Index

Abe Masahiro, 38, 40, 44, 52, 56; and trade relationship with the United States, 53–54

Aichi Kōshinsha, 345 Aikoku Kōtō (Patriotic Public

Party), 126 Aikoku shinshi, 304 Aikokusha (Patriotism Society),

126, 143, 144, 193, 207–15, 238, 269, 410; and the Hokkaidō Colo-nial Office scandal, 316–18; and local notables, 193–94, 198, 207–15; and the parliamentarian movement, 127, 207–17, 261, 284, 320, 379, 448–49; petition drive of, 215–22, 223, 382–83; Revival Conferences, 193, 207–16, 366; and the Tosa-Kōchi group, 193, 207, 208, 213, 303–4, 316, 318, 387–88

Aizawa Seishisai, 31, 218n46 Aizu Liberal Party, 392, 393, 405 Aizu-Kuwana alliance, 41, 87 Akita, George, 270, 285, 447n4 Akitsuki Revolt, 130 alternate attendance system

(sankin kōtai ), 53, 55, 58, 141 American Constitution, 377

American Revolution, 128, 265, 377

Ami du Peuple, 173 Anzai Kunio, 195, 424 Aoe Shū, 151 Aoike Kōtarō, 394 Aoki Shūzō, 271, 333 Aoki Tadasu, 163, 165, 169, 170–71,

339 Aomono sakana gunzei daigassen no

zu (The great battle between the fruit and vegetable and the fish troops), 38–39

Arai Katsuhiro, 332, 352 Arai Shōgo, 418 Arakawa Takatoshi, 245, 334 Arisugawa, Prince, 270, 283, 337,

346, 429 Army Ministry, 77–78, 295 Asano Kan, 93, 179–80, 309–10 assembly: popularly elected, 4–5,

22, 105, 106, 107, 112, 114–16, 118, 129, 342, 356; prefectural, 21, 109, 116, 118, 166n58, 191–93, 194, 197, 201–6, 221, 222–23, 273, 359, 436. See also Diet, National; na-tional assembly; and individual assemblies

Index 500

Assembly of Local Governors (Chihōkan Kaigi), 116–19, 121–23, 129, 217, 233

Association to Establish the Greater Japan Liberal Party (Dai Nihon Jiyū Seitō Kessei-kai), 386

associations. See metropolitan in-tellectual associations

Atami Conference, 282–83, 400–401 Awa-Tokushima Jijosha, 126 Baba Kanzaemon, 354 Baba Tatsui, 127, 162–63, 169, 189,

240, 248, 445; and Kōjunsha, 181, 346; and Kokuyūkai, 158, 173–81; and Kyōson Dōshū, 156, 157, 165; and the Liberal Party, 387–88, 397–400, 401n51; on political parties, 397

Baelz, Erwin, 438, 442 bakuhan system, 33, 51, 55, 58, 97,

392 Banno Junji, 18–20, 121n41, 278,

419n4, 435 banzuke, 31 Beiō kairan jikki (True Chronicles

of the Travels and Observa-tions of the United States of America and Europe), 71–73

Bentham, Jeremy, 162n50, 279, 353 Berry, Mary Elizabeth, 11, 13, 28–29,

51 Biddle, James, 35 Bismarck, Otto von, 71 Black, John R., 87, 92, 102 Block, Maurice, 72 Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, 395 Bōchōzan (Stop Chōshū Powder),

47 Bōeki-sha tako wo hikidasu (The

trade rickshaw lures an octo-pus out), 314–15

Boissonade, Gustave Emile, 353, 355; opinion letter of, 419, 422

Bolitho, Harold, 54 Book of Poetry, 163 Boshin War, 40, 46, 87, 88, 142, 164,

196, 293, 393 Bowen, Roger, 15n18, 16 British Empire, 72, 170, 178, 337, 372 bukan (military mirror), 31 Burke, Edmund, 271 Bushido (Way of the Samurai), 56 caretaker government, 69, 73–80,

81n25, 83, 85 Charles Taylor, 113, 219; on civil

society, 6 Charter Oath, Five Article (1868),

103n2, 217, 272, 309, 436, 439, 441; and kōgi yoron, 63, 115–16

Chiba Takusaburō, 334, 352–53, 355, 357

Chichibu Incident, 3, 4n2, 15n18, 416

chihōzei (local taxes), 204–6 China, 34, 232, 236, 348; Meiji Ja-

pan’s war against, 10; and the Opium War, 34

chobokure, 30; example of, 43 Chōya shinbun, 69, 96, 97, 150, 151,

264, 266, 309–10, 312, 325, 354, 383; editorials in, 95, 156n33, 236–37, 244–45, 265, 303, 307, 366–67; es-tablishment of, 93; and Koku-yūkai, 174–75; location of, 142–44; supression of, 325

Chūgai shinbun, 87, 88 Chūritsu seitō seidan (Political Dis-

course by the Moderate Party), 333, 345–46

Chūsetsusha (Loyalty Society), 357

civic constitutional drafts, 328, 331–32, 335, 338, 381n4, 425; circu-lation of, 335–36; historical

Index 501

meaning of, 376–78; by Kōchi parliamentarians, 362–65; list of, 333–35; by local parliamen-tarians, 351–62; by metropoli-tan intellectual associations, 343–51, 359, 366; place of the sovereign in, 343–44, 347, 348, 351, 355–56, 360, 361, 362, 364, 366, 376. See also individual drafts

civil society (minkan shakai ), 7, 9, 19, 23, 135, 182, 189, 199–200, 257, 281, 305, 318, 321, 331, 400, 417, 419, 446, 449; Charles Taylor on, 6; defined, 6; Fukuzawa Yukichi on, 184–85; Hegel on, 7, 182; and the Meiji state, 5, 9–12, 14–15, 20, 68–69, 106, 120, 138, 153, 189, 206, 253, 258–62, 271, 277, 285–87, 289, 290, 307, 323, 328, 336, 377, 435, 448, 450, 451; and the public sphere, 9, 12; Victor Pérez-Diaz on, 7

civilization and enlightenment, 127, 135, 136, 154, 252, 403–4

Committee for Editing the Con-stitution (Kenpō Henshū Iinkai), 357

Committee for Research on the National Constitution (Kok-ken Torishirabe Iinkai), 357

Confucianism, 6, 56, 168, 236, 291, 292, 340–41, 395; radical, 32; and statecraft, 55–56, 57

conscription policy, 130n64, 172, 196, 197, 221, 241, 361; debates about, 77–78, 81–82

Considerations on Representative Government, 109–10

constitution, national, 102n1, 120–21, 135–36, 213, 220, 277, 323, 326, 336, 371, 376, 448; American, 173; British model for, 324, 343, 372; and the cardinal laws concept, 341–42; contract: see national

contract constitution; drafts of, 23, 168, 337–43; European mod-els for, 372; imperially author-ized (kintei kenpō ), 365, 370; opinions about, 84–85, 113, 198–99, 269–72, 275–85, 286–87, 321–22, 343, 348, 367–71; Prussian model for, 71, 321–24, 326, 435; and the usage of kenpō, 341–42. See also civic constitutional drafts; Im-perial Constitution

Constitution Research Associa-tion (Kenpō Kenkyūkai), 357

constitutional monarchy, 2, 120, 172, 265, 368, 376, 398, 432; Brit-ish-style, 85, 199, 321, 323, 367, 373, 433, 447; Prussian-style, 323

Constitutional Party (Rikken Seitō), 248

Constitutional Progressive Party (Rikken Kaishintō), 23, 144, 147, 157, 158, 177, 223, 237, 241, 246, 249–50, 304, 318, 339, 351, 374, 379–82, 400–407, 415, 422, 423, 424, 430, 431, 447; compared with the Liberal Party, 380, 382, 410–11; establishment of, 164–65, 280, 324, 401–4; and gradualism, 407; ideologies of, 382, 401, 407–9, 410; and kōgi yoron, 410, 411; local branches of, 166, 200, 350, 404–6: see also individual parties; location of, 144; membership of, 186, 197, 403; and Ōmeisha, 173; and Ōtokai, 279

constitutionalism, 116, 147, 269–71, 285, 324, 369; British-style, 136, 322

county chief (gunchō ), 198, 199, 201–2

daidō danketsu undō. See Grand

Solidarity Movement Daidō shinbun, 143

Index 502

daimyo, 27, 34, 35, 38, 48, 50, 53, 56–60, 64, 70, 141, 229; houses (oie sōdō ), 42; and kōgi yoron, 28, 50–55, 60, 65–66; outer (tozama), 52, 53, 55, 56; san’yo (councilors), 58

