REFERENCES ICartcr V. Good, editor, Dict ionary of Education. Mc. Graw-Hil l Book Company. Inc., New Vork, 1959. p. 145.

2Carl R. Rogers. "Toward a Theory of Creativity," in Creativity and i t r Cult ivat ion ( H . H. Anderson, edt:or. Harper and Row, Ncw Vork, 1957).

3F. S. C. Norlhrup, Pliilosophy's "Statement o f the Problem of Creativity" in The Nature of Creative Thinking, Industrial Relations Institute, 1953.

4 0 . W. McKinnorr. "The Nal l l re and Nur ture of Cre- ative Talent," American Psychologist. Vol. 17. 1962. p. 485.

STorrancc. E. P.. Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking; Norms-Technical Manual. Research Edit ion, Personnel Press, Prinrcton, N. J.. 19GG. P. 6.

GRobcrt F. Mager, Goal Analysis, Fearon Publishers, Belniont, California, 1972. p. 132.

7An CxamPlc of delayed goal oriented creativity can be found in Kinloin's article. Independent Nurse Pra+ titioner. 111 which she describes her "long thought" e f for ts to "become professionally free". (Nurrlng O ~ t l o o k . Jan., 1972. V O I . 2. pp. 22-24.)

8Hogue, Paul K.. "How Effect ive are Brainstorming Sessions in Developing Usable Ideas!". Printer's Ink, 2G1:52. Nov. 29, 1957.

9Dr. James Boren. self Styled Peter Principle candldate for President, as quoted in the Denton Record Chron- icle, October 8, 1572, p. 1.

10"Nursing a t the Crossroads." Nursing Outlook. January, 1972. Entire Issue.

10 iud!menl a i d treaiive Itlinking

COletta A. Klug, Chairinan arid Associate Professor, Mental Heal;h-Psychiatric Nursing Depart- ment. Schoo! of Nirrsing, State University of NC\Y York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York.

Our opinions, values and determina- tions are significant parts of a l l our lives generally stemming from very early exper- iences. Judgment serves as a dominating force in all our human experiences.

Effects of evaluation and judgment throughout the growth process seem to have some influence on how the adult feels about himself, how he feels about others and how he makes evaluations and judgments as an adult. Although trans- actions involving judgment during early experiences have passed, some slight mem- ories may prevail in adulthood; other memories may not be easily recalled. The effects of these early experiences may be involved in later decision making and a- daptation to life situations which may well effect a person's happiness. The hu- man potential for learning and relearning provides for growth, adaptation and hap- piness i f there is an awareness and realiza- tion of a need for growth and understand- ing.

In answer to the question "Can We Teach Children To Think Creatively?" studies indicate that i t is possible. Suc- cessful approaches seem to involve cogni- tive and emotional functioning along with adequate structure and motivation. In ad- dition, there should be opportunity for in- volvement, practice and participation with teachers and other children. Differences seem greatest and most predictable when deliberate teslching is involved.'

Dr. Alex Osborn, founder of the Cre- ative Education Foundation, enterpreneur, author of a numkier of books on Creative Imagination and a textbook on marketing described the deferment of judgment prin- ciple in a way that ideas toward solving problems might flow more freely for sol- ution finding before the evaluation process takes place.

In early creative problem-solving course experience i t seemed evident that students focused primarily on the process of probiem solving, but the immediate

comments and evaluations of other's ideas tended to limit more ideas while the frec- wheeling idea of deferring judgment af- fected numbers and quality of ideas posi- tively. It would seem that the ability to think creatively could and should be de- veloped throughout the life cycle through experiencing a balance between receiving judgment and learning to make construc- tive judgments.

Personality in the Making. Dr. Dana L. Farnsworth, a Fellow of

the American Psychiatric Association, I'e- ferred to Erikson's theory of growth and development with emphasis on the first fifteen months of life for the child. Dur- ing this time, there is a development of confidence in the worlc' ground the child and the world about him which i s made up primarily of parents, brothers. sisters and a few friends. If the sense of trust i s devel- oped during the first year and a quarter of life, the ground work i s somehow set fw developing other attitudes later necessary for maturity. Following the first fifteen months, the child is then developing atti- tudes about himselr, who he i s and what he is. During this period he gradually puts inside himself sums of the prohibitions taught by his parent5 so that built-in con- trols begin. During this period there is the faint beginning of conscience appearing "I ought" or " I ought not". Somehow through the questioning and the attempt to become a separate person we wish to help the individual achieve self-control without loss of self-esteem. This is also the period where the sense of guilt i s de- veloped. I f the expectation is too great, guilt feelings may become strong and he cannot organize well or achieve the desir- able feeling of confidence. Children are more likely to develop best i f they are commended for what they do well. The first four or five years of life are charac- terized by strong imagination which in- cludes much fantasizing, and if a proper sense of trust has been achieved with a sense of autonomy gained, the sense of in- i t iat ive comes more easily than if the child has had unhappy experiences early i t 1 life.

