!INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC POLICY ISSN 1119-0795

Volume 5, Number 2, September,·2002

Improving The Compliance Level of The Hard-To-Tax-Group in Nigeria Ibiang, Okoi 0.

The Evolution of Value Added Tax (VAT) in Nigeria: E.E. Attah

Periscoping Value Added Tax in The Nigerian Economy: Some Contending Issues: Patrick L. Akpan

Capital Sourcing Methods By Gender Among Nigerian Cocoa Marketers: Akinola, Grace 0/uyemisi

The Effect of Motivational Incentives on The Performance of Voluntary Workers of Disease Control Programme in Cross River State: Bassey B. Es11 . . . . . . . . . . ..

Productivity Improvement Techniques in Small Scale Enterprises: &J. lnyang

Credit Policy And Profitability of The Finn: S.A. Effiong ..

The Privatization Option in Restructuring The Education Sector in Nigeria.: Akpan, Emmanuel Isaiah

Developing Effective Policy on Consumer Welfare in Nigeria.: Nsobiari F Awara

Poor Revenue Base of Local Government: Causes and Cures: E.J. C. Dum

Career Development and Optimization of Human Resources Uses in The Emerging Technologies: The Conflicts and Possible ~esolutions: Adeoye Abayomi Olarewaj11 ... ... .. .

Efficiency, .Effectiveness, and Economy in Governance in The 21st Century: Budget Analysis as a Tool: AnyoAdesopo ... .. . .. . ... ... · .. . ... ...

The Cameroon Woman's Status and Political Economy: Ngum Afarlha

1-pte Electronic Media And The Democratization Process in Nigeria As a Developing Country· ~olomon U. Ezenibe .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . ..

Early Personality Development: A Foundation For a Healthy Adult Life: Robert B. Etor

~ibrary Readi~g as An Instrument For Survival and National Development: The University of Calabar Expenencc. A .(ton E. Etuk .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . . .. .. .

Effect Of Credit Use On Gross Margins In Food Crop Enterprises Of Small Scale Farmers In Cross River State, Nigeria: D.!. Agom and I. C. ldiong · . . . . . . ..

Basic Social Indicators For The promotion of Primary Health Care.: Emmanuel C. IhejiamaiZII.

The Macro-Economics of Nigerian Agriculture: The New Realities and Alternative Development Path: Okon E. Akpan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . ..

The Politics of Deregulation of the Down-Strean Sector of the Oil Industry: Boypa 0. Egbe & J.O. Ewah.

1/ Book Review: The Sociology of Traditional and Modern Political Administrative Systems and Some Contentious Issues in Contt.'tllporary Nigeria by E.C. fuejiamaizu and B.O. Egbe. Reviewer: Patrick A. Assibong

Editor-in-Chief: E.~. lhejiamaizu

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Published by International Social Science and Public Policy Research Association

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EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

EMMANUEL C. IHEJIAMAIZU Editor-in-Chief

JAMESOKORO FRANCES N. OBAFEMI (:MRS.) STELLA I. EKPE UCHENNA B.S. OFOHA (Esq)

Deputy Editor Secretary/Managing Editor Associate Editor Legal Adviser/production Editor

BOARD OF REFEREES Prof.O.E. Uya University ofCalabar Prof. M.O. Ebong University of Calabar Prof. V.C. Uchendu Abia State University, Uturu Prof. J.G. Ottong University ofCalabar Prof. D.I. Denga University ofCalabar Prof. U.O. Umozurike Abia State University, Uturu Prof. Akpan H. Ekpo University ofUyo Prof. Okon Essien University ofCalabar Prof. M.L Iro Enugu State University of Science & Technology.