Dajōkan (State Council), 64, 141, 242, 263, 281; system, 69, 431

Dajōkan nisshi (Daily Minutes of the State Council), 89

Dajōkansatsu, 293–94 Date Munenari, 52, 53, 58 Defamation Law (Zanbōritsu), 127,

150, 155, 158n41, 264–65 democracy, 9, 27, 84–85, 103, 105,

108, 114, 118, 289, 359, 362, 411, 412, 431, 442, 450; American, 176, 411, 446; as applied to ptarianism, 10–11, 15–18, 278; European, 2, 97, 107, 148, 446; in draft constitutions, 335, 338, 351, 352, 371; imperial, 451; and kyōwasei, 56; Meiji usage of, 10–11,181n88; and the Popular Rights Movement, 382; and the public sphere, 10–13; radical, 56; Rousseauean, 162; Taishō, 436, 446

arliamen-

despotism, 11, 61, 104n4, 105, 112, 126, 176, 180, 237, 317, 368, 433; enlightened, 109; monarchical, 278, 351

Diet, National, 257, 326, 407, 410, 426, 434, 435, 436, 438, 443; edict for the establishment of, 257, 331, 409, 413; election of, 204, 325: see also General Election, First; opening of, 150, 244, 262, 387, 404, 442. See also national as-sembly

Doi Mitsuharu, 393–94 Dōke kyōga (Crazy portraits of

clowns), 36–38

domains, abolition of, 68, 70, 77, 85, 97, 111–12, 124, 129, 148, 161, 264, 271, 293–94

Doyō shinbun, 375, 431, 440 Draft Proposal to Establish a Na-

tional Parliament (Kokkai kaisetsu konsei kyōgian), 211

Edokko, 140, 149, 417 educational reform, 76–77 egalitarianism, 180–81 1881 crisis, 20, 22, 257, 259, 288–328,

346, 373; significance of, 327. See also Hokkaidō Colonial Office Scandal; Ōkuma Shigenobu

eikyūkan (permanent officials), 284 Eiraku tsūhō, 42n24 E-iri jiyū shinbun, 143, 418 Eishō hiketsu (Secrets of Great

Generalship), 32 emperor system ideology, 446–

447 emperorism, 68, 77, 428, 452; in

late Tokugawa, 27, 32, 34, 41, 49, 87–89, 218n46, 446

Emura Eiichi, 332, 343n15, 383, 384 Enomoto Takeaki, 298 En’yō Liberal Party, 394 Etō Shinpei, 64, 68, 101, 104, 147,

294–95, 296, 333; and the care-taker government, 73, 81; and national laws (kokuhō ), 337; and the Saga Rebellion, 129–30

Expedition to Korea controversy. See seikanron

federalism, 70, 106, 363–64 federalist nation (renpō kokka), 363 Federation of Localities (Chihō

rengōkai sōritsu shuisho), 211–12

feudalism, 11, 15, 70, 81, 83, 85, 106, 126, 134, 161, 321, 411

Index 503

Finance Ministry, 76, 92, 293, 296–97, 324–25

foreign loans, 304, 307; debate about, 298–300

Franklin, Benjamin, 349 Fraser, Andrew, 121n41 freedom of the press and assem-

bly, 286, 338, 344, 347, 416, 426–27, 440

French Revolution, 1; and kyōwa-sei, 56; in parliamentarian dis-course, 127, 173, 181, 219, 274, 342, 351, 398–99; and republicanism, 70, 447

French Revolutionary Terror, 12, 85, 171, 178, 180, 351

Fujin enzetsu shinan (Instructions for Women Lecturers), 250–51

Fujioka Yoshizō, 45 Fujita Denzaburō, 301–2 Fujita Mokichi, 93, 240, 266, 278,

406 Fujita-gumi affair, 301–2, 320 Fūka shinbun, 87 Fukasawa Gonpachi, 345, 353, 354,

355, 357 Fukasawa household, 355 Fukuba Bisei, 337 Fukuchi Gen’ichirō, 71, 115n29, 334;

constitutional opinion of, 332, 367–69, 376; and Kōko shinbun, 87, 88; and Kyōjakuron (The Strong and the Weak), 89; and Tōkyō nichi nichi shinbun, 92, 116, 149–50, 266, 311, 313, 317, 318

Fukui Atsushi, 167 Fukushima Ichizō, 199–200, 202–3 Fukushima Incident, 3, 15n18, 404,

416, 418 Fukushima jiyū shinbun, 392 Fukushima Liberal Party, 392–93 Fukushima Prefectural Assembly,

202–3, 204, 205, 405 Fukushima Progressive Party, 405

Fukuzawa Yukichi, 2, 127, 177, 190, 191–92, 198, 222, 278, 282–83, 313, 318–21, 324, 326, 346, 400–401; and Keiō Gijuku, 77, 93, 278, 304–5, 320, 346, 430; and Kōjun-sha, 156, 181–86, 305, 312; and Meirokusha, 154–55; and par-liamentarians, 185, 235–36, 319, 320; and public lectures, 183, 198, 226–35

Fukuzawa-Ōkuma conspiracy theory, 313, 318–19, 326, 346

fūsetsu, 31 fūsetsugaki, 52 Furusawa Urō, 101, 104, 109, 110, 121,

339 Gakumon no susume (An Encour-

agement of Learning), 77 Gakunan Liberal Party, 393–94 Gakusei ōse idasare sho (Regula-

tions on Education), 74, 76–77 Garon, Sheldon, 450 geisha, 250–51 Geisha Freedom Lectures (Geigi

jiyūkō), 250 gekka jiken (violent incidents), 3–4,

15n18, 16, 416–17, 418, 420; Stephen Vlastos on, 16. See also individual incidents

General Election, First, 10, 93, 216, 379, 412, 440, 443; results of, 437

Ginza, 142–44 Gluck, Carol, 258n2 Gneist, Rudolf von, 372, 374 Godai Tomoatsu, 82n28, 278n38,

305; and the rice tax plan, 299–301

gōnō (wealthy peasantry), 17–18, 186, 193, 197–201, 444

Good Wife, Wise Mother (ryōsai kenbo), 252

Gordon, Andrew, 450–51

Index 504

Gotō Shōjirō, 61, 67, 68, 122–23, 132, 164, 238, 319, 433; and the care-taker government, 73, 81; and the Grand Solidarity Move-ment, 422; and Kōchi, 126; and the Liberal Party, 388; and the Proposal to Establish a Popu-larly Elected Assembly, 101, 102n1, 104, 109, 119; and reap-pointment to office, 126, 428–31

Gotō Yasushi, 188 gradualism, 11–12, 369, 407; and

kōgi yoron, 116–17; and political reform, 72, 84, 86, 92, 97, 102, 116–19, 121–23, 129, 136, 283, 338, 344–45, 367, 368

Gramsci, Antonio, 144–45, 381–82 Grand Solidarity Movement

(daidō danketsu undō ), 24, 415–16, 417–23, 432

Grant, Ulysses, 299n26 Great Treason Affair, 399 Haga Noboru, 17n22 hanjimono, 38, 40, 46; described, 36 harifuda (placard), 45, 46; exam-

ples of, 46–47 Harris, Townsend, 53 Hashizume Kan’ichi, 87–88 Hatano Denzaburō, 169, 172, 240,

354, 405 Hayashi Kaneaki, 176–77, 345, 386,

387, 388, 401n51 Hayashi Masaaki, 181, 384, 388 Hayashi Ōen, 131 Hayashi Yūzō, 133, 207 Henry, Patrick, 265 Hijikata Hisamoto, 275 Hinotoi (Teigai) Kurabu (1887

Club), 422 Hiraga Gennai, 30 Hiraoka Kōtarō, 209–10 Hirata Kanetane, 32 Hirose Yoshihiro, 447n4

Histoire de la Révolution Française, 148

Hitotsubashi Ointment, 47 Hitotsubashi succession struggle,

36, 38, 40, 58 Hokkaidō (Ezo), 34, 53, 275, 286;

development of, 306, 307, 311 Hokkaidō Colonial Office scandal,

20, 22, 187, 240, 257, 259–60, 275, 287, 288–89, 304, 320, 322–24; background of, 304–7; civilian discourse on, 304–12, 320; and news media, 314–18, 325; public lectures on, 312; significance of, 327–28; and the Tosa-Kōchi group, 316–18; visual represen-tations of, 313–16

Home Ministry (Naimushō), 159, 237, 246, 267, 268–69, 297; estab-lishment of, 84, 260, 264, 293, 297

Honda Chikao, 118–19 Horiguchi Noboru, 312, 354 Hoshi Tōru, 152, 374, 415–16, 417–

