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CE 052 872

Rothstein, Frances R.

Continuing To Work: JTPA and the Older Worker. Issuesin Training and Employment.

National Association of Counties, Washington, DC.Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.May 89

99-8-1272-72-021-0229p.

Information Analyses (070)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.

*Adult Vocational Education; *Employment Programs;Middle Aged Adults; Older Adults; Recruitment;*RetrainingCarl D Perkins Vocational Education Act 1984; JobTraining Partnership Act 1982; *Older Workers

Intended to stimulate discussion within theemployment and training community, this issues paper tells how toenhance the employment opportunities for older workers, particularlythrough the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA). The documentconsists of an introduction, 23 narrative sections, references, and a28-item annotated bibliography. Each of the narrative sectionsaddresses the topic expressed as a question in its heading. Among thesection headings are How Should Current Business Trends Affect LocalJTPA Policy?, What Federal Resources Can Be Used for Older Workers?,How Can the Job Training Partnership Act Help Older Workers?, What IsTitle V, and How Well Does It Complement JTPA?, Can the Carl PerkinsAct Help Older Workers?, What Are the Pros and Cons of BroadeningIncome Eligibility for the Three Percent Program?, What Factors KeepOlder Individuals Out of the Three Percent Program?, How IsRecruiting Older People Different than Recruiting Younger Ones?, WhatAssessment Issues Relate Specifically to Older Workers?, What Are theKey Skills Training Considerations?, How Well Does On-the-jobTraining Work for Older People?, When Is Entrepreneurial TrainingAppropriate for Older Workers?, Why Are Part-Time Placements SoImportant for Older People?, How Do Wage Levels Relate to Part-TimePlacements?, How Can You Increase Your Post-Placement RetentionRates?, What Are the Key Staffing Issues for Three Percent Programs?,and What Data Should Programs Collect and Why? (CML)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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ISSUES IN TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT

TO WORK:JTPA AND TEE OLDER WORKER

Frances R. Rothstein

U L DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice 9 Educational Research and Improvement

EOUAT1ONAI. RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationOriginating it

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', men! do not necessarily represent official0E111 position of policy

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C0341"/WA-RETEffeffiNerTO WORK:

JTPA AND THE OLDER WORKER

FRANCES R. ROTHSTEIN

PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF COUNTIES

MAY 1989

This report is published under a grant from theUnit 2d States Department of Labor

99-8-1272-72-021-02

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CONTINUING TO WORK: JTPA AND THE OLPPR WORKER

Table of Contents

Preface

Continuing to Work: JTPA and the Older Worker

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Introduction 7How Should Current Business Trends Affect Local JTPA Policy? 8Who Benefits From Effective Older Worker Employment Programs? 9What Federal Resources Can Be Used for Older Workers? 10How Can the Job Training Partnership Act Help Older Workers? 10What is Title V, and How Well Does It Complement JTPA? 12Can the Carl Perkins Act Help Older Workers? 13What is the Role of Adult Basic Education? 14Why Do You Need to Know About All of the Funding Sources? 14How Real is Underexpenditure in the Three Percent Program? 15What Are the Pros and Cons of Broadening Income Eligibility for the

Three Percent Program? 16What Factors Keep Older Individuals Out of the Three Percent

Program? 16Where Were all of the Eligible Older Workers? 17How Is Recruiting Older People Different Than Recruiting

Younger Ones? 17What Assessment Issues Relate Specifically to Older Workers? 18Is Job Search Enough? 19What Are the Key Skills Training Considerations? 19How Well Does OJT Work For Older People? 20When Is Entrepreneurial Training Appropriate for Older Workers? 20Why Are Part-Time Placements so Important for Older People? 21How Do Wage Levels Relate to Part-Time Placements? 21How Can You Increase Your Post-Placement Retention Rates? 22What Are the Key Staffing Issues for Three Percent Programs? 22What Data Should Programs Collect, and Why? 23

Recommended Reading 25

Footnotes 29

CONTINUING TO WORK: JTPA AND THE OLDER WORKER

Preface

The National Association of Counties (NACo) is pleased to publish this Issue Paper entitled "Continu-ing to Work: JTPA and the Older Worker". Recently, much discussion has focused on the values ofolder workers to business because of their loyalty and productivity. There also has been muchdiscussion on the need for job training assistance for older workers. However, only recently has therebeen any constructive discussion about N chat to do to enhance the employment opportunities for olderworkers. This paper addresses those issues and offers some ideas on how to approach the problemsof older workers through JTPA.

This paper was sponsored by NACo's Training and Employment Programs, through a grant from theUnited States Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration. This paper is meantto stimulate discussion within the employment and training community. We would appreciate yourcomments. Please address your comments to Neil E. Bomberg, Research Associate and Editor, IssuePapers Series, National Association of Counties, 440 First Street, NW, Washir gton, DC 20001.

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CONTINUING TO WORK: PTA AND THE OLDER WORKER

BY FRANCES R. ROTHSTEIN

INTRODUCTION

Formany years, we as a nation have spent billionsof dollars trying to understand how to train,educate, and motivate young people, and how toplace them successfully in private sector employ-ment. la contrast, we have spent very little moneyor energy examining how to train and retrainolder workers, and how to place and retain themin the workforce. Now, we are approaching atime in which it is in the national interest todevelop productive work opportunities for olderpeople. Our continued economic growth andinternational competitiveness depend on our abil-ity to keep older workers in the workforce. Yet,we have only a small body of knowledge and ex-perience in what works, and we have only a briefwindow of opportunity in which to identify suc-cessful strategies and multiply them across thecountry. Current and projected demographicshifts are forcing us to try harder to recruit, train,and retain older workers. Along with this devel-opment, a new consensus is growing that recog-nizes older workers as "ir iportant to the successof American industry, not only as a resource forproduction but also for the maturity and experi-ence they bring to the workplace."'

Until fairly recently, most employers shared theview that their investment in recruiting, trainingand retaining older workers would not pay off.Job development for older workers was a hardsell; program staff were often unable to convincecompanies to give older workers a try. Manybusinesses were pushing their own older em-ployees into early retirement, and were hardlyinterested in hiring more older people. Few com-panies considered instituting the kinds of alter-native work arrangements (part-time work, part-yearwork, job-sharing) that appeal to many olderworkers. Older workers themselves often boughtinto the negative stereotypes promoted by themedia and the public at large and did not seekemployment because they felt there was no placefor them in the world of work.

Times have changed, and the business world'sperceptions have changed too. While many of thenegative stereotypes about older people persist,businesses with an eye on the future realize thatthe aging of the American population and ofthe American workforce leaves them littlechoice. The median age of the work force will risefrom 34.6 in 1980 to 39 by the year 2000, with thegreatest increases among workers over 55, whilethe pool of young labor force entrants will declineby nearly one million. The average age of thelabor force is projected to have risen two and onehalf times in just the 13 years from 1982 to 1995,when there will be more than 38 million workers50 and older.

Forward-looking companies, as well as those inlabor markets already experiencing labor short-ages, have begun to develop special programs toattract older workers and to keep them produc-tive. A review of the past few years of businesspublications corroborates this new and growingprivate sector interest in the aging workforce.Issues range from the negative (e.g., a fear thatage discrimination suits are on the rise, alongwith increases in the size of age discriminationawards) to the more positive (e.g., an examina-tion of the positive contributions of older work-ers and the techniques a company can utilize toget and keep them on the job). By definition,employers concerned with supply and demandand with bottom-line profits, initially began look-ing into older workers as an antidote to the dwin-dling youth entry-level work force, as BusinessWeek asserted in an August, 1987, cover story:

Workers who are qualified will do well itthe coming labor shortage environment.Older Americans will have the option ofpost-retirement careers . . . If immigrantsaren't available and youth aren't qualifiedfor low-skilled work, retirees may be.

Two of the industries that have received the mostpublicity for their increasing reliance on older

workers are the financial services industry andthe food service industry. Among financial serv-ices companies, The Travelers Companies pio-neered a retiree job bank that uses the company'sown retirees for part-time and temporary assign-ments, tapping the work ethic and corporateloyalty developed over decades of employment.Other financial institutions, faced with a highlycompetitive climate resulting from banking de-regulation, have turned to older workers becausetheir patience and dedication to customer serv-ice, as compared to a lack thereof among theiryounger counterparts, is effective in attractingand retaining valued customers.

The food service industry's courtship of olderemployees was illustrated by a conference spon-sored by the National Restaurant Associationand the American Association of Retired Personsand funded by Kentucky Fried Chicken in thesummer of 1987: Over 350 food service execu-tives showed up to learn where to find olderworkers and how to entice them to work in theirrestaurants. Many older worker program spe-cialists criticize the food service industry's appar-ent willingness to view older workers' qualifica-tions and needs as interchangeable with youngerworkers from paying them minimum wage torefusing to consider a benefit package for part-timers. Those views and the policies they engen-der are fast changing; labor shortages and pres-sure from older worker advocates have alreadycausedsomecompanies to experiment with bene-fit packages for part-time workers; a departurefrom past practice that will benefit part-timeworkers of all ages.

Some of the companies facing labor shortages arebeginning to think of older workers less in termsof a replacement for scarce younger employeesand more as a valuable resource as a direct resultof their age and experience. For example, theNational Council on the Aging is working withMcDonald's Corporation to design a manage-ment training program for older workers thatdemonstrates the company's commitment to acareer ladder for those workers.