Prof. Etop J. Usoro University ofUyo Prof. S.N.N. Iwe University of Calabar Prof. E.W. Mbipom University ofCalabar Prof. D.N. Nwachukwu University ofCalabar Prof. H.I. Ajaegbu PEDA, Jos. Dr. Nduba Echezona University ofNigeria, Nsukka Dr. M.A. Nwangwa University ofCalabar Dr. C.O. Bassey University ofCalabar Dr. M.O. Nyong University ofCalabar

International Journal of Social Science and Public Policy (IJSSPP), is published twice a year - March a September by ISSAPPRA, a non-profit research association. ISSAPPRA seeks to advance knowledge of 1 interrelationship between Social science research and public policy issues. Thus, IJSSPP is the official cham for disseminating research finding with a view to providing a forum for discussion of related issues in b< developed and developing countries. All rights, including translation into other languages are reserved t

der the Universal Copyright Convention. However, all views expressed in articles are those of the auth< and not that of ISSAPPRA.

~ 2002 by the International Social Science and Public Policy Research Association. Computer Typesetting b) Eden Investment Company, 14 Efio-Ene Street, Calabar. Printed in Nigeria by EMMADEX Printing Press, 11 Andrew Bassey Street, Calabar. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number A021692. ISSN 1ll9-0795.

EDITORIAL OFFICE: INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC POLICY & ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR, CALAAR, NIGERIA E-mail - ijsspped@yahoo.com

CONTENTS

Iiiii'~''" i11~ Th.: Compli<tnc.: l.cvcl o i' Thc l larJ-To-Tax-Group in N igl.!r ia: lhiung, Okui ()

Thl· Evo lution ofValue Adtkd Tax (VAT) in Nigeria: E.E At tah 10

Periscoping Value A dded T ax in The Nigerian Economy: Some Contending Issues: Patrick L. Akpan 1'8

C;-~pital Sourcing Methods By Gender A mong Niger ian Cocoa Marketers: Akinola, Grace. Oiu_t·c·'?'isi 30.

Thl· E I'!Cct of M otivationa I Incentives on The Performance of Voluntary Workers of Di sease· • . Control Programme in Cross River State: Baseey B. Esu 40

Productivi ty Improvement Tl!chn iques in Small Scale Enterprises : B.J lnyang 51

Crl·dit Policy 1\nd Profitabilit~ of The Firm: S.A Effiong 63

Thl· Jlri,mization Option in l{estructuring The Education Sector in N igeria: A kpan, Emmanuel Isaiah 8·1

l)c\cloping El't'ect ive Policy in Consumer Welfnre in Nigeria: Nsohiari F. Awura 92

Poor Rt.:\ l!nuc B<tsc or Local ( im crnmcnt Causcs and Cures: E.J .C Duru I 03

l'<ll"l'l'l" I )l'\ clopmcnt and Opt illlil.<llion or Human Rl!SOlii'Cl:S Uses in The Emerging Technologies: I" he L'onll icts and Possible Resolutions: I 12

HliL·iL·nc~. E!Tectivencss. and Economy in Governance in T he 21 " Century Budget Analysis as 1\ Tool: .-lriyv Adesopo 12(1

·1 he Cameroon Woman·s Stntus and Political Economy: Ngum ."vvartha ... J.HJ

The U ect ronic Media And The Democmtizat ion process in N igeria A s a Developing Country: .<iolomon U. E: eribe I )7

l :<trl~ 1\:rsonality Dl! vc lopm<.:nl : 1\ FounJation l-or a l lealthy Adult L ife: Rohert B. Ettor . . . I (12

Library Reading as A n Instrument For Survival and National Development: The University of Calnhar Expe t· ience. tv(fon E. Etuk . . . 170

Ll'i"cct O J" Credit Use On ()ross Margins In Food Crop Enterr ri ses OfSmnl l Scale ranncrs In Cross l{ivcr State. Nigeria: /J. / . . -/~o111 and /. C. !diong 179

n ~~.,ic Sm.: ial Indicators For The Promotion of primary l lealth Care: . Emmanuel C. lhejiamai:u. I lJ()

The Macro-Economics of Nigerian Agriculture: The New Rea li ties and Alternat ive Development Path: Okun f. .·1 kpun 202