19, 420–24, 432–33; arrest of, 421–22

Hosokawa Junjirō, 337 Hotta Masayoshi, 38 Hyōron shinbun, 97, 143, 264 Ibaraki nichi nichi shinbun, 325 Ibaraki Progressive Party, 166 Ichijima Kenkichi, 408 Ichijusai Yoshikazu, 36, 37 Ii Naosuke, 36, 38, 43, 58; assassi-

nation of, 45–46, 57, 58 Iijima Shōzaburō, 166 Ijichi Masaharu, 120 Ike Nobukata, 16–17 Imo hatake tako no shosagoto

(The octopus dance in a sweet potato field), 317

Imperial Constitution, 13, 23, 136, 331, 364, 371, 376, 434, 435, 447–48;

Index 505

parliamentarian reaction to, 438–42; printing of, 373–74; promulgation of, 5, 10, 20, 257, 332, 374–75, 422, 436, 438–42, 443; Prussian model for, 257–58, 445; scholarship on, 331–32; secre-tive practices in the making of, 372–74. See also constitution, national; Meiji constitutional system

Imperial Edict on Conscription, 77–78

Imperial Edict for the Gradual Establishment of the Constitu-tion, 217, 257, 331, 337, 374, 413, 443

Imperial Household Law, 326 Imperial Rescript on Education,

258 Inada Masahiro, 226 Inada Masatsugu, 332, 337n7,

343n15 Inō Tentarō, 419 Inoue Kaoru, 92, 117, 121, 142, 149,

150–51, 273–74, 277, 282–83, 287, 294–95, 296, 299, 301, 302, 323, 324, 336, 400–401, 429; and the caretaker government, 73, 79–80; and the parliamentarian movement, 259, 272, 286, 300; and proposal for revising unequal treaties, 416, 419–21, 424, 425, 427

Inoue Kiyoshi, 81n25 Inoue Kowashi, 2, 147, 158, 205,

206, 226, 265, 281, 334, 372, 430, 433; constitutional opinion of, 321–24, 326, 336, 341–43, 346, 373, 447n4; and the Impe-rial Constitution, 372–73, 378, 435

Inoue-Yoshida plan, 79, 81 intellectuals, metropolitan, 136,

139–53, 164, 189, 194, 222, 223, 316,

331, 335, 366, 376, 417, 429, 444, 450; and Aikokusha, 214–15, 318; Antonio Gramsci on, 144–45, 189; compared to traditional intellectuals, 145–46; as defense lawyers, 139, 151–53, 166; as journalists, 139, 148–51, 159, 163, 168, 175, 187; as legal bureau-crats (hōsei kanryō ), 139, 146–48, 159, 162, 163, 168; and local no-tables, 153, 164–66, 190, 252, 254, 377, 403, 406, 410, 412; and po-litical parties, 379, 395, 405, 423; and shizoku activists, 208–9

Inukai Tsuyoshi, 278, 324, 422 Irokawa Daikichi, 17–20, 102–3, 345,

352, 378, 381n4 Ishibe Kinkō, 292 Ishizaka Masataka, 196–97 Itagaki Taisuke, 67, 68, 82, 116, 123,

149, 238–39, 244, 319, 320–21, 385, 421, 428; and the caretaker gov-ernment, 73, 81; and Kōchi, 126, 157, 164, 207, 388; and the Lib-eral Party, 388, 393–94, 396–97, 399, 400, 410, 417; and the Osaka Conference, 121; on po-litical parties, 396–97; and Pro-posal to Establish a Popularly Elected Assembly, 17, 69, 101, 102, 104, 105, 109, 119, 120; resig-nation from office of, 125–26; and Risshisha, 126, 132–33; and the Satsuma Rebellion, 132–33; trip to Europe of, 174, 397, 399, 410

Itō Hirobumi, 2, 92, 121, 125, 157, 259, 278n38, 284–85, 286, 287, 299, 301, 321–24, 336, 400–401, 421, 429, 430, 433, 438, 448; constitutional opinion of, 272, 276–77, 282–83; and the Imperial Constitution, 373, 434; and the Iwakura Mis-

Index 506

sion, 71, 84; trip to Europe of, 326, 372

Itō Kinryō, 350–51 Itō Miyoji, 373 Itō Takashi, 18 Itsukaichi Draft Constitution

(Itsukaichi Kenpō Sōan), 332, 352–53, 355–56, 359, 361, 376

Itsukaichi group, 352–55 Itsukaichi Learning and Debate

Society (Itsukaichi Gukujutsu Tōronkai), 353–54, 357

Iwakura Mission, 69, 70–71, 79, 80, 82–83, 84, 421

Iwakura Tomomi, 48, 77, 86, 130, 259, 273, 276, 284, 298, 300, 321, 322, 334; and constitutional opinion letters, 269, 270, 272, 277–78, 341, 373; and the Iwa-kura Mission, 70, 71, 79, 80, 83–84

Iwasaki Yatarō, 318–19 Japan Commercial News, 87 Japan Herald, 87, 88, 92 Japan Times, 87, 88 Javasche Courant, 87 Jigōsha, 209, 211 Jiji shinpō, 143 Jiji taiseiron (A Treatise on Cur-

rent Trends), 191–92, 222 Jinpūren Uprising, 129–30, 131,

208 jiyū minken undō. See Popular

Rights Movement Jiyū no tomoshibi (The Guiding

Light of Liberty), 418, 433 Jiyū shinbun, 143, 144, 175, 398, 399,

400, 418; and the Liberal Party, 150, 174, 355, 385, 389, 405

Jiyūtōshi, 382–83, 388n27 Jōno Denpei, 91 Jūshichijō Kenpō (Seventeen-

Article Constitution), 341–42

Kabasan Incident, 3, 15n18, 152 kabuki, 29–30, 36, 149, 226, 241, 251 Kagawa Rinzō, 250–51 Kaientai Manifesto, 61–62 Kaigi-ben (On How to Hold a

Conference), 229–30 Kainan Jiyūtō, 370 Kainan shinbun, 97 Kairiku shinbun, 87 Kaiseijo, 59, 228 Kakuminsha (Awakening from

Sleep Society), 393, 394 Kamata Eikichi, 186 Kamida Tamio, 212 Kamijō Shinji, 384n15 kan (officialdom), 6–7, 18 Kanagawa Prefectural Assembly,

199 Kanayomi shinbun, 143 Kaneko Kentarō, 156, 158, 163, 182,

343, 373 Kanpan batabiya shinbun, 87 Kansai Trading Company, 305,

306, 308, 311, 314 Kansei Reforms, 40n19 Kan’yū nippō, 241 Karasu naki Ohatsu no fumibako

(The crows crow, Ohatsu brings a letter box), 315

Kataoka Kenkichi, 132, 213 Katō Hiroyuki, 102, 108–12, 114, 118,

135, 154, 333 Katō Kurō, 265 Katō Masanosuke, 278, 334, 350 Katō Yūzō, 35 Katsu Kaishū (Rintarō), 33, 57 Katsu Kokichi, 33 Katsushika Hokusai, 30 Kawaji Toshiyoshi, 260–61 Kawamura Sumiyoshi, 300 kawara-ban. See tile-sheets Kawazu Sukeyuki, 148, 343 Keiō Gijuku, 77, 144, 173, 233, 278–

79, 320, 326, 350, 430; establish-

Index 507

ment of, 227n4, 228; and the Kōjunsha, 181, 186, 187, 304; and the Mita Oratorical Society, 230–31, 345; and Yūbin hōchi shinbun, 93, 305

Kenpō sōkō hyōrin (The Evalua-tions of the Constitutional Draft), 339–41, 376

Kenri no zoku (A Thief of Rights), 280

ketsuzei (blood tax), 78–79 kibyōshi, 30 Kido Takayoshi, 63, 68, 69, 70, 86,

89, 92, 122–25, 135; and the Chō-shū faction, 81, 82, 131; and the Iwakura Mission, 71, 79, 80, 83, 84; and the Osaka Conference, 121, 273; and Shinbun zasshi (News and Miscellany Ga-zette), 90, 91

Kinji hyōron (Contemporary Criti-cism), 143, 238, 239, 367

Kino Kazue, 147 Kinoshita Naoe, 224–25 Kirino Toshiaki, 81 Kishida Toshiko, 248–50, 253–54 Kishimoto Tatsuo, 152 Kitabatake Tadafusa, 278n38 Kitagawa Sadahiko, 357 Kitai na meii nanbyō chiryō (The

Rare and Brilliant Doctor Treats Tough Diseases), 36, 40

Kōba haraisage gaisoku (Regula-tions Governing the Sale of Factories), 307

kōbu gattai (Alliance of the Court and the Military Houses), 57–58, 59–60, 61

Kōchi shinbun, 316–18 kochō (census chief ), 196, 198, 199 kōdan, 226, 233 kōgi yoron. See public opinion Kōgisho (Office of Public Delib-

eration), 63, 64, 70, 272

Koizuka Ryū, 262, 333; and the Constitutional Progressive Party, 401, 406; and Kyōson Dōshū, 156; and Ōmeisha, 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 172, 173