These very real changes in demography and inemployer perception of older workers have madethe older worker job development task mucheasier. For the most part, except in depressedeconomies where job development for any client

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group is close to impossible, older worker pro-gram staff have less difficulty finding jobs forolder workers than in years past. There is still anissue regarding the quality of the jobs availablefor older workers; however, research on busi-nesses' experiences with older employees sug-gests that age can be a plus in a number of jobcategories:

Older people seem to have achieved supe-rior standing among sales workers ... andto haiie remained high performers. Re-ports from insurance companies, autodealers, and large department stores sug-gest that age is an asset, if a factor at all, inperformance ...

Age has had surprisingly little effect onmanual workers. In several studies, per-formance seemed to remain fully steadythrough age 50 ... The decline in productiv-ity in the 50s never seemed to drop morethan 10 percent from peak performance ...

A study of 6,000 government and privateindustry office [clerical] workers found nosignificant difference in output by age.Older workers had a steadier rate of workand were equally productive.2

HOW SHOULD CURRENT BUSINESSTRENDS AFFECT LOCAL JTPA POLICY?

Private sector employers are the ultimate con-sumers of the Job Training Partnership Act'sproduct. Those employers are increasingly con-cerned about hiring, training, and retaining olderworkers. JTPA policymakers need to respond tothat concern in several ways:

First, state and local JTPA program prioritiesneed to address older workers on an equalpart with youth and welfare recipients. Apolicy that promotes recruitment, training,and placement of older individuals benefitsbusiness by increasing the range of potentialemployees available in the local labor forceand enhances the community's perception ofthe JTPA program by tapping an underutil-ized source of productive workers.

Second, older workers need to be enrolled in allTitle IIA-funded training and placement

programs for which they qualify and fromwhich they could benefit, and not be limited tojust those programs run under the Three Per-cent Set-Aside Program reserved for economi-cally disadvantaged individuals aged 55 andabove. Older workers have been under-repre-sented in Title HA programs to date.

--sThird, older dislocated workers should be atarget group for Title III programs. The recentchanges in Title III as a result of passage of theEconomic Dislocation and Worker AdjustmentAssistance Act offers an opportunity for in-creased coordination with the Three PercentSet-Aside, and for improved service to olderdislocated workers, especially those needingintensive retraining.

Fourth, particular attention needs to be paid topeople between 40 and 55 individuals withmany years of potentially productive workahead of them who are often considered tooold for mainstream programs that concentrateon younger trainess, yet who are too young forservice through the Older Worker Set-Asidebecause of its 55 plus age limit.

Fifth, all JTPA programs not only thosefunded through the Older Worker Set-Aside

need to know about and establish linkageswith the other agencies and programs thatoffer supportive service for older people. Areaagencies on aging, senior displaced home-makers programs, the Social Security andSupplemental Security Insurance programs

all can help build the support system manyolder people need in order to succeed in train-ing and eventual employment.

The rewainder of this issue paper focuses primar-ily on the JTPA Three Percent Set-Aside Program;however, many of the issues raised apply as wellto JTPA Title IIA adult programs and Title IIIdislocated worker programs which serve work-ers age 40 and older, as well as to training andworkforce education programs for the 40 pluspopulation available through other public orprivate sector funds.

WHO BENEFITS FROM EFFECTIVE OLDERWORKER EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS? '

Exactly what is the constituency for older worker

programs? Without defining that, policymakershave less incentive to take a strong leadershiprole in promoting such programs.

Older workers are the primary group that theThree Percent program and other older workerprogram resources were established to serve.Older workers have certain training needs andlabor force entry difficulties that need specialattention. Older people are likely to have "boughtinto" the negative a geist stereotypes so pervasivein our society, and many who would like to workare too discouraged to seek employment or train-ing without recruitment strategies designed todisabuse them of the notion that there is no placein the workforce for them. Older women inparticular much more likely than older men tobe living alone and in poverty and much morelikely to have little or no marketable employmenthistory need a range of supportive services inorder to succeed as workers. In short, for theolder workers eligible for the Three Percent pro-gram and other federal training resources, work-ing is not a discretionary choice; they need theincome, and, because of limited or erratic jobhistories cr past discrimination, they need thetraining these programs offer.

Businesses are facing labor shortages in manyareas of the country, a situation which is likely toworsen in the future. In addition, the shift to aservice-producing economy and the intoductionof new technology has given many industries theopportunity to structure less physically demand-ing jobs than in the past, opening up more jobchoices to older workers. Plus, employers com-plain that young, entry-level applicants lack thebasic skills needed to do the job, haven't devel-oped a strong work ethic, and aren't available insufficient numbers to support business expan-sion conditions that make older workers seemmore attractive in comparison. Busine.ses alsorecognize the value of having older people incustomer contact positions. People 55 and oldermake up more than one fifth of American con-sumes a sizable market Fegment by any stan-dards, and one businesses are seeking to attract.

Political leaders are finding that public endorse-ment for programs tha t ben eilt older people trans-lates directly into votes at the polls. Older peopleare known for their high voting turnouts; jobtraining, job opportunities, and economic

self-sufficiency are issues that matter to them. Inaddition, political leaders can increase their stand-ing in the business community through theirsupport for older worker programs, particularlyas businesses look more and more toward theprospect of attracting, managing, and retainingan older workforce. Finally, by encouragingproductive options for older people, politicalleaders can demonstrate their conviction thatevery citizen has something to contribute to soci-ety and should have the chance to do so.

[The political constituency for the Three Percentprogram has been particularly hard to build. ForG ovemors and state-level policymakers, the ThreePercent program was the smallest setaside, anddealt with a population with which state jobtraining staff had little experience or expertise.For local elected officials, PIC members, and localjob training staff, the Three Percent program wasinitially a headache because of its slow start; also,because not every SDA receives Three Percentfunds, the program was not a universal concern.]

All public employment programs have a vested inter-est in effective older worker programs. Witholder workers increasingly in demand amongemployers, older workers can help open the doorfor other placements. Programs which trainand place older clients who prove to be valuedworkers in a specific company can often inducethat company to give other public employmentprogram clients a try.

Finally, society as a whole benefits from soundolder worker employment programs. Olderpeople who are working are more self-sufficientand less dependent upon public support. (Theyalso need less financial help from their children.)There is some evidence that continued employ-ment has a positive effect on health which meanslower Medicare and Medicaid costs. Older peoplewho are in productive roles side-by-side withyounger workers help dispel ageist stereotypesby example, and promote intergenerationalunderstanding which can help combat the dan-gerous and counterproductive intergenerationaltensions that have gotten so much press in thepast couple of years. Also, most of the policy ad-justments businesses make to accommodate olderworkers' needs and preferences such as part-time schedules, job-sharing, cafeteria benefit

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plans, and universal access to training benefitthe workforce in general.

WHAT FEDERAL RESOURCESCAN BE USED FOR OLDER WORKERS?

When most SDA staff and PIC members think"older workers," they think "Three Percent Set-Aside Program," and much of this paper doesindeed focus on that program. But the ThreePercent Set-Aside is only a small program, it canserve only a fraction of the eligible population,and it is not necessarily available in every SDA.The Three Percent Program is most effective asone of several tools which can be used to prepareolder workers for private sector jobs.

In fact, there are four sources of public funds thatcan be used to prepare older workers for privatesector employment: several parts of the Job Train-ing Partnership Act, the Senior Community Serv-ice Employment Program (Title V of the OlderAmericans Act), the Perkins Vocational Educa-tion Act, and Adult Basic Education. Some ofthese resources are limited to people 55 and over,while others have broader eligibility in terms ofage. It is useful to know about all the fundingsources, and to understand the particular valueof each in serving different types of older workersin different circumstances. Some of the best localprograms coordinate several funding sources toprovide the most comprehensive array of serv-ices for the widest range of older individuals.

HOW CAN THE JOB TRAININGPARTNERSHIP ACT HELP

OLDER WORKERS?

Older workers can benefit from service underfour different parts of JTPA: the Three PercentSet-Aside Program for Older Individuals, TitleIIA Adult and Youth Services (including the "10percent window" provision), Title HI EconomicDislocation and Worker Adjustment AssistanceAct funds, and the Eight Percent EducationalCoordination funds.

The Three Percent Set-Aside, comprising threepercent of the state's Title IIA allocation, is thepart of JTPA most frequently associated witholder workers, because it is the part that servestheir needs exclusively. In Program Year 1987,

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the $ 55 million in Three Percent Set-Aside fundsserved 53,000 individuaLs.3 Eligibility is restrictedto people 55 years old and older who are eco-nomically disadvantaged. Beyond that, there islittle guidance or restriction in the law regardinghow the funds may be used. Governors are re-quired to consult with private industry councilsand chief elected officials, and they are encour-aged to assn:: programs that train older workersfor jobs in growth industries and new technologi-cal skill areas. Regulations do require that as inTitle HA, at least 70 percent of the funds be usedfor training. Even so, the program allows statesa lot of flexibility.

