Impact of Parthenium hysterosphoros L.

on Farm lands in Wajaale, Somaliland

A Thesis

By

AbdiKhaliq Ahmed Maal

&

Daaha Mohamed Abdi

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE BACHELOR DEGREE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT.

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY

HARGIESA, SOMALILAND

Date

May, 2014

ii

Accepted by

_______________________

Dean of the Faculty

_______________________

Advisor

iii

Dedication

We heartedly dedicate this work to our parents:

Halimo Omer Mire,

Halimo Hashi Shide

Ahmed Maal Hadi,

and

Mohamed Abdi Allamagan.

iv

Acknowledgements

All thankful is to Allah; allow us to complete this thesis book.

We are very thankful to our thesis supervisor Dr. Adan Elmi, for his extensive

encouragement and guidance throughout our thesis work and to gratitude the head of the faculty

Mussa A Dualeh, for having provided us with adequate facilities to complete our thesis and

whenever we ever needed help and moral support.

We would like to thank Ibrahim Omar Kahin (Director of the crop production

department in the ministry of agriculture) his support for facilitating to visit in the studied area,

and Hies Mohamed for his support of making map of invaded area of Somaliland.

We are also very thankful officers of International parthenium weed network

Dr Assad Shabir and Prof Steve W Adkins with their help of finding documentaries of

parthenium weed.

We would also like to thank our classmates for always being with us during field

observations and collection of questions, we also thank our family members who were the

backbone behind our deeds and other individuals who have either directly or indirectly

contributed to our needs.

v

Abbreviations

GDP Gross Domestic product

MOP Ministry of Planning

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

NRM Natural Resource Management

S/L Somaliland

Ha Hectare

FSNAU Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit

“Deyr” Short rainy season in Somali

“Gu” Long rainy season in Somali

“Kelidii Noole” lives alone

SWALIM Somalia Water and Land Information Management

vi

Table of Contents Dedication .................................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iv

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................ v

Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... vi

List of figures ............................................................................................................................................. viii

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ ix

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Background ................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Objectives...................................................................................................................................... 4

2. Literature Review .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.1 What is a weed? ............................................................................................................................ 5

2.2 Parthenium hysterophorus ........................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 6

2.3.1 Seed dormancy and seed-bank longevity ............................................................................. 7

2.4 How it spread ................................................................................................................................ 7

2.5 Impact on Agriculture ................................................................................................................... 7

2.6 Impact on Human and Animal Health ........................................................................................... 8

2.7 Control options ............................................................................................................................. 9

2.7.1 Manual Method .................................................................................................................... 9

2.7.2 Chemical Method .................................................................................................................. 9

2.7.3 Biological method ................................................................................................................. 9

2.7.4 Botanical agents .................................................................................................................. 10

2.8 Preventing spread into new areas .................................................................................................... 10

3. Materials and Methods ....................................................................................................................... 11

3.1. Description of the studied area ....................................................................................................... 11

3.1.1 Map of the studied area ............................................................................................................ 11

3.1.2. Location ..................................................................................................................................... 12

3.1.3 Soil and Climate ......................................................................................................................... 12

3.1.4 Vegetation .................................................................................................................................. 12

vii

3.1.5 Water resource .......................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 Data collection technique ................................................................................................................. 12

4. Findings and Discussions ..................................................................................................................... 13

4.1 Yield impact ....................................................................................................................................... 13

4.1.1 Crop production problem .......................................................................................................... 13

4.1.2 Increase Farm Cost ..................................................................................................................... 14

4.1.3 Land value infestation .................................................................................................................... 14

4.2 Animal impact ............................................................................................................................. 15

4.2.1 Animal Health ............................................................................................................................. 15

4.2.2 Meat ........................................................................................................................................... 15

4.3 Human Health Problems ................................................................................................................... 16

4.4 Control method of parthenium......................................................................................................... 17

4.5 Parthenium weed dispersal agents in Wajale ................................................................................... 17

4.6 Invaded time of parthenium in Wajale ............................................................................................. 18

5. Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 19

5.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 19

5.2 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 19

5.3 Recommendation .............................................................................................................................. 20

Reference .................................................................................................................................................... 21

Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 23

viii

List of figures

Fig 1. Gabiley Map include Wajale……………………………………………………………..11

Fig 2. Somaliland Map. …………………………………………………………………………11

Fig 4. Parthenium weed invasion in a rangeland. ……………………………………………….22

Fig 5. A cow grazing parthenium weed. ………………………………………………………...22

Fig 6. A local boys, unaware of the health hazards, sitting in a pure stand of parthenium weed..23

Fig 7. Parthenium weed growing in a highly eroded and disturbed landscape………………….23