Koizumi Shinkichi, 230 Kōjun zasshi, 139, 182–85, 188, 346 Kōjunsha (Exchange and Consul-

tation Society), 138, 143, 144, 156, 181–88, 235, 305, 312–13, 319; cstitutional draft of, 346–51, 366, 377; and Keiō Gijuku, 304–5, 346

on-

Kōjunsha constitutional draft, 332

Kokkai, 143 kokkai kaisetsu undō. See parlia-

mentarian movement Kokkai Kisei Dōmei (Alliance for

the Establishment of a Na-tional Assembly), 196, 344–45, 352, 365, 366, 377, 387; and Aiko-kusha, 383; conferences of, 150, 351–52, 356, 358, 365, 366; estab-lishment of, 212–13, 215, 318, 351, 382–83; and the Liberal Party, 382, 383–86; and Nagoya branch, 357; and the Morioka branch, 357; and the Sendai branch, 357. See also Association to Estab-lish the Greater Japan Liberal Party

Kokkairon: zoku-hen (Theories of National Assembly: A Sequel), 361

Kokken ronkō (A Treatise on a Na-tional Constitution), 159–60

Kōko shinbun, 87, 88 Kōkoku Yūshiren (Men of Will

for the Imperial Nation), 38, 40 Kokugaku. See Nativism kokumin (citizen-subjects), 10, 170 kokumin kōkyōken. See public

sphere: national

Index 508

kokutai, 218, 219, 258, 263, 266, 269, 272, 275–76, 277, 326, 373, 398, 404; meaning of, 218n46

Kokuyū zasshi, 139, 173, 176–77 Kokuyūkai (Friends of the Nation

Society), 138–39, 142, 158, 173–81, 185, 309–10, 313, 387; location of, 143, 144; membership of, 152, 169, 173–76, 240

kokuze (national principles), 55, 220, 270

Kokuze sanron (Three Theses on National Principles, 1860), 55

Kōmei, Emperor, 41 kōmin (public subject), 203 Komuro Shinobu, 101, 104, 110, 114,

121, 124, 126 Kōno Hironaka, 213, 384, 387–88;

and Aikokusha, 209, 210, 383; and the Fukushima Liberal Party, 197, 393, 418

Kōno Togama, 148, 149, 281, 319, 324, 387, 402; and Ōmeisha, 124–25, 163, 167, 168

Korea, 34, 68, 80–82, 130, 170, 308, 348, 418. See also seikanron

Kōri Minoru, 383 Kōshi zappō, 87 Kōtoku Shūsui, 399 Kōtsūron (On Communication),

183 Kumatani Heizō, 422n9 Kume Kunitake, 71–73 kumiai, 395–96 Kurihara Ryōichi, 207, 426–27 Kuroda Kiyotaka, 286, 298, 318, 319,

320, 422n9, 429, 434; constitu-tional opinion letter of, 272, 274–75; and the Hokkaidō Co-lonial Office scandal, 305–8, 314–16

Kusama Tokiyoshi, 240, 386 Kutō Dōjin (The Dog-Headed

Master), 115

Kyōaikai (Fraternity Society), 213–14, 358–59; Chizuken, 356; con-stitutional draft of, 332, 358–59

Kyōbashi, 142, 144 Kyōheisha (One Until Death So-

ciety), 312 kyōka (crazy verse), 42 Kyōson Dōshū (Co-Existence

Collective), 138, 143, 144, 156–63, 164, 165, 173, 176, 281; constitu-tional draft of, 332, 343–45, 347, 349, 356

Kyōson zasshi, 139, 157, 158, 162, 280 kyōwasei, 56 land tax, 299–300, 307, 346; reduc-

tion, 416, 424, 426; reform, 73–76, 131, 197, 272, 276, 297

lecture circuit. See public lecture Left Chamber (Sa-in), 64, 78, 92,

117, 119–21, 333; draft proposals of, 120–21

Legal Lectures Association, 149 Les constitutions d’Europe et

d’Amérique: translations of, 147 Liberal Party ( Jiyūtō), 3, 109, 150,

152, 173, 174, 176, 186, 199, 237, 239, 241, 246, 249, 374, 379–95, 423, 447; and Aikokusha, 410; com-pared with the Constitutional Progressive Party, 382, 403, 410–11; criticisms of, 380, 401, 408, 409, 431; dissolution of, 174, 244, 411–12, 413, 418; establish-ment of, 164, 197, 318, 354, 383–92, 395; and the Grand Solidarity Movement,415–16; ideologies of, 129, 176, 395–400, 410; local parties of, 174, 245, 248, 357, 391–95, 397: see also individual parties; location of, 143, 144; member-ship of, 388–91, 403; old, 424, 425, 426, 430, 432, 439; and the par-liamentarian movement, 23,

Index 509

448–49; rebuilding of, 416–18, 420

liberalism, 73, 93, 102n1, 116, 135, 176, 193, 246, 277, 340, 371, 380, 383, 396, 401, 441, 450; American, 2, 103, 218, 222, 286; British, 279–80, 339, 411; European, 2, 103, 105, 113, 146–48, 218, 222, 286; late-Tokugawa,449; Lockean, 219

Lieber, Francis, 349 local notables (chihō meibōka), 165–

67, 193–203, 209, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 221–23, 227, 247, 254, 312, 325, 335, 354, 399, 426, 446, 449; back-ground of, 195–96; and civic constitutional drafts, 353, 362, 363, 371, 377; and the Imperial Constitution, 374–75; and the Meiji state, 206, 258, 412; and metropolitan intellectuals, 138, 153, 164–66, 190, 252, 254, 377, 403, 406, 410, 412; northeastern, 194, 215,425; parliamentarian, 192, 196–97, 222–23, 331; and political parties, 379, 383–84, 386–87, 394, 395; and prefectural assemblies, 201–6, 222, 235; southwestern, 386; and the three issues peti-tion movement, 426, 428. See also gōnō

localism, 223, 363, 395 Maebara Issei, 130, 131; revolt, 209 Maejima Hisoka, 92–93, 141, 324,

402, 406 Maejima Toyotaro, 245 Maeyama Ichirō, 131 Makihara Norio, 47, 113–14 Marxism, 6, 14–15; and gekka jiken,

16; on political parties, 380; on the Popular Rights Movement, 15–17: failure thesis of, 16–18

Maru maru chinbun, 208, 313–16, 317, 318–19, 373

Maruyama Masao, 135 Maruyama Namasa, 172 Maruyama Sakura, 311 Masakichi, 250 Masuda Katsunori, 313 Masumi Junnosuke, 381, 412 Matsuda Masahisa, 383 Matsudaira Katamori, 58 Matsudaira Sadanobu, 40n19 Matsudaira Shungaku, 28, 48, 52,

54, 56, 58–62 Matsukata Deflation (1884), 200n13,

204, 324–25, 412 Matsukata Masayoshi, 299, 301,

324–25, 372 Matsumoto shinbun, 212 Matsumura Benjirō, 220n55 Matsuyama Moriyoshi, 358 Matsuzawa Hiroaki, 436 Matsuzawa Kyūsaku, 213, 383, 384–

85 Meibutsu gassen no zu (The Battle

of Special Products), 40 Meiji constitutional system, 10, 23,

192, 381, 436, 447 Meiji emperor, 109, 115, 131, 141, 217,

299–301, 324, 446 Meiji Legal Academy (Meiji

Hōritsu Gakkō), 152–53 Meiji nippō, 86–87, 144, 241, 305, 311–

12 Meiji Restoration, 1–2, 5, 49–50, 67,

68, 86–88, 97, 196, 198, 207, 223, 234, 445, 452; Centennial, 17, 19; coalition, 64, 66, 70, 81, 110; dlaration of, 20, 48–50, 52, 62; and the French Revolution, 1, 70; interpretations of, 108, 115, 128; and kōgi yoron, 49–50, 57–64, 66

ec-

Meiji state, 12–13, 48–49, 76, 81–82, 101, 106, 125, 142, 190, 192, 201, 206, 246, 277, 311, 324, 331, 371, 412, 415, 428, 431, 442, 444–45; and

Index 510

civic constitutional drafts, 376; and civilian parliamentarians, 285–87, 374, 378, 447; conspiracy theories about, 320; and fi-nances, 293–304; and ideologi-cal programs, 257–58, 277, 327; interventionist policy of, 304–12; and metropolitan intellec-tuals, 139–40; modernization policies of, 21, 67–68, 70–79, 86, 97, 108, 135, 161, 197; and news media, 90, 92, 94–95, 97–98, 325; and parliamentarianism, 259, 267, 285, 327, 447; and public opinion, 8–12, 22, 64, 66, 127, 150, 191, 252, 258, 289, 296, 320, 325, 328, 425–27, 436, 445; and the public sphere, 69, 252, 326–27, 371