Governors can allocate the Three Percent Set-Asid e in various ways. Some states distribute thefunds to SDAs or through State Units on Aging toArea Agencies on Aging by formula. Some dis-tribute the funds through an RFP process. Somegive the funds to a sole service provider for usethroughout the state. Some run demonstrationprograms directly. And some states use a combi-nation of funding strategies. The law allows theGovernor to fund virtually any type of serviceprovider: public agencies, nonprofit entities, andprivate for profit firms. In some cases, thoseSDAs that get funds by formula or otherwisefrom the state then subcontract it out to commu-nity colleges, Area Agencies on Aging, or otherinstitutions. There is no requirement, however,that funds be available within every SDA. If yourSDA is not now receiving Three Percent funds,your state's JTPA administrative office or StateUnit on Aging can tell you whether there is someother entity within your borders operating a ThreePercent program, and how to access Three Per-cent funds.

Title IIA funds for adults can be used to train andplace income-eligible older workers, but in factonly a small percentage of HA enrollees havebeen older workers (around three percent of allparticipants far less than their incidence in theeligible population). In program Year 1987, only$31 million in HA funds went toward services forolder people, only 14,800 of whom participated inIIA programs.' There are several reasons for this.Some jurisdictions established a policy officialor de facto of automatically referring anyapplicant 55 or older to a Three Percent program

not necessarily the best way to serve the older

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individual's needs, but politically attractive if theThree Percent program was underenrolled, andadministratively attractive if local HA staffs didnot include people with experience in (or com-mitment to) meeting the special need of olderpeople. Even when older people were not barredfrom enrolling in HA programs, few HA pro-grams actively recruited them. Many olderpeople, particularly those 62 and up who haveaccess to Social Security and perhaps to somepension income, prefer to work part-time, andHA placement services (and performance stan-dards) are geared primarily toward full-timeplacements.

The "10 percent window," which permits up to 10percent of an SDA's HA funds to be used forpeople who are not economically disadvantagedbut who suffer other barriers to employment,specifically mentions older workers as an eligible"window" category. There are no national dataon the degree to which SDAs are in fact servingolder workers through the window, but anecdo-tal data are so scarce that it suggests this avenueis not being explored in many places. ManyThree Percent Set-Aside programs report havingto turn away numerous older people who areslightly over income but who could benefit fromJTPA services; these older workers could be le-gally and equitably served through the window.(The Three Percent Set-Aside program does nothave a window provision.)

The Economic Dislocation and Worker AdjustmentAssistance Program (EDWAA), the recentlyamended JTPA Title HI, is an excellent way tohelp older displaced workers re-enter the workforce and to prevent their years of experience andtheir positive work ethic from going to waste.Yet, a recent Generai Accounting Office studydocumented what older worker advocates hadlo g suspected: Title HI programs have providedinadequate levels of service to older dislocatedworkers, despite the extra difficulties that olderdislocated workers face as a direct result of theirage.

The GAO study showed that, although around 20percent of dislocated workers were 55 or older,that age group comprised only around eightpercent of Title III enrollees, despite the fact thatolder displaced workers have a more difficult

time finding new employment and are unem-ployed longer than their younger counterparts.(In Program Year 1987, only 11,000 displacedworkers 55 and older were served through TitleIII, with just $18 million in Title M funds.) TheGAO study suggested several reasons for under-representation of older people in Title III projects:

Older workers may be apprehensive aboutparticipating in remedial or classroom train-ing activities, especially if they lack formaleducation or recent educational experience.

Projects may be screening out older displacedworkers because they are seen as having lesspotential for re-employment, due to employerreluctance to hire people over 55.

Older workers may lack the basic math orcommunication skills required for participa-tion in some types of IIA training.5

The new Title III programs now getting under-way provide an opportunity to correct some ofthe inequities of past displaced worker programs.The definition of eligibility includes workers whoare long-term unemployed and who have limitedlocal opportunities for employment or re-em-ployment in the same or a similar occupation,opening the door for service to older workerswho may not have been eligible previously. Also,most of the EDWAA funds go to the local level,which should make it easier to coordinate Title IIIservices with local Three Percent Set-Aside pro-grams. Finally, with the requirement that sub-state grantees spend half their funds on retrain-ing services, program operators may find thatolder displaced workers, many of whom mayhave more savings and fewer financial obliga-tions than their younger counterparts still rasingfamilies, are one of the few groups of displacedworkers willing and able to participate in long-term training without a wage attached.

'TPA's Eight Percent Educational Coordination fundsare usually associated with younger populations;however, there is no reason why Eight Percentfunds cannot contribute to labor force prepara-tion of older people as well. In particular, olderrefugees and other non-English-speakers, olderpeople with insufficient literacy skills, and thoselacking a high school diploma can remedy those

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problems through appropriate Eight Percentprograms. The key challenge is to orient localeducation agencies, accustomed to gearing theirprograms and services to younger clients, to thefact that older people need and can benefit fromeducational remediation, and then to encouragethose local education agencies to incorporate adultlearning principles into their teaching method-ologies. Title HA has been criticized recently forserving insufficient numbers of adult dropouts.'Programs need to do a better job of addressingeducational deficits among dropouts in the 40plus age range, through the Eight Percent fundsand through other means such as coordinationwith Adult Basic Education, as described later inthis paper.

WHAT IS TITLE V, AND HOWWELL DOES IT COMPLEMENT JTPA?

The Senior Community Service EmploymentProgram (SCSEP), funded through Title V of theOlder Americans Act (OAA), subsidizes part-time employment for low-income people 55 andolder. Around 65,000 older individuals wereemployed through Title V in Program Year 1987.Currently funded at $344 million, Title V's appro-priation is more than three times as large as the$104 million in JTPA IIA and Three Percent fundsthat served older workers in Program Year 1987.7

Title V is a wage-based program, as compared toJTPA, which pays no wages during training. Byplacing eligible older people with communityagencies for on-the-job training, Title V providesolder people an income in return for approxi-mately 20 hours of work per week and supportscommunity service agencies by placing olderpeople there at little or no cost to the agencies, aswell as enabling older people access to training.However, while Title V has a 20 percent privatesector placement goal, many Title V workerscontinue with local community service agenciesover many years, and their wages continue to bepaid out of program funds. Some of these long-term Title V workers are comfortable and contentin the community service setting; in other cases,they lack the skills and abilities to transition intoprivate sector jobs.

Twenty-two percent of Title V funds are allocatedfor state-run programs, while eight national con-

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tractors receive 78 percent of he funds. Thenational contractors include: the National Coun-cil on the Aging, the American Association ofRetired Persons, Green Thumb, the NationalCaucus and Center on Black Aged, the NationalCouncil of Senior Citizens, the National UrbanLeague, the U.S. Forest Service and the Associa-cion Nacional Pro Personas Mayores. BeginningJuly 1, 1989, there will be two new contractorsan association that serves American Indian sen-iors and one representing Asian and Pacific Is-landers. Your State Unit on Aging or AreaAgency on Aging can tell you which contractorruns a Title V program within your SDA.

Title V workers tend to be older than the olderworkers enrolled in JTPA: Eighty percent of themare over 60. Seventy percent of them are female,over half are not high school graduates, and overa third are minorities. (Title V representation ofBlacks, Hispanics, and other minorities is dispro-portionately high as compared to their incidencein the population, partly because minorities aredisproportionately represented among the low-income elderly population.)°

There is another difference in the characteristicsof Title V workers as compared to Three Percentenrollees. Because some programs allow a Title Vworker to stay with one host organization for upto two years, and then to move to another posi-tion with another host organization, some Title Vworkers may become quite comfortable in theircommuinity service positions and develop theattitude that they have a job, rather than atraining and work experience opportunity. There-fore, although some Title V people attend JTPAjob search training, once it is time to actually goout on an interview they refuse because "I have ajob." Individuals enrolled in the Three PercentPr ram, conversely, generally understand fromthe Oginning that private sector employment isthe ultimate goal. There is currently great vari-ation among the Title V sponsors on how theyhandle this issue, as well as increased concernamong them about their rotation policies, andprograms are trying to determine how best tohandle assignments with host organizations so asto meet the needs of both the organizations andthe individual workers.

Title V and the JTPA Three Percent Programcan

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work very well together. The Department ofLabor estimates that only around 2,000 peoplehave been enrolled in both programs since thestart of JTPA, but dual enrollment is far from theonly measure of coordination. Joint outreachand recruitment, joint referral, and co-location ofenrollment offices can be equally effective coor-dination strategies. Over time, as more ThreePercent program operators have learned aboutTitle V and established contracts with Title Vprogram operators, and vice versa, coordinationhas increased. In recent years, several of thenational contractors have encouraged (or re-quired) their local program operators to negoti-ate coordination agreements with Three PercentSet-Aside program operators an excellentapproach that has proven effective.

One element of the Title V program is particu-larly well suited to coordination with JTPA theexperimental program, known as 502(e). These502(e) projects emphasize the development ofsecond careers for older people in private sector,high-growth occupations. The private sectorplacement emphasis makes the 502(e) experi-mental program particularly compatible withJTPA. (However, not all state or national spon-sors choose to run experimental programs.)

CAN THE CARL PERKINS ACT HELPOLDER WORKERS?

One stated goal of the Carl Perkins VocationalEducation Act of 1984 is to increase access to vo-cational programs for those who have been un-derserved in the past. Older workers certainlyfall into that category, because vocational educa-tion has not traditionally recruited olderstudentsor developed courses to meet their learning styles.However, as the younger student pool shrinksover the next few decades, vocational institutionsare likely to actively seek older students, whichshould open up opportunities for older workersto prepare to enter or re-enter the workforcethrough those institutions.