The l)o litics of Deregulat ion of the Down-Stream Sector of the Oil i ndustry : lltllf'" (! 1---.!!.h<' & .I () F.ll'uh 2 19

Bou1, Re\ iew: Thl: Sociolog) oi"J raditional and tv1odern Po l itica l Admin istrat ive System and Some Con tetllions Issues 111 Contemporary Nigeria by E. C. lhej iamaizu and B. 0. Egbe. Re\ i\YCr: Patrick rl. rlssibong 235

flllernationai.Journal ufSociul Science ond Public Pulh:1·

2\S

BOOK Tl'1'1 E THE SOC IOU)(iY OF TRADITIONAL AN D MODERN POLITICA L .-\DI\11~ IST :<ATIVE SYSTEMS AN D S0 :\1E CONT ENTIOUS ISSUES I\ CONTEMPORARY NIGERIA.

AUTHO RS [HZ. Efvl r>v1ANtJEL C. 1!-IEJl:l..Pvl A lZU AND M R. BOYPA 0 . EGBE

YEAR fd' f'UI~LICATlON· 200i

REV IEWER : DR. PATRlC K A. ASSIBONG

PUBLJ ~. !-· Ef,S ~. H<.lCA . 1 SCHOLARS PUBLIS HING COM PANY, 0 \VERRI

PACES· 302 \.

·ri1 e: publicz(on of fl1·~ fourteen chapters book, The Sociology of' Tradition[// tmd

Jx.fg_d_Qn _l~Q)Iticnf__/l dminJ:.,·tj_~J_!J)y _5_y_stcms ~1/Jd so_{[IC Contentious Issues in Contcmporwy

:.."Vi.r;crig by the above prolific w•itt; rs Dr. lhej iamaizu and Mr. Eg be at thi s period when

Nigena:1 ~~ Stdi stmggling to find her bearing in a t:·aumatised eco logical setting, could not

have bee11 more timely. With the 2003 e lections a round the comer, polit icians, academics,

undergraduates, laymen and even potent ia I poli tical thugs would gain much from the text

book under review especia lly as the two authors tried and succeeded in charting a new path

for a ll stakeholders in governmem to follow: na mely - that for the Nigerian po litical system

to be truly democrat ic, the el11"es must bo rrow w isdom f rom the Nigeria indigenous

multit~mous traclltiona l poli ti('al systems whi ch can be "panel beaten" and used to help in

the survival and deve lop ment of the much sought fo r democracy in the year 2003 and

beyond.

In driving the above 1~ rognoses for action home, th e a uthors used the cent ralised

political systems of the Yo rub<t, Hausa and J ukun and the non-centralised political systems

of the lgbo, Yaku rr and lbibio as a point of dep~rture. Traditiona l rational ity in the se lection

of leaders in the above ethn ic groups was brought to the fore by stressing the fact that the

process of select ion was sanctioned by spi rit ua l ekmcnt which guaranteed respect fo r the

rules oftlw politica l ga me s ince the gods of the land were consulted to intervene by he lping

the king nukers select t11e right leader.

Se.:ond ly, Lhe treatment oft11e zbove six ind igenous t raditional pol it ical systems by

Dr. fhejiama1zu :~nd Mr. Egbe, rc·;t~a led that all th e t ra :f;tional systems adhered strictl y to the

tenets of constitutiona lism wh ic-h Euro-centric scholars have often given one sided credit to

western dt: 110..:1 acws.

lntcnwrion,!I.Jounw! of'Soct>il S.:_·icncc and Public Policy

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Book Review

lbe above prescriptions (rationality and constitutionality) which are graohica lly and

, vividly presented in their book between chapters three <:nc four are missing ingredients in

th e body politic of Nigeria before <l11d aft·:~r in dependence and this gho~;t h;:,s been haunting

the country to this day-end product? Coups, counter coups, fabricated coups. corrupt and

inept leadership.