Meikyō shinshi, 266 Meiroku zasshi, 104, 107, 154 Meirokusha (Meiji Sixth Society),

107–8, 118, 135, 138, 153–56, 168, 182, 227–28, 233, 234

metropolitan intellectual associa-tions, 137–38, 143–45, 147, 181, 214–15, 227, 235, 240, 312–13, 354, 396; constitutional drafts of, 343–51, 356, 361, 366; and the na-tional public sphere, 138, 189–90. See also individual associations and journals

Mezamashi shinbun, 143 middle class (chūtō shakai ), 170 Mill, John Stuart, 14, 109–10, 197,

353 min (the people), 18 Minamoto Yorimitsu kō yakata ni

tsuchigumo yōkai wo nasu no zu (Prince Minamoto Yorimitsu Encounters the Earth Spider Demon; 1843), 36

Ministry of Education (Mon-bushō), 263, 296

Ministry of Finance, 293

Ministry of Law, 296 minkan (civilian), 6–7, 150 minkan shakai. See civil society Minkan zasshi, 278 minken (popular rights), 10, 208,

447n4 Minoura Katsundo, 93, 278 minpi (civic expenditures), 204–5 minshin (popular sentiments), 277 minshūshi (people’s history), 17, 19 Mishima Michitsune, 3, 392, 405 Mita Lecture Hall, 232 Mita Oratorical Society (Mita En-

zetsukai), 230–32, 345 Mitani Hiroshi, 445 Mitani Sankurō, 295 Mito studies, 32 Mitsubishi Shipping Company,

318–19 mixed residence (naichi zakkyo),

419–20, 421, 427 Miyachi Masato, 31–32 Miyajima Seiichirō, 120 Miyatake Gaikotsu, 228, 244 Miyoshi Shūrei, 124 Mizuno Kimitoshi, 360n54 Mizuno Tadakuni, 34–35 monarchical restoration (ōsei

fukko), 48–49, 65, 275, 443, 444. See also Meiji Restoration

Monma Hisatsune, 404 Mori Arinori, 79–80, 154, 155, 233 Mori Tōemon, 124–25 Mōri Toshihiko, 81–83, 129 Mōri Yoshichika, 58 Morrison (American commercial

vessel), 34 Moshi ware ni mizukara ataraba

(If I Were to Take It Upon My-self ), 322–23

Mosse, Albert, 326, 372 Motoda Nagazane, 275 Murai Mohei, 294 Muramatsu Kameichirō, 213

Index 511

Mutsu Munemitsu, 430 Nabeshima Naomasa, 53 Nagacchiri na kyakujin (Bottom-

anchored Guests; 1868), 41 Nagai Hideo, 419 Nagano Prefectural Assembly, 212 Nagano Progressive Party, 406 Nagaoka Hisashige, 130 Nagasaki: in late Tokugawa, 34–35 Nagata Ichiji, 213 Naigai seitō jijō, 143, 403, 409, 431 Naigai shinbun, 88 Naitō Roichi, 345, 366, 371, 388, 417 Naitō Seichū, 193–94, 380n3, 383,

387–88 naiyū gaikan, 33 Nakae Chōmin, 16, 339, 366, 385,

399–400, 445; on political par-ties, 398

Nakajima Nobuyuki, 248, 319, 337, 354, 388

Nakamigawa Hikojirō, 324, 346 Nakamura Yoshiko, 249 Nakano Jirōzaburō, 394 Nanbu Hikozō, 75 Nani wo motte tō wo musubu ka

(With What Shall We Build a Party?), 401

Nanjō Kichizaemon, 406 Narahara Itaru, 209 Narodniks, 399, 400 Narushima Ryūhoku, 93, 265, 266,

402 national assembly, 118, 164, 176, 193,

197, 208, 209, 216, 218, 221, 282n5, 304, 309–10, 313, 365, 382, 386, 409, 415, 419, 426–27, 446; British model of, 185, 189, 199, 278, 321–22, 440; debates about, 177–81, 185–86, 270–75, 279–80, 284, 340–41, 353, 359, 366, 370; edict for the establishment of, 177, 288, 324, 331, 374, 409, 417, 443, 445;

gradualist position on, 283, 374; opening of, 257, 283, 284; peti-tions for, 219–20, 345, 376, 382, 383; Prussion model of, 321; and transcendentalism, 434.

National Assembly (Kokkai-in), 347, 361, 365

national budget, 296–97, 300, 366; crisis of, 302

national contract constitution (ko-kuyaku kenpō ), 322, 361, 365–71, 374, 436; place of the sovereign in, 368, 371

nationalism, 7, 145, 217, 254, 358, 419, 449–50

Nativism (Kokugaku), 31–33, 131, 195, 340; Hirata school, 32

news media: Benedict Anderson on, 98; and criticisms of state policy, 307–11; and the Meiji state, 260, 263–66, 289, 328; and open editorials (tōsho), 95–96; political nature of, 148, 449; and the public sphere, 225–26, 252, 289, 292, 331, 444; and To-kugawa society, 28–31, 35–36; in Tokugawa-Meiji transition, 86–97. See also individual news-papers and journals

Nihon, 430 Niigata shinbun, 361 Nishi Amane, 59, 62, 107, 154, 198,

234, 333, 334 Nishida Densuke, 91 Nishida Taketoshi, 384n15 Nishikawa Tsūtetsu, 96–97 Nishimura Gendō, 177n81 Nishiyama Yukizumi, 213, 427 Nisshin shinjishi (Daily New True

Affairs Journal), 92, 93, 95, 96, 110, 296; location of, 143, 144; and the Proposal to Establish a Popularly Elected Assembly, 101, 102, 104

Index 512

Nomura Motonosuke, 166–67, 239, 386, 404

Notification of the People ( Jinmin Kokuyusho), 76

Notification on the Revision of Land Tax, 75

Numa Morikazu, 150, 169, 241–42, 320, 402, 404–5, 406, 417, 423, 438; and Ōmeisha, 124–25, 163, 164, 166, 167, 239, 313, 386, 387; and the Tōkyō Yokohama mainichi shinbun, 148–49, 163, 164, 318–19

Obata Tokujirō, 232, 346 Ochiai Yoshiiku, 92 Oda Nobunaga, 49n38, 50–51 Oda Tametsuna, 339–40 Ōe Taku, 133 Ōi Kentarō, 102, 109, 111–14, 118, 135,

152, 243, 418 Okada Heizō, 294 Okamoto Kenzaburō, 101, 104 Okayama Prefectural Assembly,

212 Ōki Takatō, 265, 271n22, 272, 275–76,

277, 300, 320, 372 Ōkubo Ichiō (Tadahiro), 57 Ōkubo Toshiaki, 63 Ōkubo Toshimichi, 2, 48, 68, 82, 86,

97, 119, 121, 122, 131, 133, 135, 141, 260, 297, 299; assassination of, 130, 172n70, 207, 261, 275; on democracy, 84–85; and the Iwakura Mission, 71, 80, 82n28, 83; and Kōgisho, 64; on public opinion, 62–63; and seikanron controversy, 68

Ōkuma Shigenobu, 23, 69–70, 73, 79, 80, 82n28, 121, 175, 244, 278–82, 294, 301, 305–6, 312–13, 316, 320; assault on, 430; conspiracy theories about, 321, 323–24; constitutional opinion of, 278–85, 287, 288, 346; and the Constitutional Progressive

tional Progressive Party, 157–58, 164–65, 400–402, 406, 431; and the 1881 crisis, 325, 346; and Expedition to Korea controversy, 68; and expulsion from Government, 20, 22, 257, 285, 286, 287, 288, 318–26, 331, 372, 373, 401, 415, 421, 433; and the Fifth Column theory, 287, 321, 322; and the first national budget, 296–97; and foreign loans plan, 298–99, 300; and parliamentarianism, 325; and parliamentarians, 324, 325; on political parties, 407; and proposal for treaty revision, 430; and reappointment to office, 428–29; and shokusan kōgyō, 297–98 Okunomiya Kenshi, 180–81, 354, 399, 400

Ōmei zasshi, 139, 153, 163, 169; and use of kōgi yoron, 170–71

Ōmeisha (Singing Birds Society), 125, 138–39, 143, 144, 148, 163–73, 235, 238, 239–40, 312, 313, 339, 354, 428; constitutional draft of, 332, 343–45, 347, 349, 356, 366, 377; and the Constitutional Pro-gressive Party, 404, 405, 406–7, 410; and the Liberal Party, 383, 386–87, 406; Second, 403–4