Equally significant, vocational institutions andcommunity colleges will be increasingly wellequipped to serve older workers to the extent thatthey subscribe to a view of their workas part of acontinuum of lifelong learning. Future workforcepreparedness will require continuous education

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throughout one's working life; as educationalinstitutions become more attuned to that reality,they will inevitably gear themselves more andmore to the experienced worker and to the olderstudent seeking skills upgrading or career changeeducation.

One way in which the Perkins funds, as well asstate and local vocational education funds, arealready helping older workers is through dis-placed homemaker programs. Vocational educa-tion monies are the primary source of funding fordisplaced homemaker programs; and an increas-ing percentage of the women in displaced home-maker programs are older women.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF ADULTBASIC EDUCATION?

The Adult Education Act's $100 million in federalfunding for adult basic education is supplementedby twice that amount in state funds. Yet, al-though JTPA Three Percent Program operatorslament that many of their applicants lack suffi-cient educational skills to function effectively inthe work place, relatively few of the approxi-mately 3.1 million people a year who participatein adult basic education classes are 55 or older,and few of those are taking courses for the pur-pose of enhancing their employability.'

Certainly, better coordination between the ThreePercent Program and the adult basic educationsystem is needed, but coordination is not thewhole answer. Most of the teaching funded bythe ABE program takes place in organized eve-ning classes; many older people prefer not totravel far from their homes at night. Also, ABE'sclassroom approach is not a particularly com-fortable one for the many non-reading olderadults or those with insufficient literacy or mathskill levels, because most of them have little re-cent classroom experience and are uncomfort-able in that setting.

In order to benefit from classroom training inbasic skills, older adults may need specializedcounseling prior to enrollment and on an ongo-ing basis as well. This is particularly true forolder adults who participate in computer-assistedinstruction, as many older people are fearful ofcomputers, particularly older adults have been in

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jobs where computer technology is not a part ofday-to-day work life. Also, those Three Percentenrollees who need sortie income immediately(which is the case for many) may take a very lowlevel job because of their basic skills deficits, andthen may lose the motivation to go to classesbecause they are already working and haven'tbeen counseled adequately about the workplacepayoff of basic skills remediation. (Researchshows that this payoff is considerable. Arecent study of older worker job placement sys-tems found that education had a significant impacton the wage obtained at placement. High schoolgraduates achieved wage rates seven percenthigher than those without high school diplo-mas.)'°

WHY DO YOU NEED TO KNOWABOUT ALL THE FUNDING SOURCES?

One of the most difficult aspects of serving olderpeople's employment needs is that those needsare so varied. The JTPA Three Percent program,with its relatively small funding base, is simplyinadequate to help those older people who are il-literate, who need other basic skills remediation,who have little or no recent work experience,who need long-term skills training as well asworkplace orientation ... the list goes on and on.

Three Percent program operators are faced withthe dilemma that runs through the entire JTPAsystem: How can they balance service to thoseharder-to-serve older workers with multipleemployment barriers with service to older peoplewho have legitimate needs, but needs that areeasier or quicker to remedy? This is not the usual"creaming" issue: Virtually all older workersbecause of their age alone, and regardless of theirincome suffer real and significant labor forcedifficulties.

Most program operators can recount stories ofolder people who are over the income eligibilitystandards perhaps older white males, whomone would expect would have the least difficultyin the labor force but who have been repeat-edly rejected by employers, despite adequateskills and qualifications. Such people do needand deserve help, but programs without multipleties to otheragencies within thecommunity cannothelp them. Even more problemmatic are those

13

applicants who are literally only a few dollarsover the income limits and who desperately needassistance, but cannot be served through the Set-Aside.

Policies that encourage cross-referral among bothpublicly funded and private sector employ-ment and training resources are critical, as is acomprehensive listing of local sources of assis-tance for people at various income levels. More-over, it is becoming more common for ThreePercent Program operators to establish some typeof fee-based service to enable over-income indi-viduals to have access to the services available totheir income-eligible counterparts, as such serv-ices, tailored to older people, are still not com-monly available in may communities.

Programs also need to establish links to a broadspectrum of services not necessarily related toemployment, in order to maximize their clients'chances to succeed in the labor force. For ex-ample, older people are not unaffected by theexponential growth in America's hom,less popu-lation; employment program staff need to knowabout local shelters, emergency housing grantprograms, shared housing matching services, andother housing assistance resources. Availabilityof health services is also a key issue, with olderpeople's needs ranging from a complete physicalto hearing aids, eyeglasses, and other technologythat can reduce the negative impact of a physicaldisability in the workplace.

HOW REAL IS UNDEREXPENDITUREIN THE THREE PERCENT PROGRAM?

The Job Training Partnership Act's Three PercentSet-Aside Program for Older Workers is thesmallest of the several JTPA setaside programs,and is dwarfed in contrast to the funds desig-nated for youth, adult, and dislocated workertraining. The Older Worker Program's status asthe smallest state set-aside has conveyed a not-so-subtle message to local policymakers andprogram planners a message that older work-ers are the least important category of JTPA-eligible individuals. During the early years ofJTPA, in many areas, this resulted in slow start-up, infrequent and often inadequate technicalassistance, and a common view that, in compari-son to other target groups, older workers were

15

simply a less important element of the potentialworkforce. States understandably paid moreattention to the larger programs first; also, sincethere had been no older worker set-aside underCETA, there was little experience in specializedolder worker programming, nor were there well-developed older worker employment and train-ing networks in place.

Because of the difficulties associated with gettingthe Older Worker Program off the ground, under-expenditures were a common problem. This setup a situation in which, on the one hand, olderworker advocates werc calling for higher fund-ing levels for 55 plus participants (for example,the National Council of the Aging testified in a1986 Congressional hearing that 20 percent ratherthan three percent should be set aside for sen-iors), while local programs were unable to spendthe meager older worker set-aside funds theyhad, and were carrying over unspent amountsfrom year to year. Were there not substantialnumbers of income-eligible older people whoneeded job training?

Luckily for the political future of the Older WorkerProgram, the underexpenditure issue, whichdogged the program for several years, appears tobe out in most states at this point: While theoverall expenditure rate (as a percentage of an-nual allotment) was 69 percent in PY 1984, it hadrisen to 111 percent by PY 1986, with many juris-dications making significant reductions in theircarry-over amounts."

In Congressional testimony in September of 1988,U.S. Department of Labor officials suggested thatthe Three Percent Program is "close to full dollarutilization" a welcome change from both apolitical and a programmatic point of view.12Improvements resulted from a number of factors:more attentive state administration of the pro-gram, network-building between job trainingagencies and agencies with expertise in meetingthe various needs of older people, more liberaldefinitions of income for eligibility determina-tion purposes, increased private sector respon-siveness to older worker initiatives, and d evelop-ment over time of a cadre of experienced olderworker service providers within the job trainingsystem.

14

WHAT ARE THE PROS AND CONS OFBROADENING INCOME ELIGIBILITY FOR

THE THREE PERCENT PROGRAM?

The Three Percent Program is limited by law toolder people who are economically disadvan-taged. That sounds clear enough, but in practiceeligibility de terminati -n hinges on how each statedefines "family" and "family income" for sen-iors. Defining those terms so as to enlarge thepool of potentially eligible older people is usefulfor several reasons:

In jurisdictions in which underexpenditure hasbeen a problem, it helps to have more olderpeople who are eligible for service. This doesnot necessarily mean that there are not enougholder people who meet the strictest eligibilitydefinition; rather, it is more effective for pro-grams to recruit older people without forcingthem to self-identify as "poor."

Since there is no "window" in the Three PercentProgram, older people who are slightly overincome but who suffer real employment bath-ers by virtue of their age are denied service iffamily income is defined narrowly.

The eligibility standard for Title V (the SeniorCommunity Service Employment Program) is125 percent of poverty while 100 percent is theJTPA limit. 'There have been efforts in theCongress to make the JTPA standard compat-ible with that used in Title V, but they havebeen unsuccessful thus far. Meanwhile, thedifference inhibits joint recruitment and jointenrollment by the two programs. Easing upon the Three Percent eligibility definition isone way to make the programs easier to coor-dinate.

There is state discretion on three issues related toThree Percent eligibility determination: defini-tion of "family," treatment of Title V wages, andtreatment of Social Security. JTPA regulationsare silent on whether older workers can be treatedas a "family of one" for income determinationpurposes; currently, 39 states accord older work-ers that status, which enables them to disregardincome received by any other member of theolder applicant's household.13 A decision to treatolder workers as a "family of one" is particularly

16

important for woman whose employed husbandshad wanted their wives to be "traditional house-wives" and discouraged them from working;with "family of one," such women can finallyqualify for job training without being disquali-fied by their husbands' incomes, thus acquiringthe skills to become economically self-sufficientboth in the present and during the eventualwidowhood most married women face.