Jn addressing the above i:;sues, the authors revisited the almost forg:,tten ind irect

rule system, trad ition and democracy, trad1tion and social shange in Nige:·i;:i wh ;ch helped in

situating their analysis of modern adm in drative !;ystem, ethnicity and :1ationz.! integration:

n arginalisat ion and the politic<lt future of N igeria; corrupti•)ll and Nigeria's

underdevelopment; the vexed and co:1tentious issue of e;ource control: den;g·.dation of the

down-stream sector of the oil industry and th,~ place of the natioaal orwntation in

guaranteeing the ~;tability ofNiger.ia in its proper perspective.

Throughout tbe book, the authors succeeded in showing tl'::Jt. rationality,

constitutionality, credibility, accountability, transparency, service to h uman:ty, trust, truth,

and diplomatic practice was a lso in the character of traditional poli1 ico-socio-economic

systems in Nigeria before the institlltionaii.sation of indirect rule cum colonial ism and that

fix N igeria to be truly democratic and for her to enjoy any modicum of political stability in

this millennium, Nigeri.:ln political elites must learn from the successes recorded in

traditional admini strative c,ystems in Nigeria ante colonialism. To comme•1t the above

exposition, the a uthors had this to say:

llle major strensrth in tlH~se .. is the p revalence of merit in all

politi:.:al affairs . Also we leam from these societies that

democratic princip les, communalism, selfless serv1ce,

accountability and co-operation characterised governance and

thus ensured stability, so<:ia! cohes ion and economic progress

Therefore, modern N igeria can learn from them (Ihejiamaizu &

Egbe. 200 I :94)

To show that the two seasoned writers are not arm chair th,~oreticians who arE. r reoccupied

with the exuberance of their own verbosity by only criticising Nigeria's modern Political

Administrative System, they presented \':hat they chri5tened their '"P,gcnda for political

stability in N igeria" in the last chapter (XIV) of their book which expla ined the need for tl1e

new Nigeria to re-conceptualise ~he notion of Nation-State, develop pos iti•tE:: attitudinal

disposition; prepare to emb race reforms. the Heed to re.- ivc traditional Afi'tc3 il valuC!s; re­

enact a truly democratic constitution devoid of the Zamfzra Muslim syndrorm~; acceptance

of dialogue and consensus; the g•.wemmcnt providing the basic needs of her citizens and

fc reigners al ike; creation of the enabh'1g enviror:me·nt for eq~1al opportunities; tderance:

Vol. 5 Number 2, Septcmhcl: ~'(!{)]

IJ oo k R '-'~' ic w

wide and pop~dar political participation; genuine concern for each others welfare and a call

for a ~·) '.e rcigJJ national conference \vhere the grey areas ofNigeria's 43 years of pretentious

existence as a nation vvould be adequately and finally addressed.

ln the history of write1 s in I\ igeria. I do not know of any other pair which has

written so extensively and pedagogical ly on extant and current issues about Nigeria as

Emmanuel and Boypa but sine~: every coin has two sides, we have no option than to state

some deticiencies of the book which may help them update their book in subsequent

editions.

in terms of geographicai spread, the Ejagham speaking people are the largest ethnic

group 1:1 the Cross R1ver State. They arc fou nd in Akim Qua Town, Big Qua Town, lkot

Ansa, lkot Om in (c1ght miles), Odukpani, Akamkpa, Etung and parts of Ogoja and Ikom yet

the auth(:rs chcse to adopt '\akurr as case study. 1l1is almost conspiratorial neglect started

when Akwa lbolll w::~s not crc-Jted and Efi k was chosen as the State language, followed by

Bekw:nra whde Ejagham cam~ a poor third an d last. The news translations in vernacular

were/arc prcs•Jnt ed in the above order even when the Akim Chiefs and people donated the

area of l1 •• J housing the Radio and Television Stations.