On Political Parties, 409 Ono Azusa, 147–48, 278, 279–82, 321,

322–23, 324, 334, 417; and the Constitutional Progressive Party, 147, 164, 279, 280, 401, 402, 406–8; and Kyōson Dōshū, 156, 156–63, 174, 343; and Ōtokai, 279, 287, 401; political theories of, 408

Ono Gishin, 280 Ōoka Ikuzō, 430 Ō-oku (Inner Quarters, Edo Cas-

tle), 36

Index 513

Oranda kimitsu fūsetsugaki, 35 Ordinances on Education, 168 Ordinances on Newspapers

(Shinbunshi jōrei ), 90, 94, 127, 150, 155, 158n41; revised, 263–65

Ordinances on Peerage, 326 Ordinances on Public Assembly

(Shūkai jōrei ), 167, 172, 237, 242–45, 253, 267, 268–69, 353, 383; re-vised, 245–46, 389, 394, 403, 412

Ordinances on Publication, 263–64, 421

Osaka Affair, 418 Osaka Conference (1875), 21, 68, 121,

125, 126–27, 136, 273, 337 Osaka Incident, 416 Ōsaka nippō, 215, 239 Ōsaka shinpō, 278, 325, 350 Osarizawa Mine case, 149 ōsei fukko. See monarchical resto-

ration Ōshi Masami, 178, 180–81, 397, 422 Ōtokai (Seagull Pass Society), 143,

279, 287, 401, 408–9 Ōuchi Seiran, 266, 406 Ōyama Iwao, 298 Ozaki Saburō, 162n48, 265 Ozaki Yukio, 279, 324, 422–23 Paine, Thomas, 377 Parliament First, Constitution

Second, 365, 367 parliament, national. See national

assembly parliamentarian movement (kok-

kai kaisetsu undō ), 4–5, 10, 12, 16, 21, 23, 67, 121, 125, 127, 134–36, 148, 157, 164, 185, 190, 194–95, 202, 207–15, 223, 245, 259, 283, 300, 335, 366, 375, 412, 423–24, 431, 438–39, 443–44, 451; and civic constitu-tional drafts, 352; criticisms of, 275–76, 278, 286, 310; emergence of, 134–36, 190; end of, 436–42;

and French republicanism, 107; and kōgi yoron, 170, 447; and lo-cal notables, 190, 192–98, 212, 215, 216, 221, 325; and the Meiji state, 259, 267–69, 272, 275, 285, 301, 327, 413, 447; peak of, 222, 253, 441; and petitions, 215–22; and the Popular Rights Movement, 446–48; and pre-Diet parties, 381, 412; in the public sphere, 447; radicalization of, 129, 173; revitalization of, 416, 418; and shizoku, 300, 306, 331; and women, 254

parliamentarianism, 4–5, 10, 13–14, 17, 20, 24, 101, 116, 161, 169, 219, 322, 356, 430, 436, 447; debates about, 177–78, 296; discourse, 21, 68, 247, 252, 268, 304, 328, 415, 416, 428, 443–44, 447, 449, 451; gradualist, 377; historical im-plications of, 441–50; institutionalization of, 24; andJohn Stuart Mill, 14; Kōchi strain of, 127–28, 280, 370, 377; and local regions, 21; and the Meiji state, 12, 22, 23, 259, 267–69, 328; and political parties, 409–12; in the public sphere, 259, 304, 337, 412, 415, 416, 419, 436; rise of, 270; social contrac-tarian, 129; theo

ries of, 177–78 parliamentarians, 136, 193–97, 262,

269, 270, 324, 377, 417; civilian, 235, 285–87, 320, 325, 332, 336, 338, 339, 343, 365, 368, 376, 441, 443, 446; constitutional drafts by, 351–65; and the Imperial Constitution, 374–75, 436, 438; as gōnō, 193–94, 197–201; Kōchi, 362–65, 366, 370, 371, 375; and kōgi yoron, 438–39, 445; in Ku-mamoto, 357–61; local, 316, 319–20, 351–62, 365, 369, 376, 417; as

Index 514

local notables, 136; and the Meiji state, 285–87; as metro-politan officials, 136; in the public sphere, 374; radical, 322, 368, 377

parliamentary system: bicameral, 272, 276, 321, 323, 344, 348–49, 359, 360, 361, 368, 371; British, 173, 321, 323, 344, 368, 371; unicameral, 173, 349, 362, 366, 371

parties, political, 170–71, 379, 396–97, 439, 444; British, 171, 400, 408–9, 429; civilian, 349; and factionalism, 395, 397, 411; as ideological organizations, 381–82; and kōgi yoron, 170–71; popular (mintō ), 436; pre-Diet, 379–412; private (shitō ), 171; Western, 396

party-cabinet system (seitō naika-kusei ), 24, 326, 347, 348–49, 350, 360, 402, 409, 416, 429; debates about, 431–36.

Peace Constitution, 11, 378 Peace Preservation Ordinances,

428 people’s history. See minshūshi Perry, Matthew, 27, 47, 52, 86; and

gunboat diplomacy, 35 petition boxes (meyasu bako), 61 Petition for the Establishment of

a National Assembly (Kokkai wo kaisetsu suru inka wo jōgan suru no sho), 213

petitions: and criticism of the state, 220–21; and monarchical restoration, 218, 223; and the parliamentarian movement, 215–22. See also individual peti-tions

Phaeton (British ship), 34 police, Meiji administrative (also

national affairs police; kokuji keisatsu), 260–62, 264, 266–69, 312;

and the parliamentarian movement, 319–20

political lecture meetings (seidan enzetsukai ). See public lecture

Poor People’s Party, 3, 381n4 Popular Rights Movement ( jiyū

minken undō ), 12, 147, 152, 194n3, 238, 239, 244, 352, 380–82, 411, 416, 419, 448–50; birth of, 68, 102; Centennial, 17, 19; criticisms of, 124, 183, 235, 309, 368; described, 3–4; downturn of, 204; and gekka jiken, 416, 418; historiog-raphy of, 14–19; and public opinion, 68

Prefectural Assembly, 272, 361, 370 Prime Minister, 433–34 printing revolution, 29, 33 Privy Council, 258, 373 Proposal to Establish a Popularly

Elected Assembly (Minsen giin setsuritsu kenpakusho), 16–17, 20–21, 69, 92, 101–6, 116, 118, 119–20, 125, 126, 134–35, 150, 222, 296, 339, 368–69, 407; criticisms of, 106–9, 117; defenses of, 109–14, 117–18; described, 21; and kōgi yoron, 105, 109, 113, 114–15; and parliamentarian discourse, 139–40; and the Popular Rights Movement, 102; and the public sphere, 103, 104n6; social contractarian vision in, 121

Prospectus for the Foundation of the Federation of Localities (Chihō rengōkai sōritsu shu-isho), 211–12

Prussia, 109, 257–58, 321 Prussian constitution, 374. See also

constitution, national public funds (buaikin), 165–66 public lecture (enzetsu), 22, 149,

156–57, 158, 172, 225–27, 233–35, 244, 252, 354, 405, 406; ban on

Index 515

state officials’ participation in, 164, 167, 242, 267, 281; circuits: 22, 98, 165–67, 173–74, 187, 227, 235, 247, 253, 305, 328; evolution of the term, 227–29; and the Hok-kaidō Colonial Office scandal, 312–13, 316; locations of, 144; and the national public sphere, 225, 227, 242, 252–54, 444; and par-liamentarian discourse, 225–26; performative aspect of, 241–42, 250–52, 253; and political cul-ture, 224, 226, 228, 252–53; politi-cization of, 235–42; state crack-down on, 242–46, 253, 266–67, 312; as subversive performance, 242–46; and women, 246–52, 253

public opinion (kōgi yoron; also kōgi, kōron), 12, 19–22, 105, 112, 114–16, 119, 153, 172, 176, 186, 189, 207, 209, 218, 236, 274, 302–3, 318, 345, 349, 375, 410–11,419, 439, 441, 444–46, 448–49; in constitu-tional drafts, 360, 362, 368, 370; debates about, 169–71, 178–81, 189–90, 207–8, 368, 408–9; de-fined, 8, 350; discourse of, 9, 20, 28, 48–57, 60, 70, 98, 134–36; evo-lution of, 48–57, 65, 134, 169; government based on, 60–64, 66, 68, 70, 119; Hegel on, 8; in late Tokugawa, 20, 21, 48–57, 103n2, 126, 129, 161, 364, 444–45; and the Meiji state, 8–12, 22, 64, 127, 150, 191, 252, 258, 289, 296, 320, 325, 328, 425–26, 436; mobi-lization of, 125–34, 209, 219, 287, 295, 383, 416; and the national assembly, 178–81, 309; and the national budget, 302–4; and news media, 95, 96, 98, 312; and parliamentarianism, 10, 129, 134–36, 193, 445; and the Popu-lar Rights Movement, 68; rejec-