Here we may note the importance of the normal, natural imagination which is a part of creativity and creative thinking. Although the child utilizes imagination as a part of the growth and development pat- tern, much of it i s subdued or lost during the years which follow making it necessary for many people to then lesrn again to be imaginative and creative in some particu- lar manner.

There i s apparently a great need to learn to do things and do them well during the latency period ages 6-12. It i s during this period that youngsters consolidate earlier gains and develop feelings of ade- quacy or inferiority depending on the sum total of the stimuli experienced. In the period that follows the latency period up to approximately the age of eighteen years the youngster is struggliny to achieve what Erikson called Identity. During this time there can be development of role diffusion and even development of negative identi- ty making a temporary career of resisting and hating anything conventional. Since people tend to play roles which they think society assigns them ther-e i s no more im- portant period in the l i f e of a person than the first time he violates a social code and gets caught, according to Erikson's theory. I f we treat the individual as i f he were a criminal, he i s more likely to become one tha;, if be i s treated in a more kindly fash- ion. This author emphasized the signifi- cance to the child in violating the social code. He stated that i t i s important for a parent or some outstanding person help- ing the individual learn something that I S beneficial when he makes a mistake.

The next stage that Erikscn portrayed in the development of a mature person i s that of intimacy. In part this depends on knowledge of self. He pointed out that i t is hardly possible to become intimate with another person until one has a fairly good notion of what one's self is like. In this situation the term "intimacy" referred to the capacity of having a warm trusting re- lationship with another person. It would follow that if the person had developed a sense of trust, of autonomy, of initiative, of industry, and of identity, the capacity to develop intimate relations with others would be established more easily arid probably more effectively.

Developing Creativciiess. I f the first six stages have beer, managed successfully then the sevwth of Erickson's stages, that of developing a sense of creativeness, is readily developed. During this last stage the;e seems to be the tendency to turn a- way from self-centeredness toward welfare of family and children.

Integrity, Not Despair. Integrity as used by Erikson means a state of mind in which one accepts himself as he is. He val- ues the common attributes we believe are necessary to hold society together; name- ly, justice, courage and ideals. I f the great majority of peopie do not have integrity, w e cannot expect the very young young- sters to develop it.2

11

Common Crises of the Growing Years. Bonato Overstreet stated in his book Un- derstanding Fear In Ourse!ves and Others that at the completion o i infancy and tod- dlerhoad t h e child is facing the off-to- school period as a real human. “All his past fears and affections, failures and suc- cesses. have become - as they will remain - part of his equipment for meeting new paople and new problems.” Harry Stack Sullivan uses the term juvenile area for the period that starts about the time the youngster begins school. Sullivan observed that at this stage the child ceases to be sat- isfied as he generally was before with hi, environment of authoritative parents, pets, toys, and other objects. His interests now shift to persons much like himself. t i e is entering into shared expe:iences with his contemporaries at this stage. I f the parents have been reasonably wise, the individuai somehow i s prepared for what he is to en- counter in this new experience. School brings the experience in adjusting oneself to authority. I f the youngster has teach- ers who are wise and kind and make him feel that home i s not the m l y safe place and that his expectations he brought with hiin are realistic enough for a firm founda- tion for new relationships with peers, the individual stands a fair chance of coming through the juvenile area with well bal- anced attitudes toward cooperation, com- petition. and compromise. The friendship and security fostered in the individual will ease many of the inner conflicts that ear- lier absorbed his attention in the pre-ad- olescent period; he i s able then to eagerly enter into the processes of learning as nev- er before.