H:,d the two nutltors consulted Professor Erirn 0 . Erim who was lavishly

acknowledge on page vi of the book under review; had they consulted Dr. Sandy Ojru1g

Onor's book, Th~,; EJagham f'!;J.'ioi]_J.l!J/ms0v "' I qq,~ by Kraft Books Limited, lbJdan, had

they vis1ted the Ndidcm Lisa11g !so of A ki m (~u:l Tovv~n , had th ey ... they woulc, have

collected enough materia l- whach would h"vc he lped them situate their Yakurr experience

within the larger Ejagham family. For th e reprint cf subsequent editions, the two authors

could revisit Dr. Onor's book particularly chapter fc::ll r, page 86 - I I 7. Nigeria has a lot to

learn from the Ejagha m t raditil)m:l political svstcm \,·hich is actually the crad le of all Bantu

Traditional Politica l Organizations in Nigeria and beyond.

l11e second fundamental limitation vf the book is the total absence of visual aids

like photographs, maps, diagrams, graphs, tables e:c. which are supposed to be included in

text books at the university level neither did the authors remember to include

study/(~xam ination questions which wou ld have helped the students to prepare for thei r

examinations.

The chapter summaries are rat11er sketchy and the sub-heading would have been printed in colour to amplify the contrast and add colour and glamour to the book.

Lastly, one would have expected th e authors to include a comprehensive bibliography at the end of the book which includes all the books used from chapter one to chapter fourteen. For a project of this magnitude, the two prolific writers have no excuse.

As stated earlier, the two authors have given a good account of their academic credentials in that within 302 pages, they have succeeded in presenting very credible and convincing information about l 71c Sociology ol Traditional and Modem Political Administrative Systems :wd Some Contentious Issues in Contcmpor:.uy Nigcrit.J.

lntcmntional.loumal o(Socinl Science :md Public Policy

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INTEI?.N K f lOl'\AL REPORT

The Global Science P:-Inel 0 11 Population in Susta i11able Dc,·:: lopmcnt

ll1e forthcoming World Sumn·it on Susta in<11Jle Devclcpme11t (WSSD) m

Jchannesburg, South Africa (26 Augt•st - 4 Septe;nb~~r 2002) has been cailed by the United

Nations to consider strategies tO\\ard sustainable devclopr:.ent in all its d imensions. Hence,

its mandate is broader than that of the I 992 Un ited Nations Conference on Enviro11ment and

Developmwt (the Rio Conference). Population issues have previously been d:scussed in a

separate series of World Population Conferences (Bucharest 1974, Mexico C~,, 1984, Ca iro

I 994) With no new World Popu l<Jtion Con ferenc3 scheduled for 2004 and J 'Jhannesburg

having a mandate that explicitly includes soci31 and econontic aspects, popubtion as a key

component of sustainable development should figure prolllincntly in the deliberations. Yet,

after the third of four preparatory meeting~; for WSSD (which ended in New York on .'i

Apri l), popu lation considerations are absent from the planned agenda

A plausible explar1c:rlion for this abse.1ce is bureancratic: in most countries inputs to

Johannesburg arc being prepared mainl y by environmc:1t ministries th:1t have little

experience in dealing with population questions. There may also bC' politica l r(·a•;ons for not

wantin g to discu~;s population issues in Joh:lllnesburg But, argaa bly. sustainable

development strategies that do not take ir 1t o account the drversity and the d}llamics of

human popu lations will fail. Thi:.; is one of the conclusions 0f the Globa l Scie11c~ Panel on

Population and Envircnment. !lt3 Panel is a:1 independent body of internc:tional experts

from the fields of population Cll '. tl environment that was crg:mized by the l nt 1~mational

In.;titute for Applied Systems A1.alysis (lJASA), the lntema tional union for th~ Scientific

Study of Population (I USSP), and th e Un itcd Nations Un ivc•·sit y (UN U). (Mcn b;::rs of the

Panel acted in their individua l capacity, rather tJ1an rcpre~;en~ing their institutions). After a

ten-month preparatory process, in April 2002 the Fane! finalized a :; la11~:11cnt that

summarizes its under!>tanding of the ro le of popu lation in sustainable development and

outlines key policy priorities. ll1c fJ.I text of this statement, titled Populatron in sustainable development, is reproduced below.