tion of, 114, 296, 311, 350–51, 434–35; as source of political le-gitimacy, 114, 163, 174, 179, 219, 235, 277, 308, 309, 311, 326, 368–69, 396–98, 416, 425–28, 431–33, 440; in Tokugawa-Meiji transition, 28, 49, 60, 63–64, 445

public spaces. See sakariba public sphere, 67–68, 69, 153, 242,

288, 310, 366, 373, 378, 416, 427; defined, 5, 7–9; and democracy, 13; development of, 24, 289, 444; in early modern Japan, 28–29, 45, 65; and the Imperial Consti-tution, 374; Jürgen Habermas on, 7–10, 295–96; Mary Eliza-beth Berry on, 11, 13, 28–29; and the Meiji state, 9, 12, 258, 259, 260–70, 325, 371, 415; and metro-politan intellectual associa-tions, 138, 189–90; national (ko-kumin kōkyōken), 9–10, 12–13, 24, 136, 189–90, 252–54, 260, 331, 335, 376, 377, 412, 419, 443–52; net-works of communication in, 5, 23, 69, 98, 377–78, 412, 444; and news media, 28–98, 144, 226; and parliamentarianism, 4–5, 13, 66, 101; political scandal in, 289–92, 418; in Tokugawa-Meiji transition, 20, 27–29, 43, 95–96; and women, 247, 251, 444

public subject. See kōmin radicalism, 111, 116, 122, 272, 309,

398–99 rakugo, 226, 233 rakusho (also rakushu; graffiti), 30,

43–44, 46, 47; described, 42; ex-amples of, 42, 44

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), 271

Regulations concerning Lawyers (Daigennin kisoku), 151

Index 516

Regulations for a National As-sembly (Kokkai giin kisoku), 120

Regulations on Local Taxes (Chi-hōzei kisoku), 201, 204–5; revi-sion of, 205–6

Regulations on the Prefectural Assemblies (Fukenkai kisoku), 201, 203

Regulations on the Reorganiza-tion of Counties, Districts, Towns, and Villages (Gunku chōson henseihō), 201–2

representative government, 67, 103, 106, 107, 109–10, 125, 138, 160, 162, 191, 289, 436, 439; British model for, 344, 355, 362, 447, 448n4; in constitutional drafts, 338, 344–45, 359; debates about, 269–78, 282–84, 286–87, 331, 341–43; Euro-American models of, 21, 54, 107, 222; gradualist posi-tion on, 344, 347; kōgi-based, 57n54, 102

republican government, 447 republicanism, 70, 106, 153, 398;

French, 152 Rezanov, Nikolai, 34 rights: civil, 355, 371; in constitu-

tional drafts, 347, 355, 362, 363–64, 371, 376; equal, 248; inalien-able, 427; individual, 261; natu-ral, 116, 223, 280, 401, 445, 449; of participation (sansei no kenri ), 218–19; voting, 186: see also suf-frage

Risshisha (Self-Help Society), 126, 132–33, 174, 194, 207–8, 213, 269, 316, 357, 395; constitutional draft of, 332, 365, 376

Roberts, Luke, 61 Roesler, Hermann, 326, 372, 374;

constitutional draft of, 421 Russia, 53, 85, 220; and Tokugawa

Japan, 34; war against, 10

Ryūkyū kingdom, 35, 52 Saeki Gōhei, 240 Saga Rebellion, 129–30, 131 Saifū shinbun, 265 Saigō Takamori, 33n12, 74, 130, 207,

261; and the caretaker gov-ernment, 69, 73; and the Sat-suma Rebellion, 132–33; and seikanron controversy, 68, 80–83, 308

Saigō Tsugumichi, 298, 300 Saionji Kinmochi, 385 Saitama Progressive Party, 350 Saitō Tokusaburō, 422 Sakamoto Namio, 370 Sakamoto Naohiro, 427 Sakamoto Ryōma, 61 sakariba (public spaces), 30–31 Sakatani Shiroshi, 107–8 Sakurai Shizuka, 196, 211–12; con-

stitutional opinion of, 332; model constitution of, 361

Sanjō Sanetomi, 38, 48, 73, 80, 284, 319, 324

sankin kōtai. See alternate atten-dance system

Sano Tsunetami, 299 Sano Zenzaemon Masakoto, 292 sansei no kenri (rights of participa-

tion), 218–19 Santō Kyōden, 30, 292; and cen-

sorship, 40 San’yō shinpō, 369 Sasaki Takashi, 435 Sasaki Takayuki, 71, 84, 270, 271,

275, 284–85, 320, 372 Sassa Tomofusa, 360 satirical prints: in late Tokugawa,

35–42 Satsuma Rebellion, 130, 132–33, 134,

150, 172n70, 193, 207, 261, 262, 297, 309; criticisms of, 171, 308; and state finances, 301–2, 305

Index 517

Satsuma-Chōshū coalition, 33n12, 41, 61, 81, 176, 282n51, 320, 422n9

Sawabe Seishū, 361, 369–70 Sawada Yasushi, 394 Scalapino, Robert, 380, 411 scandal: defined, 289–90; in early

modern Japan, 290–92; politi-cal, 289–92

Scholarship and Arts Discussion Society (Gakugei Kōdankai), 353, 354; lecture meetings of, 354–55

Schumpeter, Joseph, 293 Security Ordinances (1887), 262,

267, 422n11 seikanron (Expedition to Korea)

controversy, 20, 67, 68, 80–86, 101, 257, 263, 286, 308, 338, 350

Seikantō (Conquer Korea Party), 130

Seirinsha, 211 Seiron, 374, 433, 434, 439–40, 441 seiron shinbun (political opinion

newspapers), 69, 86, 93–94 Seitetsu yume monogatari (Dreams

of Western Thinkers), 374 seitō naikakusei. See party cabinet

system Seitō no osorubeki wa nanzo

(What Should a Political Party Fear?), 397

Seitō no ron (A Theory of Politi-cal Parties), 398

seitōkan (party officials), 284 Seiyō zasshi, 88 Senate (Genrōin), 124, 125, 129, 147,

157–58, 217, 268, 270–71, 273, 276, 347, 356, 446; charter of, 122–23, 125; creation of, 121–22; model constitutions of, 337–43, 347, 366

Senchū hassaku (Eight-Point Plan Drafted Aboard a Ship), 61–62

Senior Council (rōjū), 34–35, 52, 55, 58

senryū, 30, 47, 291; described, 42; examples of, 45, 291

Shiba Kōkan, 30 Shibue Tamotsu, 173 Shibusawa Eiichi, 117 Shiga Kinpachirō, 36 shigi kenpō sōan (private model

constitutional drafts). See civic constitutional drafts

Shiimeikai (Purple Dawn Society), 360–61

shijuku (private schools), 77 Shima Yoshitake, 130 Shimada Ichirō, 130 Shimada Saburō, 163, 168, 339, 343,

404, 405, 419–20 Shimazu Hisamitsu, 54, 58, 132 Shimazu Nariakira, 35, 52, 53, 54, 56 shimin byōdō (equality of the

classes), 76 shimin shakai, 6 Shin Ise monogatari, 52 Shinbun kaisō, 228 Shinbun kuyō ōsegaki-e (Dedica-

tion of alms to the hungry demons paying tribute to a newspaper), 266

shingaku (learning of the heart), 56 Shinron (New Theses; 1825), 31 shishi (men of will), 137 Shinshusha (Progress Society), 357 Shisōkyoku (Bureau of Petition

Management), 63–64 shizoku (former samurai), 111, 125,

135, 136, 194n3, 204, 221, 275, 283, 335, 346, 428, 444; impoverish-ment of, 300, 306; and political parties, 379, 380; revolts by, 129–34, 208–9, 260, 275

Shizuoka Progressive Party, 350 Shizuoka shinbun, 325, 350 shokusan kōgyō (export-oriented

industry), 297 Shōnansha, 198

Index 518

Shoshiki daigassen (The Great Bat-tle of Various Goods), 40

Shōtoku Taishi, 342 shōya (village headman), 196 Shūdōkai (Self-Cultivation Soci-

ety), 403–4 Shūgiin (Deliberative Council), 64,

70, 272 shūron (mass opinion), 277 Sōaisha (Mutual Love Society),

345, 357–58; constitutional draft of, 360

Social Contract, 365 Society of Fellows for a Liberal

Party ( Jiyūtō Konshinkai), 383 Soejima Taneomi, 73, 81, 101, 104,

109 sōshi, 215 sovereignty, popular, 105, 362, 365,

371, 376, 377, 411, 445; and con-stitutional debates, 351, 367–69, 434, 439

state-society relationship, 20, 113, 259, 285, 342, 444; contractual conception of, 106, 107, 114, 128; and kōgi yoron, 445; gradualist position of, 11–12, 72, 97