In defining "family income," most states exemptTitle V wages. There is ample justification for thatdecision: Although Title V provides income sup-port, that objective is only one of three, with theprogram's job training or community service as-pects often overshadowing the wage aspect, par-ticulary in programs that stress timely movementinto private sector placements. Likewise, half thestates have begun exempting some or all SocialSecurity income from "family income," in orderto serve people whose age is a barrier but whoseSocial Security payments place them above the"poorest of the poor." Broadening the range ofincome-eligible older people is a totally appro-priate thing to do; Congress has acknowledged inthe "window" language and elsewhere that ageis a true barrier to employment, so programsserving a population that is over the strictestincome limits are still serving "harder-to-serve"people faced with employment barriers.

It can be argued that liberalizing the incomestandards for the Three Percent program actuallybrings that program more in line with the 125percent of poverty that is the eligibility standardfor Title V, which should serve to ease joint out-reach and recruitment, as well as joint enroll-ment, between the two programs. However,there is still the administrative burden of deter-mining eligibility separately for each program, aslong as they have different income standardsregardless of how close they may be as a result ofexpanding Three Percent eligibility.

WHAT FACTORS KEEP OLDERINDIVIDUALS OUT OF THE THREE

PERCENT PROGRAM?

In the first few years of the Three Percent Set-Aside program, before the program improve-ments that have since enabled program operatorsto increase their expenditure rates, there was a

15

crisis among the older worker advocacy organi-zations. All the data pointed to huge numbers ofolder people, many of whom were living inpoverty and had been forced out of the workforce(or had had only marginal labor force attachmentover their lifetimes), few of whom had up-to-dateskills or the confidence and savvy to marketthemselves to employers. By rights, they shouldhave been flocking to the Three Percent Program.Yet, operators across the country lamented thatthey couldn't find eligible, willing participants.

The second part of that dilemma was that theadvocacy groups pointed to the large and grow-ing numbers of older people who were supposedto be "out there" in need of help entering or re-entering the labor force and said the program wasunderfuna.sd, and that three percent was to smallan amount of funds to meet the need. Yet, none-theless, programs were carrying over large sumsfrom year to year.

WHERE WERE ALL THE ELIGIBLEOLDER WORKERS?

Some of them had joined the ranks of discour-aged workers --people who want a job but do notlook for one because they think no jobs are avail-able, that they would not be hired, or that theywould not be able to find one that meets theirneeds (e.g., part-time, on public transportation).There are relatively more discouraged workersamong older people than among younger ones.Among people 60 and older, for example, therewere 186,000 discouraged workers in 1986 who,had they been included in labor force statistics,would have increased the unemployment ratefor workers 60 plus from 3.5 to 5.8 percent aconsiderable difference."

Others were dislocated older workers who hadbeen laid off and were hoping to be reinstated intheir old jobs often a vain hope, but one thatkept them from responding to new opportuni-ties. There are also those whose previous jobshad vanished through plant closings or economicshifts. Older unemployed older workers stay un-employed longer than younger ones, with work-ers between 55 and 64 having the longest dura-tion of unemployment of any group in the coun-try 24 weeks on average in 1986, as comparedto 13 weeks for workers between 20 and 2415

17

Many were older woman, who had never thoughtof themselves as potential m^mbers of the laborforce. Older displaced homemakers are particu-larly difficult to attract, in part because societydevalues their unpaid labor in the home, in partbecause many of them had never thought ofthemselves as members of the paid labor force,and in part because of the isolation common tomany older displaced homemakers' lives.

Some were disabled older workers, who had not,over long periods of time, been able to find eitherthe training or the employment situations thatcould accommodate their disabilities, and whoavoid the potential for further rejecting by notseeking entry to the workforce.

Finally, there were those older people who havecontented themselves with occasional work atpoor pay because they thought that was all theycould get.

But mostly, the early recruitment problemsstemmed directly from program operators' inex-perience in marketieig their services to olderworkers. They went to the wr -; place with thewrong message offering the 1.4 . ag services. Forexample, recruiters canvassed senior centersrepeatedly before they finally realized that mostpeople in senior centers aren't interested in work-ing. Brochures commonly asked: "Are you over55? Are you unemployed? Are you low-income?"Older peope don't identify themselves that way.They may think of themselves as "retired" amuch more socially acceptable term than "unem-ployed." They also are unlikely to self-identify as"low-income," or "poor."

Now, programs have become much more adeptat tailoring their recruitment strategies towardthe different subsets of the older population, andserious older worker recruitment problems per-sist primarily in labor shortage areas. It is impor-tant, though, to periodically compare your re-cruitment strategies with the specific categoriesof older workers you are trying to attract.

HOW IS RECRUITING OLDER PEOPLEDIFFERENT THAN RECRUITING

YOUNGER ONES?

Any successful recruitment strategy has to locatepotential participants, build their confidence in

the likelihood they can get and keep a job,build trust in the program's ability to help them,and offer the training and supportive servicesthey need.

For older workers, this means thinking abouthow and where they live their lives, whatmotivates they- :. wi. 're their special needsand deficiencies are. A lot of older people willrespond more to personal contact than to massmedia because they have internalized negativestereotypes about themselves.

Try recruiting older displaced homemakersthrough their teen or adult children who mayalready be enrolled in IIA training. Try to person-alize older people's issues. If you do advertise,consider placing your ads in the food section, inthe local news section, or in church newsletters,rather than in the "help wanted" section.

Recruitment campaigns should promote appro-priate incentives. For example, while job securityand high wages may be the most effective "hook"for a welfare mother with children to support, aperson over 62 may respond more to the oppor-tunity to make a productive contribution to soci-ety, or to achieve enhanced selfworth and pur-pose, or to work a less-than-full-time schedule. Itis particularly important to acknowledge thediversity among older people, and to tailor strate-gies to match those subcategories. You need, forexample, to differentiate between people 55-62(who are more likely to want full-time work) andthose who are older. Another consideration isthat health benefits are an important incentive forpeople under 65, who are not eligible for Medi-care.

Older worker experts, national advocacy organi-zations, and others have written volumes abouteffective recruiting; the reader is referred to thoseresources, listed in the bibliography at the end ofthis paper.

WHAT ASSESSMENT ISSUES RELATESPECIFICALLY TO OLDER WORKERS?

Effective basic skills assessment is both a criticalneed and a serious dilemma for virtually all JTPAclient groups. Indeed, the following comments,although written in the context of youth pro-

18

gramming, are totally apt for older workers aswell.

For the purposes of JTPA basic skills testing, noneof the standardized tests can compare a JTPAclients score in relationship to other JTPA clients.Second, these standardized tests measure what aperson knows in relationship to the basic skills,not what a person can do with those basic skills,not what a person knows.

Increased public demand for job training ac-countability has reinforced the critical nature ofbasic skills assessment in the employability de-velopment arena. At tree same time, mountingconcerns in the employment and training com-munity about cost-effective programming arechallenging practitioners to build on what isknown about basic skills assessment in system-atic and expedient ways. Perhaps more than anyother program component, client assessment ofbasic education skills is fundamental to cost-effectivejob training programming and ultimatelylabor force productivity.16

The most challenging aspect of assessing olderworkers' basic skills levels and relating them toemployment potential is that many of the olderp eople coming into Three Percent and other JTPAprograms have deficits in the areas of formalschooling and have low levels of reading profi-ciency, yet they have the near-term potential to behigh quality workers. Their reading deficienciesmake it difficult to assess their skill levels accu-rately, since many of the traditionally used as-sessment tools are geared for higher reading levels.Also, many of the traditional assessment tools aretoo long. According to one program director,once older people have made the decision toenroll in a program they have little patience withany test that lasts longer than an hour.

Yet without a thorough and accurate assessmentprocess, programs are less likely to serve olderpeople well. Certainly, if an older worker's basicskills deficits are not diagnosed, there is littlelikelihood that the individual will be steeredtoward adult basic education to remedy thoseproblems. Yet, low reading levels or basic mathlevels may inhibit an older person from succeed-ing in occupational skills training in a classroomor on-the-job setting, resulting in feelings of in-

17

adequacy and failure. The development of ap-propriate assessment tools, and the lack of stafftrained to interpret those tools properly, contin-ues to be an area of serious need for older workerprograms.

An excellent description of assessment instru-ments can be found in the monograph quotedabove, Using Basic Skills Testing to Improve the Ef-fectivenenss of Remediation in Employment and Train-ing Programs for Youth, available at no cost fromthe National Commission for Employment Pol-icy. Although the paper is geared toward youth,the appended listing of assessment tools can behelpful to older worker programs as well.

Beyond the use of formal assessment instruments,however, older worker program staff shouldconsider the use of structured interviews as an as-sessment meth9dology with some of their clients.Often, an older person who is reluctant to take awritten assessment test will open up to a trainedand empathetic interviewer.

IS JOB SEARCH ENOUGH?

Job search assistance is the most common type ofempoyment-related service older people receive.Most often, it is provided in a group setting,which has the advantages of saving time, pro-moting sharing of experience among groupmembers, and utilizing peer input. It also buildsindependence by teaching the skills older peopleneed to seek employment on their own in thefuture.

There has been some criticism of Title IIA pro-grams which provided some of their participantswith job search assistance and not much else. Ifall the client needs is a little help finding a job (asopposed to training for one), the argument goes,they could probably get work eventually on theirown, and are certainly not among those "harder-to-serve" people who are supposed to be JTPA'smain client group.

With older workers, this argument doesn't hold.While older workers should certainly have accessto skills training, many already have skills buthave little understanding of current labor marketneeds. Or, they haven't the confidence or theknowledge to sell their skills effectively. Or, they

19

need help identifying or redefining their skills tofit employer needs.