If we do not put the hnman popula tion at the C·Jre of the sustainc:bie development

agenda, our efforts to improve human well··being and preserve the qu<!'ity of the

ern ·ironment will fa il. The Johannesb rrg Summit must h;)ed th3 first princrple ~~f tJ1C i ~<)2

Rio Declaration - that "human be:1gs arc at the cente; of concern for sustainable

development" - by taking full accotmt of how pouulation aud society .nteract v.ith the

natural environment.

Susta inable development <1ims at improving huma n well -being, partiCI:'ady through

a lleviat ing poverty, in creasing gender equity, and improv in:_j health, human res-:-; rrccs, and

stewa rdsh ip of the natural en vironment. 8e-.:~r u sc dcmogr; tp_luc f:1ctors arc closely linked to

these goals, strategies that include consideration of population have a better ci1ance of

success.

Vo/5/Vumb:-r." S<'f'/(mh( ·.t . YJfJ.?

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239

llltcfiJ,Jfloll:ll Ncpurt

·n1e lntcmational Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994

recognized that pop1.'ation rolicv should be oriented toward imp roving social cond itions

and expanding choices for individuals. 1l1e key recognition was that focusing on people­

their rights, capabilities, and opportw1ities - would have multiple benefits for individuals,

for society, and for their sustainable relationship wiLl-t the environment.

Hence in Johannesburg, consideration of sustainable development policies must

include populatio11 growth and distribution, mobility, differential vulnerability, and the

empowerment of peop le, especialiy women .

A demographically diverse world

We live in a world of unprecedented demographic change. Global population

increased by 2 billion during 1J1e last quarter of the 20'" century, reaching 6 billion in 2000.

Despite declming fertility rates, population is expected to increase by another 2 billion

during the first decades of the 21 '' century. Near!y all of this growth will occur in

developing countries and wi ll be concentrated among the poorest communities and in urban

areas. We also live in a world of unprecedented demographic di versity. Traditional

demographic growpings of countries are breaking down . Over the next 25 years increases in

population in sub-Saharan Africa. South Asia, and the Middl e East are expected to be larger

than in the past CJ it<lJter century. and g rowth in No1th Am erica will be subst:llltial ;'IS wel l. In

contrast, in most European ~ountnes and 111 East Asia, population growth has slowed or

stopped and rapid population aging has become ;1 serious concern. l'vlortality also varies

w idely across regions, with the burden of infectious disease, i.t~cluding HlV/ AIDS, being

particularly heavy in Africa. In addition. levels of n•obility, urbanization , and educat10n

differ substantial ly among and wirhin regions, affecting economic and health outlooks.

Th is di versity presents di fferent challenges requiring differentiated responses. l11e

most urgent of these occur where rapid population growth, high levels of poverty, and

environmental degradation coincide.

Population matters to development and environment

Research has shown that changes in population growth, age structure, and spatial distribution interact closely with the environment and with development. Rapid population growth has exacerbated freshwater depletion, climate change, biodiversity loss, depletion of fisheries and other coastal resou rces, .:md degradation of agricultural lands. Fertility decline in high-fertility countries, by slowing population growth, can make many environmental p roblems easier to solve. It can also have important economic benefits by reducing the number of children relative to the working-age popu lation. creating a unique opportunity to increase investments in health, education, infrastructure, and environmental protection.

!ntcmatiomzl Jv::nwl otSocial s._·icncc and Public Polhy

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fntcmat ion:il R cpo:-r

In high-income countries, the environmental .'impact of populat ion growth Jnd

di5'tribution must be considered jointly with high consumotion rates. Even in countries

where little growth is envisioned, unsustainable pattern~ of consumption have global

implications for the environmer:t and human well-being. and must be add::)ssed with

appropriate policies.