Steele, William, 444 stipends, samurai: debates about,

232; elimination of, 79–80, 272, 297

Suehiro Shigeyasu (Tetchō), 150–51, 169–70, 189, 236–37, 253, 264, 420; and Kokuyūkai, 173, 174, 178–81, 310; and the Liberal Party, 388, 397; and Ōmeisha, 163, 166, 343

suffrage: in constitutional drafts, 345–47, 366; qualifications for, 203–4, 366; universal, 181, 186, 345

Sugita Genpaku, 30 Sugita Teiichi, 210, 213, 243–44, 383 Suharaya Ichibei, 30 Supreme Court (Daishin’in), 121

surimono (one-sheet prints), 47n34 Suzuki Kanshi, 394 Suzuki Ryōhei, 239 Taguchi Ukichi, 158, 343 taikun, 59, 62 Tajima Shikanosuke, 239 Takahashi Kaebei, 165–66 Takaki Kiichirō, 312 Takanashi Tetsuhirō, 166, 313, 405 Takasaki Goroku, 269 Takashima Shūhan, 34–35 Takayama Masayuki (Hikokurō),

32 Takechi Kumakichi, 130 Takeuchi Toshi, 249 Takeuchi Tsuna, 388 Tamamuro Taijō, 81n25 Tamura Junnosuke, 423, 424n14 Tanaka Iwasaburō, 171 Tanaka Kōzō, 339 Tanaka Shōzō, 405–6, 438 Tanekichi, 250 Tani Kanjō, 132, 419, 421 Tanuma Okitomo, 292 Tanuma Okitsugu, 290–92 Teikai Kurabu, 143 Tempō crisis, 33 terakoya (village academies), 77 three issues petition memorials,

416, 423–31 Three New Laws (Sanshinpō), 192,

201–6, 211. See also individual laws

tile-sheets (kawara-ban), 27 Toba-Fushimi Battle, 41 Tochigi Progressive Party, 405–6 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 1–2, 451; on

freedom, 451–52 Tohi shinbun, 88, 359 Tōkai gyōshō shinpō, 357 Tokugawa Iemochi, 38, 58 Tokugawa Iesada, 36 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 49n38, 50–51

Index 519

Tokugawa Nariaki, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 45, 52, 53, 54

Tokugawa Shogunate, 12, 33–36, 40–66, 87, 137, 149–51, 196; and closed door policy, 34, 55; col-lapse of, 141, 177

Tokugawa Yoshimune, 61 Tokugawa Yoshinobu, 36, 38, 40,

42, 48, 56, 58–59, 62 Tokutomi Sohō, 430 Tōkyō akebono shinbun, 90, 97, 143,

144, 150, 264, 302n31, 325 Tokyo City Assembly, 149, 180 Tokyo Debate and Speech Society

(Tōkyō Seidan Enzetsukai), 165 Tōkyō e-iri jiyū shinbun, 143 Tokyo Lawyers’ Union (Tōkyō

Daigennin Kumiai), 152, 417 Tokyo Legal Studies Association

(Tōkyō Hōgakusha), 152–53 Tokyo Metropolitan Police, 260 Tōkyō nichi nichi shinbun, 69, 86–87,

104, 115–16, 121–22, 274, 302–3, 305, 310–11, 325, 367, 431–32, 433; cir-culation of, 95, 96; constitu-tional drafts of, 366, 376; founding of, 91–92; and Fuku-chi Gen’ichirō, 92, 116, 149–50, 266, 311, 313, 317, 318; location of, 143, 144

Tōkyō Yokohama mainichi shinbun, 95, 165, 313, 316–19, 325, 367, 406, 419–20; location of, 143, 144; and Numa Morikazu, 148–49, 163, 164, 318–19

Tōkyō yoron shinshi, 163 Tomoshibi shinbun, 143 Tories, 282, 287, 409 Toriumi Yasushi, 103 Toriyama Shigenobu, 124 Tosa-Kōchi group, 16–17, 22, 68,

106, 114, 116, 125–26, 129, 133, 185, 186, 223, 337, 357, 365, 377, 399, 401n51, 424; and Aikokusha, 193,

207, 208, 213, 303–4, 316, 318, 387–88; constitutional drafts of, 362–65; and the Hokkaidō Colonial Office scandal, 316–18; and the Liberal Party, 384–88, 395; and the parliamentarian movement, 448–49; and politi-cal parties, 395, 405, 407

Tōyō Dai-Nihon-koku Kokken-an (Constitutional Draft for the Great Nation of Japan in the Orient), 362–63

Tōyō jiyū shinbun, 143, 320, 385, 398–99

Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 49n38, 50–51 transcendentalism (chōzenshugi ),

416, 429, 431–36 treaties, unequal, 158, 162n48; revi-

sion issue of, 420–21, 423–24, 426–28, 430

Tsuchiya Kanbei, 354 Tsuda Jun’ichi, 185–86 Tsuda Mamichi, 118 Tsūjō no kyōyō wo ronzu (On the

Cultivation of Common Knowledge), 160–61

Tsunoda Jinpei, 430 Tsushimo Kume, 249 Tsutaya Jūzaburō, 30, 40n19 Tsuzuki Keiroku, 434–35 Uchiyama Suetarō (Yasubei),

354 Ueki Emori, 2, 16, 96, 127–29, 135,

147, 207, 213, 226, 233–35, 345, 366, 375, 388n26, 400, 417, 431–32, 440–42, 445; constitutional drafts of, 334, 336, 357, 362–65, 371, 376: see also Tōyō Dai-Nihon-koku Kokken-an; and Risshisha, 382–83

United States, 27, 54, 55, 80, 85, 97, 103, 107, 118, 174, 226, 306, 348, 355, 430, 432, 447; and the Iwakura Mission, 71–72, 79, 83; and

Index 520

trade with Japan, 35, 43, 54, 86, 421; unequal treaties with, 158

Ushiba Takuzō, 402 Utagawa Hirokage, 38–40 Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 36; and cen-

sorship, 40 Utagawa Toyoharu, 30 Vlastos, Stephen, 134 Wappa disturbances, 124, 149, 158 Warner, Michael, 377 Watanabe Ichirō, 87 Watanabe Kiyoshi, 246 wealthy nation and strong mili-

tary (fukoku kyōhei ), 445 Westernization, 71, 79, 83, 86, 146,

153, 327, 404 Whigs, 282, 287, 409 Willem II (Dutch king), 35 Yada Seki, 305n38, 312 Yakushiji Chikuzen-no-kami

Motomasa, 46n31 Yamada Akiyoshi, 71, 77–78, 271,

272, 273, 300 Yamagata Aritomo, 73, 77, 81n25,

272, 273, 295 Yamada Eiko, 395–96, 397, 399 Yamagata shinbun, 361 Yamagishi Bunzō, 361 Yamagiwa Shichishi, 320, 384–85,

388 Yamaguchi Sashichirō, 198–99 Yamamuro Shin’ichi, 146, 226n3

Yamanashi Prefectural Assembly, 212

Yamashiroya Wasuke, 295 Yamauchi Yōdō, 48, 58, 61, 64 Yanagawa Shunsan, 87, 88, 228 Yanagihara Sakimitsu, 337 Yano Fumio, 278–79, 324, 345, 346,

401, 402, 439–40, 441 Yasumaru Yoshio, 32–33 Yokohama mainichi shinbun, 91, 148,

163, 165, 264. See also Tōkyō Yokohama mainichi shinbun

Yokoi Shōnan, 28, 60, 61, 220; and kōgi yoron, 54–57, 364

Yomiuri shinbun, 94, 143, 144 Yonaoshikan (World Renewal

Pill), 46–47 Yoron towa ikanaru mono zo

(What is Public Opinion?), 169 Yorozu chōhō, 143 Yoshida Kiroku, 406 Yoshida Kiyonari, 79–80 Yoshida Shōin, 49 Yoshii Tomozane, 275 Yūbin hōchi shinbun, 91, 92, 104, 154,

208, 232, 266, 303–4, 318, 325, 348, 430; circulation of, 93, 95; and Keiō Gijuku graduates, 278, 305; location of, 144; and metropoli-tan intellectuals, 214

Yūkokutō (Party of Patriots), 130 Yuri Kimimasa, 101, 104 zankanjō (press releases), 45