Fig 8. Parthenium hysterophorus growing in a tomato field…………………………………….24

Fig 9. Parthenium weed, dying the late of autumn………………………………………………24

ix

Abstract

Parthenium hysterosphorus is a poisonous and problematic weed, member of the plant

family Asteraceae, annual herb with a deep tap root and an erect stem that becomes woody with

age which is noxious weed native to the Tropical American, normally germinates in spring and

early summer, produces flowers and seed throughout its short life and dies in late autumn, seeds

of parthenium weed can produce large quantities of seed, up to 100,000 per plant, The seed is

easily spread by vehicles, machinery and animals, and in pasture seed, stock feed and water.

parthenium hysterophrous is invasive weed widely distributed in Gabiley, Awdal, and

Marodi jeh regions in Somaliland, the weed has been rapidly spreading to the other parts of the

country, declining the diversity in many native vegetation, growing fast and generally no other

plant species are seen and in areas where it has gained dominance, and the Somali people gave it

the name “Kelidii Noole” which means it does not allow other vegetations grow along with it in

peace.

1

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction Agricultural farms in Somaliland are estimated 3%, while other 7% has potential for

agricultural lands use, the total area of the country is about 137,600 sq km’s (MOP 2010), most

farms are located arid areas while small farms located in semi arid areas. Farms are mainly used

for cropping and livestock rearing, as livestock is the backbone economy of the country, about

65% of the population depends either directly or indirectly on livestock and livestock products

for their livelihood and the economy of the country is based primarily on livestock which

contribute between 60 to 65 percent of the GDP. (MOP 2010).

Agriculture sector contributes to 25% of the country’s livelihoods, most of the farming

systems are rain-fed farms, the most common crops grown for rain-fed farms are Zea mays,

Vigna unguiculata, Citrullus lanatus, and Sorghum L.

Horticulture production exists in most places in the country, Vegetables are produced as

irrigated farming system found in river valleys and are characterized by the use of supplementary

irrigation from dams and shallow wells, and they produce Carica papaya, Mangifera indica ,

Citrus L and Psidium L also large amount of vegetables like Solanum lycopersicum, Lactuca

sativa, Allium cepa. (S/L in figures 2011).

Crop husbandry and rearing livestock (Agro-pastoralist) is the key economic activity

people live in urban areas for buying products to build the livelihood of their family, house hold

consumption and fodder for the livestock. Crop production performance and its potential are

determined by the bi-modal rainfall, the two main agricultural seasons are “Gu” from April to

June received above normal rainfall; increasing production of crops and improving conditions in

the livestock sector and “Deyr” are from August to November received moderate rainfall.

Arid and semi arid areas of rain fed farming are low input, high risk, productivity is low,

farmers with enough capital rent tractors for land preparation with the beginning of rainy

seasons, while most farmers use oxen majority of the farmers renting out a tractor is difficult

while other have no alternative way like big farms. Farming system is primitive way they

inherited their fathers and grandfathers, with a poor farming techniques, selection; choosing seed

2

at each harvest the largest seeds from the best plants for sowing the last season, Seed is planted

by hand either broadcast or in rows.

Mono-cropping system is usually practiced throughout the region, after years of

cultivation soil nutrients become low, reduces soil fertility and built up of insects and diseases

thus resulting severe crop losses, and to avoid that Farmers did not add fertilizers to repeat lost

nutrients also crop rotation is not generally practiced except few farmers, extension agents and

Agricultural organizations trained crop rotation; reduce problems with soil borne diseases, crop

spacing; to avoid over crowded in plants.

Fertilizers are not often used, and weed control is most often by manually. Weed

invasions of natural ecosystems are among the greatest environmental threats now facing

Somaliland, Weeds reduce farm productivity; they invade crops, harm livestock. They

aggressively compete for water, nutrients and sunlight, resulting in reduced crop yield and poor

crop quality, also increase production cost.

Invasive alien species have a significant impact on biodiversity, agriculture, and human

health. However, the impacts of invasive plants on agro-ecosystems are often ignored or seen as

insignificant because they are not easy to quantify, especially in the developing world, which

means that little is done to mitigate their impacts. (Arne Witt).

Alien species which are introduced to new regions, mainly through human activities,

where they establish and spread impacting negatively on biodiversity, agriculture, water

resources, and human health – therefore these impacts have a direct and indirect on economic

growth and livelihoods.

parthenium hysterophrous is invasive weed widely distributed in Gabiley, Awdal, and

Marodi jeh regions in Somaliland, the weed has been rapidly spreading to the other parts of the

country, declining the diversity in many native vegetation, growing fast and generally no other

plant species are seen and in areas where it has gained dominance.

