Clement XI ordered the feast of the Immaculata for the whole Church in 1708. The feast of the Rosary was introduced in 1716, the feast of the Seven Sorrows in 1727. The Angelus prayer was strongly supported by Pope Benedict XIII in 1724 and by Pope Benedict XIV in 1742. Popular Marian piety was even more colourful and varied than ever before: Numerous Marian pilgrimages, Marian Salve devotions, new Marian litanies, Marian theatre plays, Marian hymns, Marian processions. Marian fraternities, today mostly defunct, had millions of members. The Enlightenment constituted a new challenge of the Church. Unlike the Protestant Reformation, which questioned certain Christian doctrines, the enlightenment questioned Christianity as a whole. Generally, it elevated human reason above divine revelation and down-graded religious authorities such as the papacy based on it. Politically the Ottoman Empire continued as a major threat, advancing all the way to the city of Vienna. Parallel the Church attempted to fend of Gallicanism and Councilarism, ideologies which threatened the papacy and structure of the Church. Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Blessed Pope Innocent XI viewed the increasing Turkish attacks against Europe, which were supported by France, as the major threat for the Church. He built a Polish-Austrian coalition for the Turkish defeat at Vienna in 1683. Scholars have called him a saintly pope because he reformed abuses by the Church, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi. By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies, Innocent XI was able to regain control of the church's finances. In France, the Church battled Jansenism and Gallicanism, which supported Councilarism, and rejected papal primacy, demanding special concessions for the Church in France. This weakened the Church's ability to respond to gallicanist thinkers such as Denis Diderot, who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church. In 1685 gallicanist King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century of religious toleration.. France forced Catholic theologians to support councilarism and deny Papal infallibility. The king threatened Pope Innocent XI with a general council and a military take-over of the Papal state. The absolute French State used Gallicanism to gain control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties. State authority over the Church became popular in other countries as well. In Belgium and Germany, Gallicanism appeared in the form of Febronianism, which rejected papal pregoratives in an equal fashion. Emperor Joseph II of Austria (17801790) practiced Josephinism by regulating Church life, appointments and massive confiscation of Church properties. Church in America In the Americas, the Church expanded its missions but, until the 19th century, had to work under the Spanish and Portuguese governments and military. Junpero Serra, the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which became important economic, political, and religious institutions. These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of San Francisco in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, by bringing Western civilization to the area, these missions and the Spanish government have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease. Only in the 19th century, after the breakdown of most Spanish and Portuguese colonies, was the Vatican able to take charge of Catholic missionary activities through its Propaganda Fide organization.


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During this period the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America, the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism. Jesuits in India While Christianity in India has a tradition of Thomas establishing the faith there, the Jesuit Francis Xavier (15021552) began to introduce Catholic Christianity to India. Roberto de Nobili (15771656), a Tuscan Jesuit missionary to Southern India followed in his path. He pioneered (inculturation), adopting many Brahmin customs which were not, in his opinion, contrary to Christianity. He lived like a Brahmin, learned Sanskrit, and presented Christianity as a part of Indian beliefs, not identical with the controversial Portuguese culture of the colonialists. He permitted the use of all customs, which in his view did not directly contradict Christian teachings. By 1640 there were 40 000 Christians in Madura alone. In 1632, Pope Gregory XV gave permission for this approach. But strong antiJesuit sentiments in Portugal, France even in Rome resulted in a reversal, which signalled the end of the successful Catholic missions in India. On September 12, 1744, Benedict XIV forbade the so called Malabar rites in India, with the result, that leading Indian casts who wanted to adhere to their traditional cultures, turned away from the Catholic Church. Christianity started in the southern part of India from AD 52 onwards, when St. Thomas came to India. ] Jesuits in China Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci, Adam Schall von Bell and others successfully introduced Christianity to China via inculturation. Ricci and Schall were appointed by the Chinese Emperor in Peking as court mathematicians, court astronomers and even Mandarins. The first Catholic Church was built in Peking in 1650 The emperor granted freedom of religion to Catholics. Ricci adopted the Catholic faith to Chinese thinking, permitting the veneration of the dead. The Vatican disagreed and forbade any adaptation in the so-called Chinese Rites controversy in 1692 and 1742. The Bull Ex Quo Singulari of Pope Benedict XIV from July 11, 1742 repeated verbatim the bull of Clement XI and stressed the purity of Christian teachings and traditions, which must be uphold against all heresies. This bull virtually destroyed the Jesuit goal of Christianizing the influential upper classes in China. The Church experienced missionary setbacks in 1721 when the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions. The Chinese emperor felt duped and refused to permit any alteration of the existing Christian practices. He told the visiting papal delegate:

You destroyed your religion. You put in misery all Europeans living here in China. You desecrated the honour of all those, who died long ago.

In 1939 Pope Pius XII, within weeks of his coronation, radically reverted the 250 year old Vatican policy and permitted the veneration of dead family members. The Church began to flourish again with twenty new arch-dioceses, seventy-nine dioceses and thirty-eight apostolic prefects, but only until 1949, when the Communist revolution took over the country. Jesuit existence Throughout the inculturation controversy, the very existence of Jesuits were under attack in Portugal, Spain, France, and the Kingdom of Sicily. The inculturation controversy and the Jesuit support for the native Indians in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina added fuel to growing criticism of the order, which seemed to symbolize the strength and independence of the Church. Defending the rights of native peoples in South America, hindered the efforts of European powers, espcecially Spain and Portugal to maintain absolute rule over their domains. Portugal's Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal was the main enemy of the Jesuits. Pope Benedict XIV attempted to keep the Jesuits in existence without any changes: Sint ut sunt aut not sint, They must be the way they are or they will not be,. He went far to mollify Portuguese pride, even allowing the local Cardinal to wear a papal tiara and have his seminarians dressed like cardinals In 1773, European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order. Several decades later Pius VII restored the Jesuits in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum. French Revolution Christianity in the 18th century and Modern history of Christianity#Revivalism (17201906) The anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. saw direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church. Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason". In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed. When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The 82 year old pope was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1799 and died in Valence August 29, 1799 after six months of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801. The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.


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First Vatican Council Before the council, in 1854 Pope Pius IX with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic Bishops, whom he had consulted between 18511853, proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.[ Eight years earlier, in 1846, the Pope had granted the unanimous wish of the bishops from the United States, and declared the Immaculata the patron of the USA. During First Vatican Council, some 108 council fathers requested to add the words Immaculate Virgin to the Hail Mary. Some fathers requested, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception to be included in the Creed of the Church, which was opposed b

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