The key issue is that older people should haveaccess to a full range of services, depending onwhat they need. But job search assistance alone

especially when it includes a strong motiva-tional component is not necessarily an inap-propriate or inadequate approach to meetingsome older people's needs.

WHAT ARE THE KEY SKILLS TRAININGCONSIDERATIONS?

Older adults can bene..., from skilis training justas well as younger stt: lents can, but their differ-ent learning styles suggest special considerationin designing and delivering classroom-based skillstraining to meet their nee is. Trainer attitude canbe particularly important; there is some evidencethat older trainees take longer than younger onesto feel confident in their mastery of a skill, andtrainers need to allow them that time.

Training principles that have proven to be pro-ductive for older adults include the following:

Training should be directly job-related. Olderpeople learn best if they know how the subjectmatter will apply on the job.

Training should lead to existing positions. Per-haps because they feel they have not got "allthe time in the world" to re-enter the workforceand establish themselves in a new career, olderpeople want to be assured that there will be ajob waiting for them when they complete theirtraining. They also want it to lead to jobs in thelocal community, as most older people resistrelocating for a job.

Training should be hands-on, rather than pas-sive. Older people may lack self-confidenceabout their work aoilities, especially if theyhave been out of the workforce for any lengthof time, if they have been laid off, or if they arebeing trained for something unrelated to theirpast work experiences. They learn I est if theycan practice their new skills on equipment orin situations similar to what they will encoun-ter on the job.

Training should be self-paced and individual-ized. This approach builds self- nfidence by

18

putting the older person in charge of his or hertraining. The trainee can then spend whatevertime is necessary to not only master a skill butto feel comfortable with that new skill. Giventhe variation in learning speed, particularly inthe 60 to 80 age range when certain learning-related abilities do begin to decline, self-pacedand individualized training can succeed wherea more structured timetable may not.

Training should be accessible. A training sitenear public transportation is ideal; ample freeparking nearby is another plus. The trainingfacility should have good acoustics and shouldbe well-lit, cheerful, and equipped with com-fortable furniture?'

It is also important to be aware of, and accommo-date to the extent possible, any age-related dis-abilities (e.g., hearing loss), and to counsel asneeded any older trainees who continue to lackconfidence in their ability to participate in a class-room setting. And, as noted earlier, while com-puter-assisted instruction can be very effectivewith students of any age, older adults unfamiliarwith computer use may need extra patience andattention to overcome their computer anxiety.

HOW WELL DOES OJT WORKFOR OLDER PEOPLE?

Often, older people who resist enrolling in class-room training do so because they have an imme-diate income need annd cannot afford the de-ferred wage classroom training offers. For them,on-the-job training may be the best answer.

Although OJT is far from the most common typeof intervention offered to older workers, it is asuccessful strategy that should be used moreoften. In Vermont, for example, 73 percent ofolder OJT participants were still employed after13 weeks, and 62 percent where still on the jobafter a year." In addition to the high likelihoodthat it results in a permanent placement, on-the-job training is effective for older workers for someof the same reasons Title V is so popular: It pro-vides income for that majority of clients whoneed income quickly; careful OJT job develop-ment and matching can individualize the place-ment to meet the client's skills and preferences;and it provides training in a job setting for people

who may not have had recent employment expe-rience.

OJT works best when the person doing the jobplacement assesses the situation, works with theemployer, sells the employer on a specific olderapplicant (rather than on the OJT concept), andcomes to an agreement that the person will needsome additional training on the job, according toAnn Lordeman of the National Association ofState Units on Aging, who has worked with manylocal programs. Negotiation is a key aspect inindividualizing OJT to meet the company's needs,she says. Both parties must agree on how manyweeks or months of training are needed, andthen, if there is still some employer reluctance tohire the older individual, OJT can be offered as a"sweetener," with further negotiations to deter-mine the percentage of the OJT wages to be paidby the employer and by the program. In this way,the employer is forced to recognize the additionaltraining costs and time involved in OJT. "Firstyou sell the car, then you tell the buyer how tofinance it. If you sell the OJT slot before you sellthe person," Lordeman cautions, "you've soldthe person out."

WHEN IS ENTREPRENEURIAL TRAININGAPPROPRIATE FOR OLDER WORKERS?

The ideal entrepreneurial training candidate iswell organized, manages time well, is a creativeproblem solver, and is willing to take risks. Olderpeople are somewhat more likely to have devel-oped the first three characteristics over their life-times than are their younger counterparts; a well-designed entrepreneurial training course forappropriate candidates, coupled with access tomanagement expertise, can reduce the risk factorenough to attract some older workers and helpthem build viable businesses. One such effort runwith Three Percent cunds in Program Year 1988by the Berkshire (Massachusetts) Training andEmployment Program, found that careful assess-ment and selection, 48 hours of classroom train-ing, and 24 hours of post-training counseling didindeed enable older individuals to develop busi-ness plans and establish small service businesses.Several states run entrepreneurial training pro-grams with their Title III funds, with some olderparticipants.

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However, there are some very real down sidesthat have inhibited states from initiating more en-trepreneurial training for seniors:

A concern that the individual engaged in thebusiness will be unable to support himself -herself with potentially small profits from thebusiness;

A lack of applicants who can meet the incomeeligibility criteria;

A lack of income to support the individualwhile in training and during the start-up of thebusiness; and

Difficulty of monitoring and evaluating pro-grams, especially cottage industries.19

Also, there is the likelihood that those whommost closely fit the entrepreneurial profile areover the Three Percent income limits; Title IIImay be a better vehicle for providing entrepre-neurial training because of is broader eligibilityvis-a-vis income. Finally, there is generally littleor no access to venture capital for older entrepre-neurial candidates, a circumstance which limitsthe types of businesses which can be initiated tothose with very low start-up costs and for whichthe individual already has most of the necessarymaterials.

WHY ARE PART-TIME PLACEMENTS SOIMPORTANT FOR OLDER PEOPLE?

Three-quarters of workers 55 and over preferpart-time over full-time work. Three-quarters ofthe current labor force experience a preferencefor continuing some kind of paid part-time workafter retirement." In order to attract older peopleto their programs, job developers in Three Per-cent Set-Aside programs and in programs such asJTPA Title III with older people among theirclients need to help sell the part-time work optionto employers.

Whether or not to count part-time placements forJTPA reporting purposes is strictly a state issue.Early on, some states restricted the use of part-time placements, considering anything less thanfull time no t a quality placement. Now, however,most states recognize that par.-time placements

are very appropriate for many older people, andencourage that outcome, at least in Three Percentprograms. To the extent that older people areserved through other parts of JTPA, part-timeplacements ought to be considered appropriateas well, if that meets the older person's needs andpreferences.

Some state performance measurement systemsfor Title IIA programs still discourage part-timeplacements through the performance measuresused. It is important for SDAs in those states toadvocate changes at the state level so that serviceto older workers that results in part-time place-ments is not discouraged. A necessary step inthat process is that SDAs need to document part-time IIA placements by age, as well as document-ing that those part-time placements are indeedcompatible with older workers' goals as expressedduring the intake and goal-development process.

There is a strong advocacy role that job develop-ers should be playing relative to part-time place-ments. Non-wage benefits (especially health cov-erage) are not usually available to part-timers,even those in permanent part-time positions. Thisis particularly problemmatic for older workerswho are too young for Medicare and who needhealth insurance. As lab or s hortages accelerate, itshould become easier to "sell" the concept of pro-rated benefits for part-time workers a movethat would benefit part-timers of all ages.

HOW DO WAGE LEVELS RELATETO PART-TIME PLACEMENTS?

It is a fact that part-time work is usually low paidwork, of workers of any age. Researchers havefound that hourly wages tend to decline about 30to 40 percent for a 20-hour work week as com-pared to a 35-hour work week.21 As companiesbegin to see that alternative work schedules (in-cluding part-time work and job-sharing) are help-ful to them as well as the the worker seeking lessthan a full-time workload, it may be that wagesfor part-time work will rise somewhat, but that isjust hopeful speculation. Meanwhile, programsplacing seniors (or workers of any age) in part-time work should not use wage levels as a pri-mary measure of the quality of the placement(although of course the best possible wage shouldbe sought).

21

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Older workers, like other individuals served bythe job training system, should work with a coun-selor early on to complete an Employment Devel-opment Plan (EDP). A part of that process shouldbe determining whether part-time or full-timework is desired, and what wage level is reason-able and adequate. Older people's needs areoften quite different in terms of earnings andscheduling from younger workers supportingfamilies. Many (especially those over 62) wouldtrade higher wages for more flexible work oppor-tunities. That does not mean that job developersshould relegate older workers to minimum wageor entry-level salaries; it does mean that the place-ment and its earning potential should be meas-ured against the needs and preferences of theindividual. Also, as noted earlier, older workersare not a monolithic group; their needs are basedon their age, their sex, whether they are a dis-placed homemaker or a dislocated worker, etc.

HOW CAN YOU INCREASE YOURPOST-PLACEMENT RETENTION RATES?

The most important thing you can do to increaseretention rates for Three Percent Program partici-pants once they find and accept a job is to takeplenty of time up front to determine the olderworker's goals and skills. That may take moretime for older people than for younger peoplebecause they may have more skills, because thoseskills may be harder to identify or measure, andbecause their goals may include elements such aspart-time work which they may not initially thinkis possible to find.