In our culture, adolescence i s stressfu; enough to rate as a kind of emotional ill- ness for many and it is not unusual for them to reach chronological maturity still handicapped by those stresses. We often see men and women who have rxwer out- grown preoccupation with emotional pro- blems that should have been solved by the end of adolescence. The adolescent might also retreat to rigid conservatism - the tendency toward setting up inflexible standards in certain areas of behavior and then ostracizing anyone who transgressed these standatds; for example. not wearing the right clothes, knowing the right slang, or exhibiting interest in the right activities.

Bodily change i s accompanied by many intense feelings, some pleasurable and some frightening. I f the adolescent has been made to feel guilty during early cnild- hood ahorit his sexual nature xtd with parent relationships, his diffic1:ities will

more likely be increased as he faces the re- ality of life’s situations.

Changes are taking place throughoet the life pattern and some of the self-cen- tering fears change to a social nature: such as, fear of not being popular, of saying things that may make people laugh a t one, of being left out of the group, of not being liked by a member of the opposite sex. of failing in school or in other ways. At this time, the gap in understanding between adolescents and adults i s widening and they do not seem to talk the same lang- uage. The intense self-preoccupation of the adolescent causes him to judge his par- ents as either assets or liabilities. Some ad- olescents feel their parents do not behave according to the standards that their group sets up for parents. There may be a feeling of embarrassment based on talk and dress of the parent. Some adolescevts believe that parents cannot provide resources suf- ficient to bolster the ego of the young a- dult.

The gap may be widened by parevts who lecture to their children rather ?ha9 listen to them, or by spending a minitrum of time in real involvement with their chil- &en.

If a person successfully “recovers” from adolescence according tc Bonaro Overstreet, he will emerge with new com- petence in several v i ta l areas of life. A!- though the life crises will continue as long as l i f e goes on, there will be the compe- ieme and readiness to establish useful work which will net a living and self-re- spect, to take parenta! responsibilities, to shbre responsibiiities as a citizen, to seek teaming opportunities for himself when additional knowledge i s needed, to make long range plans with adaptive consistency arid to tolerate differences in others wirh- out undue emotional stress.3

Factors and Influences on Creative Thinking.

Dr. Alex Osborn referred to the uni- versality of creativity as imaginative talent and he noted that scientific tests for apti- tude have revealed universality of creative potential. He further stated that an analy- sis of almost all psychological tests pointed to the conclusion that creative talent is normally distributed, - “that all of us pos- sess this talent to a lesser or greater degree -and that our creative efficacyvaries more in ratio to our output of mental energy than in the ratio to our inborn talent.” He stated that scientific findings are born out of countless cases of ordinxy people who have shown extraordinary creative power.

During crises situations, including war. man has proven his ability to think creatively. Children in their developmeotal years of ages 4 and 5, are genera!!y imaginative us- ing fantasy in their adaptation to life s i t - uations which is a normal part of the 3e- velopmental process. In some cases, ac- cording to this author, abnormal talent fiames early in life and then later burns out and he used the term “infant prodi- gies”. Obviously, creztive pzvie;’ does riot necessari!y wane with use. Many continue to develop their creative abilities and some through various experiences in the l i f e process become even more creative a t a la- ter age. There are many examples of crea- tive thinking in the literature. In fact, Pro- fessor Harvey C. Lehman of Ohio Universi- ty cited scholarly evidence to show that creativity defies the calendar. One of his studies covered notables who had thought up ideas of importance to the world. Of the 1,000 or more creative achievements listed he noted, “the median age at which such creativity occurred was 74.”

The Sex Factor in Creativity. In the literature there is some evidence that girls showed 40% superiority over the boys in fluency of idez. P:2fessor I-ehman can a- gain be credited with showing in another study the record of noteworthy creativity being higher among males than among fe- males. Perhaps it has only been recently that women have had a chance to spread their creative wings. Dr. E. Paul Torrance in his exploratory study a t the Universit.y of Minnesota on “Sex - Role Identifica- tion and Creative Thinking,” showed no significant relationship between the tctal creativity scores and the mascu1inity:fem- inity scores for either males or females. Obvious!y, there needs to be more shdy to make a conclusive statement.

The Educational Factor in Creativity. Students with high intciligence are not necessarily those who produce the most original ideas and to be extremely intelli- gent i s not the same as to be a gifted per- son in creative work, according to theo- rists. In relation to scientific tests for cre- ztive aptitude there has been little differ- ence shown between college and non-col- lege people of like ages. History records show :hat n;any grc-at ideas have come f r a m those individuals devoid of special- ized training in the problem involved and wc could note cases where untrained peo- ple have creatively out-thought the highly trained.