Before the end oftJ1is decade, a majority oftJ1c world ·s popula tio'l will live in urban

areas. Urbanization can improw peopie's access to education, health, and ot her !:ervices. It

also creates environmental health hazards, such as water and air poll ut:on, and by increasing

consumption levels, can have environmental impacts in distant rura l ar\:as as weli

l11e mobility and spatia l distributi on of populations, especially at local and reg ional

sca les, is a significant determinant of susoinability. \Vhere the population lives and works

relative to the location ofnatural resource:; affects en vironmenta l qu<~ li ty. The e>:pansion of

the agricultural frontier and otJ1e1· huP1an acti vi ty is encro:.1clung on fragile ecosystems in

m.,ny parts ofthe world.

Policy must account for differential vulnerability" ithin P'Jpu lations

Deteriorating environmental cond itions and e;;tr~me events do not affect all

countries, populations, or households in th ;) same way Even with in a hot~ schold, th e effects

may differ by age and gender. Conside!ralion of vulne rability must therefon; fxus not onl y

on countries but also on the most vulnerable segments of the popu latio1 1 w;tilln countries.

Many factors contribute to vulnerability, i.1cluding poverty. poor hv·. lth, low levels

of education, gender inequality, lack of access to rcsomces aD services, anr.! unfavou rable

geographic location. Populations that are socially di sadvant aged or bck po li t:c<d voice arc

<ilso at greater risk. Particularly vulnerable pop ulat ions includ~ the poorest, least

empowered segments of the population, especially women and children Vulnerable

populations have limited capacity to p rotect themselves from ..:urrent and future

environmental J·azards, such as polluted air and \\·al'er, catastropl1es and the adverse

consequences of large-scale environmental ch:lllge .. such as land dcgrc-1c!Jtto·L hod ivcrsity

loss. and climate change.

Vulnerabil ity can be reduced by promotin \~ ~111powcrment. .r vest ing in huma n

resources, and fostering participation in pub!1c <~ ffa irs a1HI c!ccis1on-1''::1ki :1g

Empowerment through cducatio.1 and rcproduclivc he-alth !>as mn!tip lc b~ 11t::fi i S for people

and the environment

Two policies have multiple benef1ts for indi vidL al welfare, for so::ia l ;1; · d eco•10mic

development, and for tJ1e environment. One is investment ;11 , -oluntar:, fam il y p:n nning and

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reproductive health programs. Since a substamial proportion of women in high-fertili::y

countries have more children than they actu:~lly want, these programs reduce lii!W:-tnted

childbeartng. The result1ng fertil.ty decl111e in turn reduces population growth, allowing

more time for coping with the adverse effects of that growth and easing stress on the

environment .

The oi.her top policy priority is education. Education enhances individual choice,

fosters women's empowerment. and improves gender equity. More educated people are in

better health and often contribut·~ to greater environmental awareness. The increased

economic productivity and technological advance that education induces can lead to less

pollution-i:1!ensivc production It may also reduce vuluerability to environmental changes

by facilitating access to informat:on and the means to protect oneself. Furthermore, in . countries Yvith rapid population growth, the fertility-depressing effect of educa1:ion

contributes to reducing the scale of human impact on th.~ environment .

1l1ese two policies - education and reproductive health programs - are in high

demand by individJals almost uni versally because their multiple benefits are clear. They

a lso empower individuals to make informed choices. Efforts to achieve sustainable

development should give them the highest priority.

Stren~:,rthenir,g interdisciplinary training and research

To facil itate the JOint com.ideration of population, development, and environment,

more interdisciplinary research and education addressing these topics is necessary at all

levels. Tne different disciplines should also conduct their studies in ways that make the

results mutlnlly accessible. Training 3bout the nature of these interactions is a priority issue

for the policy community, media, and scientists .

Source: Population and Development Review 23(2) (June 2002)

lnr::nwtional . .'ou.·nal of'Socinl Science and Public Policy

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