Another strategy that affects retention rates is ajob development process that includes educatingemployers (and supervisors, and even co-work-ers) about older workers. Older wcrkers areoften the victims of age discrimination con-scious or inadertent that makes them uncom-fortable enough to quit a job, or that gets in theway of their satisfactory performance. Job devel-opers who learn about some of the commonnegative stereotypes about older workers andpresent employers with facts and examples thatcontradict those sterotypes are increasing thelikelihood that their older worker placementswill succeed over the long haul. While few olderworker programs have the money to undertakecomprehensive employer education campaigns,

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it is important for all staff to know the facts aboutolder worker abilities and performance, in orderto counter employer objections that may arisedue to lack of knowledge orbelief in older workermyths and stereotypes.

WHAT ARE THE KEY STAFFING ISSUES FORTHREE PERCENT PROGRAMS?

Appropriate staffing at every stage of the olderworker job training process can make orbreak theprogram. This is particularly important when anSDA is running the Three Percent Program; whileSDA staff are generally knowledgeable about jobtraining in general they may not be sensitive tothe older persons needs and issues.

Generally, it is advisable to have older workerprograms staffed by specialists who are assignedsolely to the older worker program. The idealstaff candidate is experienced in working witholder people; however, that lack can be remediedwith proper training for a staff person who isdedicated at least 20 hours a week to the olderworker program. The ideal candidate is also anolder person, particularly for client counseling

job development responsibilities.

It is not always possible to find program staffexperienced in working with older people.Chicago's Operation ABLE, one of the most re-spected older worker training and placementprograms, has found that looking for the follow-ing traits when recruiting older worker staff canhelp predict success, even without specific olderworker program experience: an absence of preju-dice regarding older persons; an appreciation f.

the potential of older workers for the labor force;a willingness to acknowledge older workers haveunique as well as genuine barriers to employ-ment; and a willingness to accept additional train-ing and read materials relating to older work-ers.22

Finally, it is critical to make specialized trainingopportunities available to older worker programstaff. The best Three Percent Programs are thosein which staff attend training conferences spon-sored by aging organizations and older workertraining sessions offered by government agen-cies and other providers. The opportunity toexchange ideas with older workerstaff from other

jurisdictions (and from other programs such asJTPA Title HI or OAA Title V, as well as privateemployers with innovative older worker recruit-ing, training, and retention programs) breedscreative problem-solving, innovation, and adap-tation of proven strategies. The more exposurestaff have to a variety of older worker strategiesin the public and private sectors, the more ablethey will be to help educate employers about thevalue of older workers, the approaches theirindustry peers have taken, and the ways in whichthe Three Percent Program can fit into their humanresource development agenda. This is particu-larly important in small programs in which thereis only one person responsible for older workers;that person can easily become very isolated.

WHAT DATA SHOULD PROGRAMSCOLLECT, AND WHY?

The U.S. Department of Labor requires that statescollect and report very little data from the ThreePercent programs they fund. Only expenditures,total participants, and total terminations are re-quired on the semi-annual report. The Depart-ment requires no sub-state data or outcome infor-mation.

Most states, on the other hand, have fairly sophis-ticated data collection systems for their ThreePercent programs. Most of them use the samemanagement information system they use fortheir Title HA programs, and collect many or allof the same data items from the Three Percentprograms. For example, most states require pro-grams to collect participant characteristics suchas sex, race, educational attainment, and whethera participant is long-term unemployed, out of thelabor force, a displaced homemaker, or a welfarerecipient. Unless they have adjusted their MISsystems specifically for the Three Percent pro-

gram, however, states don't generally collect ageranges within the Three Percent program, notingonly "55+," rather than "55-62," "62-65," "65+,"or other useful breakouts. Less than half the statescollect characteristics data separately for partici-pants and for terminees; the majority look only atparticipants.

Outcome data is a major gap. Except for cost perplacement and entered employment rates, termi-nation data is not a high priority. That is unfor-tunate, as the lack of data makes it difficult toanalyze the impact of various types of interven-tion on various types of older workers. Thus, theprogram's success can be documented superfi-cially, but without in-depth analysis of what worksfor whom. In particular, it is hard to judge how

or whether program participation affectsindividuals over the long term.

Data collection is both time-consuming and ex-pensive, but, without good data, it is virtuallyimpossible to make a strong case for continuationor expansion of the set-aside program. Thoselocal programs that do collect more data thantheir states require can build a case for the effec-tiveness of their individual programs, but theThree Percent program as a whole suffers be-cause of the lack of comparable state and localdata. The National Governors' Association, theNational Association of State Units on Aging, theNational Council on the Aging, and other organi-zations have undertaken limited surveys fromtime to time which have provided "snapshots" ofstate or local activities, but this is clearly an areain which more work is needed. We need toexpand the knowledge base about what works inolder worker programming generally and aboutthe effectivenness of the Three Percent programspecifically.

RECOMMENDED READING

The preceding issues paper raised issues related to the JTPA Three Percent Program. This bibliog-raphy lists some of the best resources, from both the public and the private sectors, that address olderworker issues in depth and profile individual programs' strategies and solution.

This bibliography is adapted from one prepared by Ann Lordeman.*

LEARNING MORE ABOUT OLDER WORKERS

Aging America: Trends and Projections 1987-88 Edition. Washington: U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services. This report provides data on the health, income, employment, housing, and socialconditions of today's population, with excellent demographic information for employment pro-grams. Available from: The U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging, Attention Publications, SD-G41 Dirksen Senate Office Building, Washington, DC 20510 (202) 224-5364)

Labor Market Problems of Older Workers. Report of Secretary Of Labor. Washington: U.S. Departmentof Labor, January 1989. This report analyzes labor market problems of displace older workers andexamines institutional arrangements such as pension rules and the supply of part-time jobs thatmaylimit the employment opportunities of older workers. Available from the U.S. Department of Labor.

Older Worker Task Force: Key Policy Issues for the Future. Report of the Secretary of Labor. Washing-ton: U.S. Department of Labor, January 1989. This report summarizes the policy implications of theaging workforce. Available from the U.S. Department of Labor.

Rothstein, Frances R. A Status Report on Displaced Homemakers and Single Parents in the United States.This is an important document for older worker program planners because it describes thecharacteristics and needs of the 70 percent of the displaced homemakers in the United States who are55 years old or older, and recommends appropriate policies and service strategies. Available from:Displaced Homemakers Network, 1010 Vermont Ave., NW, Suite 817, Washington, DC 20005.

Worker 45+: Today and Tomorrow. Washington: American Association of Retired Persons. Thisbooklet profiles workers aged 45 and older and discusses likely changes in the future workforce. Itis helpful for planning purposes because it breaks out information by age cohort on topics such asfull-time/part time work, labor force participation by sex and race, wage rates, and work attitudes.Available from: American Association of Retired Persons, Worker Equity Department, 1909 K Street,NW, Washington, DC 20049.

LEARNING MORE ABOUT OLDER WORKER PTOGRAMS

Alegria, Fernando L., Jr., and Ann Lordeman. Serving Older Individuals Under The Job Training Part-nership Act: State Initiatives and Practices. Washington: National Governors' Association and Na-tional Association of State Units on Aging, June 1988. This publication documents trends, policies,and practices of JTPA older worker set-aside programs on topics ranging state policy issues such asincome eligibility and performance standards to examples of training strategies, administrativearrangements, and state-level media campaigns. Available from: National Governors' AssociationPublication Center, 444 N. Capitol Street, NW, Suite 250, Washington, DC 20001.

Dislocated Workers: Local Programs and Outcomes Under The Job Training Partnership Act. Washington:U.S General Accounting Office, March 1987. This report discusses the characteristics and out.. )mes ofJTPA Title III dislocated worker projects, with some attention to Title III service to older dislocatedworkers. Available from : U.S. Ggneral Accounting Office, P.O. Box 6015, Gaithersburg, MD 20877.(Reference Document No. GOA/HRD- 87-41).

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Evaluation Study of The Senior Community Service Employment Program Funded Under Title V of the OlderAmericans Act. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor, July, 1986. This study provides detail howSCSEP (also known as Title V) works, and provides everything JTPA program operators need to knowin order to coordinate with the SCSEP program locally. For more information on this report, contactMarlin Ferral, U.S. Department of Labor, (202) 535-0677.

Older Workers: Prospects, Problems and Policies: 9th Annual Report. Washington: National Commis-sion for Employment Policy 1985. This report examines the causes of labor market problems facedby many older workers and public and private sector policies which could alleviate these problems.Available from: National Commission for Employment Policy, 1522 K Street, NW, Suite 300,Washington, DC 20005.

An Orientation to the Older Americans Act. Revised Edition. Washington: National Association of StateUnits on Aging, July 1985. This book covers all aspects of the OAA, discusses the role of agingorganizations in influencing the goals of public policy, and includes an introduction to employmentprograms and related services helpful to newcomers to the field of aging. Limited quantities availablefrom: National Association of State Units on Aging, 2033 K Street, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC20006, (202) 785-0707.