The Factor of Effort in Creativity. The driving power seems to be one of the most important factors involving creativity, ra-

ther than our knowledge or talent. Dr. Os- born has cited a tiumber of examples in which the effort and investment of mental energy had bee:.r the predominant factor in relation to creative thinking.4

Factors Ttiat Tend to Cramp Creativity. A tkiinking mind is mainly twofold: 1)

a judicial mind which analyzes, compares, <:id chooses and 2) a creative mind which visualizes, foresees, and gcnera tes ideas. Dr. Osborn said that judgment can help keep imagination on the track and imagin- ation can help enlighten judgment. Bcih judicial and creative effort are alike in some ways. The judicial mind breaks facts down, i t then weiyhs and compares them and follows by rejecting or keeping them and then puts them together with the re- sultant elements forming a conclusion. The creative mind does much of the same thing; however, the end product i s an idea instead of a verdict. Judgment tends t G confine itself to facts where imagination

Judgment for the average person grows automatically with years while creativity may well dwindle unless consciously kept up. Certain circumstances force us to use our traditional mind most of our waking hours. We are required to exercise judg- ment from childhood throughout our lives and this process is strengthened by educa- tion. The two moods of creativity and judgment are in some conflict and tend to clash unless properly coordinated. For ex- ample, the right mood for judicial thinking is largely negative like saying “What’s wrong with this?” or ”No. that can’t wot k!” Out creative thinking though cdis for positive attitudes in which we have to be hopeful and have need for enthusiasm. We need to encourage ourselves even to the point of self-confidence. Judgment and imagination can help each other if kept apart when tney should be kept apart. From time to time we must turn of f judi- cial thinking and light up with our creative mind, There mtist be enough time elapse, otherwise premature judgment may over- come the creative flames and even reso!ve or wash away ideas already generated. In approaching a creative problem we should give imagination priority over jlidgment and let it roam around the objective of the creative approach to the problem. This could alsc involve thinking up the wildest ideas possible that might be applicable.

Previous Habits Hinder Problem-Solv- i q . I f we are victimized by habit, we may very ;veil lose some of our creativity as we mature. As a result of experience and ed-

has to reach out for tne unknown. 13

ucation we may develop inhibitions tend- ing to make CIS more rigid in our thinking which would automatically militate against our attaching new problems with imagina- t i ve approaches.

Self Discou;sgement as a Deterrent. Self discouragement is a stifler of creativi- ty. The yen to conform also militates dgainst craativity. Conventionalism is a great discourager of origina!ity. The Fear of looking foolish i s a conimon emotional block to creativity. Timidity may well stem from genuine doubt of one's own a- bility to be creative. Frequently when we do think up good ideas, we are hesitant to share them because of concerns of how they wil! be received by other individuals. When we have started on a project, timidi- ty tends to halt us and interfere with our progress.

Encouragement cultivates ideation, and intimates can encourage best. It was further noted by Dr. Osborn that discour- agement hurts creativity probably the most coming from those we love. Within a fam- ily group praise is a t its greatest premium. He went OR to say that parents should stop, look, and listen before uttering the slightest discouragement of a child's crea- tive efforts. Praise nelps the child creative- ly if given face-t3-face and may be even more powei.ful i f spoken to others and then overheard by the child, he stated. It is noted that most of us are highly imagin- ative in childhood and yet many do grow up to be non-creative. One reason given for this i s that as a nation we have not made enough of the importance of ideas. Another reason given i s that many parents are guilty of actively discouraging the child or not giving encouragement. I! i s further noted that brothers and sisters in many cases tend to be sorncvhat sadistic toward each other, look for a laugh in anything the other has done or tried to do: Other relatives such as uncles, aunts, granaparents are more inclined perhaps to enhearteii ra- ther than to di~hearten.~

The Creative Studies Project a t the State University College a t Baffalo was in- augurated in September, 1969 t o help im- plement the objectives of evaluating the impact of a creative problem-solvina cilr- riculum on various aspects of co!lege stu- dents' behavior, present. future, in class, in college life and in the larger community. This i s an interdisciplinary effort to re- search the nature and nurture of creative behavior, and to translate findings into ed- uzational programs. A research sample was randomly selected from over 350 appli- cants for the Creative Studies Program.