Proceedings of the National Conference on Older Worker Involvement in The Job Training Act. Washington:National Association of State Units on Aging, July 1984. These proceedings are an excellent handbookfor persons interested in learning about JTPA, its potential for older workers, and strategies forcoordinating JTPA with other programs. Available from the National Association of State Units onAging, 2033 K Street, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC 20006 (202) 785-0707.

Rothstein, Frances R. (editor) Commitment to an Aging Workforce: Strategies and Models forHelping OlderWorkers Acheive Full Potential. National Council on the Aging, 1988. This comprehensive discussionof older worker programming was based on site work done by the National Council on the Aging'sPrime Time Productivity Program, and includes articles by a wide variety of older worker programexperts. Available from: The National Council on the Aging, 600 Maryland Avenue, SW, Washing-ton, DC 20024. (202) 479-1200.

How To OPERATE OLDER WORKER PROGRAMS

Lester, Branda, Job Placement Systems For Older Workers (2 Volumes). Washington: National Caucusand Center on Black Aged, Inc. Based on a study of successful older worker employment programsin 12 states, these books provide a detailed analysis of what job placement techniques work well ina variety of economic environments. Available from: The National Caucus and Center on Black Aged,Inc., 1424 K Street, NW, Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005. Attn: Larry Crecy, (202) 637-8400.

Lester, Brenda. A Practitioner's Guide for Training Older Workers. Washington: National Commissionfor Employment Policy, 1984.

This planning and program development guide was developed to help practitioners design, imple-ment and evaluate training programs for older workers. It is particularly useful for anyone who is juststarting to work in older worker programs. Available from: National Commission for EmploymentPolicy, 1522, K Street, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005.

Lordeman, Ann, Terry Nixon, and Frances R. Rothstein. Making JTPA Work for Older Persons: A Na-tional Catalogue Of Practical Hoow-To's. Washington, DC: National Association of State Unitson Aging,May 1987. This handbook summarizes innovative approaches and helpful hints from older workerpractitioners across the country. Interspersed throughout are handouts from recognized experts that

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supplement the narrative. Available from: National Association of State Unites on Aging; 2033 KStreet, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC 20006.

Merrill, Fred L. Job Search Manual for Mature Workers. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Council on careersfor Older Americans, 1987. Written primarily for older job seekers with professional, managerial, andtechr -al backgrounds, this manual includes checklists, worksheets, and guidelines designed to helpolder job seekers identify their own needs, strengths, interests, and employment goals. Availablefrom: Los Angeles Council on Careers for Older Americans, 5225 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 204, LosAngeles, CA 90036 (213) 939-0391.

More Recruiment Strategies. Washington: National Association of State Units on Aging. Topicsinclude how-to's for getting others to recruit for and with you, hints for improving your recruitmentbrochures, steps to make all of the media work for you, and much more. Available from: NationalAssociation of State Units on Aging, 2033 K Street, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC 20006.

Older Kansans Employment Program Handbook. (1985) Manhattan, Kansas: North Central - Flint HillsArea Agency on Aging. Based on an award-winning older worker employment program, thishandbook provides specific guidance generating publicity, reaching employers, conducting jobseeker workshops, using volunteers and making placements. Available from: North Central-FlintHills Agency on Aging, 437 Houston, Manhattan, KS 66502.

Supportive Services Reference Guide. Washington: The National Caucus and Center on Black Aged, Inc.Topics include income and eligibility issues of Social Security, SSI, Medicare/Medicaid, Food Stanps,Federal benefits for older veterans and their dependents, taxes and retirement for Older Americans,and the Older Americans Act. Available from: The National Caucus and Center on Black Aged, Inc.,1424 K Street, NW, Suite 500, Washington , DC 20005. Attn: Larry Crecy (202) 637-8400.

WORKING WITH EMPLOYERS

Employing Older Americans: Opportunities and Constraints. Research Report No. 916. New York: TheConference Board, 1988. Business, government, community leaders examine myths about elf'erworkers, hiring retirees to boost productivity, company age discrimination audits, participating incommunity retraining programs, and the next wave of legislation. Available from: The ConferenceBoard, Inc., 845 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10022. (212) 759-0900.

Finding lobs for Older Workers. Washington: National Association of State Unitson Aging. Topics in-clude proven steps for making "sales", effective marketing campaigns, tips for improving yourbusiness cards, ads, and brochures. Available from: National Association of State Units on Aging,2033 K Street, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC 20006 (202) 785-0707.

Invest in Experience: New Directions for an Aging Workforce. Washington: National Alliance of Business,1985. Written for a business audience, is an effective tool for job developers to distribute to companieswith which they are seeking an entree. Available from: National Alliance of Business, 1201New YorkAvenue, NW, Washington, DC 20005 (202) 289-2910.

Older Americans in the Workforce: Challenges and Solutions. Bureau of National Affairs, 1987. This specialreport illustrates business issues concerning older workers with 14 case studies of company practicesand programs. Available from: BNA Response Center (800) 372-1033.

Public /Private Partnership on Aging: A Compendium. Washington: NationalAssociation of State Unitson Aging and Washington Business Group on Health, 1987. This compendium chronicles the breadth,diversity, and promise of public/private actions to address the needs of older Americans in a variety

of areas including work and retirement, health, long-term care, and others. Available from: NationalAssociation of State Units on Aging, 2033 K Street, NW, Suite 304, Washington, DC 20006 (202)785-0707.

Rhine S. H., Managing Older Workers: Company Policies and Attitudes. Report No. 860. NewYork: TheConference Board, Inc., 1984. This report explores the extent to which company policies and practicesvis-a vis older workers are likely to encourage a continuation in the loss of momentum in the earlyretirement trend. Available from: The Conference Bord, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, New York10022. (212) 759-0900.

The Older Worker: A Silver Opportunity. Boston: Careers for Later Years, Inc., 1936. Drawn from thework of Operation ABLE of Greater Boston, this handbook helps job developers to understand andcounter whatever objections employers may have to hiring older people. It also characterizes the widevariety of older job-seekers a program may encounter. Available from: Careers for Later Years, WorldTrade Center Boston, Commonwealth Pier, Suite 306, Boston, Massachusetts 02210-2004. (617) 439-5580.

Workers Over 50: Old Myths, New Realin es. (AARP Control Number PW3691-186) Wdshington: Ameri-can Association of Retired Persons, 1986. This report presents information on corporate attitudes andpractices regarding older workers, based on interviews of 400 corporate human resource decisionmakers. Available from: AARP Fulfillment, 1909 K Street, NW, Washington, DC 20049.

*Lordeman, Ann. "An Anotated Syllabus on Older Workers." From Commitment to an AgingWorkforce: Strategies and Models for Helping Older Workers Achieve Full Potential. (Frances ItRothstein, editor.) National Council on the Aging, 1988.

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FOOTNOTES

1. U.S. Department of Labor. Older Worker Task Force: Key Policy Issues for the Future (Report of theSecretary of Labor).

2. Sonnenfeld, Jeffrey, "Dealing with the Aging Work Force," in People: Managing Your MostImportant Asset." Harvard Business Review,1987.

3. McLaughlin, Ann, Statement in The State of the Older Worker Current and Future Needs. Jointhearing before the Select Committee on Aging and the Subcommittee on Employment Opportunitiesof the Committee on Education and Y_abor, House of Representatives. U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1989. Page 36.

4. Ibid.

5. U.S. General Accounting Office. Dislocated Workers: Local Programs: and Outcomes Under the jobTraining Partnership Act. March 1987.

6. Sandell, Steven H., and Kalman Rupp. Who Is Served In JTPA Programs: Peerns of Participation andIntergroup Equity. National Commission for Employment Policy, February 1988, Page 62.

7. Op. cit. McLaughlin. Page 36

8. Ibid. Page 35.

9. Seibles, Mary W., Literacy Education for Older Persons. U.S. Department of Education, Office ofVocation and Adult Education.

10. Lester, Brenda, job Placement Systems for Older Workers, Volume One. National Caucus and Centeron Black Aged, 1987, Page 5.

11. Alegria, Fernando L., Jr., and Ann Lordetnan, Serving Older Individuals Under the job TrainingPartnership Act: State Initiatives and Practices. National Governors'Association and National Associa-tion of State Units on Aging, June 1988, Page 7.

12. Jones, Roberts T., Testimony on The State of the Older Worker: Current and Future Needs. JointHearing before the Select Committee on Agirg and the Subcommittee on Employment Opportunitiesof the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1989. Pages 42-43.

13. Op. Cit. Alegria, Page 8.

14. U. S. Senate Special Committee on Aging. Aging America: Trends and Projections. 1987, Page 3.

15. Ibid.

16. Morris, Robin; Strumpf, Lori; Curnan, Susan Rothstein, Frances R. (editor), Commitment to an AgingWorkforce: Strategies and Models for Helping OlderWorkers Achieve Full Potential. National Council on theAging, 1988.

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21. Jondrow, Jim; Brechling, Frank and Marcus, Alan, "Older Workers in the Market for Part-TimeEmployment." The Problem Isn't Age, Sandell, Steven, H., editor. Praeger, 1987, pp. 84-99.

22. Brussell, Shirley and Binder, John F., "The Older Worker Program Staff: Key to Success," inCommitment to an Aging Workforce: Strategies and Models for Help ing Older Workers Achieve FullPotential. Rothstein, Frances, R., editor. National Council on the Aging, 1988.

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