14

These applicants represent almost one- third of the freshmen groups to whom the program was offered. From the total body of applicants, 150 were randomly placed into the experimental group to receive Cre- ative Studies Courses. An equivalent num- ber were randomly assigned to the control group who were to receive no special course in Creative Studies until after the conclusion of the two-year project.

Final evaluation of the four-year ex- perimental program will be completed and plans made for follow-up evaluation of the professional and graduate work of expcr- mental and control subjects. Tnere will be 3 provision for advanced graduate Seminars in Creative Studies, as well as further inde- pendent study activities.

The research dealt with four major is- sues, one of which was effectiveness O F the specific creative problem-solving principle of deferred judgment. This is a principle which cal ls for deliberate deferment of judgment during idea-finding to avoid t-,am- pering imagination-followed by judgment after a widevariety of alternatives is listed. This is applicable to individual idea-finding as well as to group collaboration.

There were two major findings regard- ing this particular principle in the four semester study. Groups producing ideas on a creative problem-solving task produced more good-quality ideas when they ad- hered to the deferred judgment principle than when they employed more conven- tional discussion methods including con- current evaluation of ideas. Groups ad- hering to the principle of deferred judg- ment also were more productive of good- quality ideas than the same number of in- dividuals working indapendently under conventional rnetllods using evaluation concurrently.

New knowledge derived at the State University of New York a t Buffalo and elsewhere has been incorporated into many activities to develop creative behavior a t the annual institutes for the past 17 years. These institutes have been held to study research and developments in major areas such as education, government and indus- try. Resulting knowledge continues t o be integrated eacn year into new programs.

SUMMARY An attempt has been made to relate

the concept of judgment to creativity. Judgment. i t was noted, as part of life

experiences throughout the growth process influences the self concept and affects the development and use of creativity.

The creativity potential in people was

described as ufiiversal. A number of influ- ential factors which may discourage the use of creative abilities were noted. En- couragement of creativity by significant associates was one important recommen- dation. Praise was cited as providing the greatest premium within a family group.

Studies reveal that creative- produc t iv- i ty levels have been significantly increased by deliberate educational programs in cre- ative problem-solving.

PFarnsworth. Dana L. "Mental Heaith: A Point of View." In Psychiatric Nursing, Vol. 1. b y Dorothy Mercness. Dubuque. IOWJ: Wm. C. Brown Publlsh- ers, 1 9 6 6 . PO. 8-12.

30vcrstreet. Bonaro W. Understanding Fear i n Our- selves and Others. N e w York: Collier Books, 1 9 5 1 ,

40sborn. Alex F. Applied Imagination. Third Edition. N e w York: Charles Scrioner's Sons, 1963, pp. 15-25.

5lbid.. PP. 39-55.

pp. 52-59.

GParnes. Sidney J. alld Noller. Ruth 0. "Applled Cre- ativity: T h e Creative Studies Project". In T h e .'our- nal o f Creative Behavior, VoI. 6. No. 1, Firrt Quarter. 1972. PP. 11-16.

REFERENCES ITorrancc. E. Paul. "Can We Teach Children T o T h i n k

T h e Journal of Creative Behavior. Vol. Creatively?" G, No. 2. Second Quarter. 1972. pp. 132-133.

15

on crealivily In nursing

Myra Estrin Levine, Associate Professor, Loyola University, Chic'iqo. Illinois.

Nursing, like Medicine, is an Art and a Science. Since Hippocrates, the care of the sick has been so described, and the ancient physician's words still ring true. In Greek, medicine is described as techn6 iatrik6: the skill, craft, technique of healing. And while knowledge (science) i s an essential aspect of the healing professions, the ancient au- thor never fails to acknowledge that medi- cine is a "practical and beneficial art'I.1 But the generations which have successful- ly categorized the content of science, have added little to the systematic description of the art. There is always the proposition that such talent is "natural-born", and the implicit idea that the artistic use of know-

ledge is somehow past rational explanation. The Art is i;nbued with a n aura of mystery, somehow achieved by some persons, but not tea,chable to those who do not have the God-given spark.

Scientific thought has little patience with the artistic mode. Even though des- criptions of remarkably perceptive exper- imental designs have been acclaimed for their artistry, the essential sciertific con- cerns have been analytical, bound to fact and valid only in the degree they success- fu!ly reflect the scientist'; iliew of reality. Science has fashioned a reality where the results of i t s explorationc must meet the test of utility. Bruner has emphasized that