Parthenium weed is becoming a weed of global significance and it is expanding its range

not only within the already reported countries but it is also invading new ones. (Asad Shabbir

2011). This invasive alien weed is easily spread by seed through animal movement and water

streams vehicle movement. It has been considered a serious weed of crop lands.

3

In agricultural fields, where only one crop is grown in a year, it grows freely in the fallow

period following the occurrence of easygoing rains; it aggressively colonizes areas with poor

groundcover and exposed soil such as wastelands, roadsides and overgrazed pastures.

It does not usually become established in undisturbed vegetation or vigorous pastures.

Drought, and subsequent reduced pasture cover, creates the ideal opportunity for parthenium

weed to establish. Within the last 20 years it has become one of the seven most dangerous weed

of the world (Singla 1992).

The Somali people gave it the name “Kelidii Noole” which means it does not allow other

vegetations grow along with it in peace (Sultan-Adam 2013).

1.2 Background

The uncontrolled spread of the noxious American weed Parthenium hysterophorus in

many parts of world (including Eastern and Southern Africa) is causing great concern as it is

believed to significantly degrade grazing and agricultural lands. The Birding Africa expedition

team visit Somaliland (Michael Mills, Callan Cohen, Julian Francis, Clide Carter and Gus Mills)

were disturbed to find on a recent survey that this weed has invaded the Wajaale clay plains

adjacent to the town of Tog Wajaale on the Somaliland/Ethiopia border. (Birding Africa 2010)

The problems of effect this weed cannot be tolerated for its uncontrolled spread of

noxious of this weed and also it can spread easy way, also not shared with other plants or

vegetations, Farmers in West regions in Somaliland inform this weed is from Ethiopia after 1977

(time for the war between Ethiopia and Somali Democratic Republic) invaded Wajale (Border of

Somaliland and Ethiopia) soldiers used for medicine to stop the blood.

Parthenium become an extremely serious agricultural and rangeland in rural areas in

Somaliland, the problem of Parthenium weed has been noticeable since more than 4 decades and

is continuing to affect Farms, health of humans, animals and environment.

Parthenium weed germinates then grow, mature and produces seed all of that process

farmers will not take any action or intervention, for the sake of lack of knowledge for this

noxious weed.

4

1.3 Problem Statement

Last few decades Parthenium weed displace native species and compete with crops,

reduce biodiversity, not easy to control and poisonous to livestock also human, and become a

problem for the farmers and the nation, and spread rapidly in non-infestation areas.

1.4 Objectives

To recognize and identify how parthenium weed affects the farmers in Wajale, Gabiley

Region.

To fill the information gap felt necessary to find an effective management strategy

5

2. Literature Review

2.1 What is a weed?

Many definitions of weeds have been created and historically, all definitions are centered on

human activities. For example, the Weed Science Society of America defines a weed as a plant

out of place; Emerson thought a weed was .a plant whose virtues have yet to be discovered. And

Toffell defined a weed as .a plant that interferes with the management objectives of a given area

of land at a given point in time.

Anthropomorphic definitions of weeds are not inherently bad as humans evolved on earth

and we use our natural resources and weeds are plants that inhibit our efficient use of natural

resources. However, there are physiological and biological characteristics of the group of plants

that we call weeds and careful examination of these factors will help one to better understand

why weeds are problematic.

Thus, in an environment limited by a biotic (physical factors such as climate, fire,

flooding, etc.) and biotic (insect predators, plant pathogens, plant competition, etc.) factors, three

evolutionary strategies for plants occur. Stress tolerates are those plants that reduce allocations to

vegetative growth and reproduction to ensure a population of relatively mature individuals in a

limiting environment; competitors maximize resource capture in productive but relatively

undisturbed environments; and ruderals are plants with short life cycles and high seed output that

are found in highly disturbed environments and occupy the early stages of secondary succession.

Few plants fall into these extreme categories and most are combinations of the three evolutionary

strategies. Many herbaceous annual, biennial, and perennial weeds can be characterized as

competitive ruderals. These plants occupy sites where dominance by true competitors does not

occur because of disturbance; occasional disturbance is expected but frequent or severe

disturbance would favor ruderal plants.

2.2 Parthenium hysterophorus

Parthenium hysterosphorus is a member of the plant family Compositae (Asteraceae),

within this family it belongs to the tribe Heliantheae, which is noxious weed native to

6

the Tropical American. Parthenium is a poisonous and problematic weed, is now posing a serious

threat to crop cultivation and also to human and animal health. It is commonly known as

congress grass, feverfew, ragweed, parthenium or white top.

2.3 Morphology

Parthenium weed is an annual herb with a deep tap root and an erect stem that becomes

woody with age. As it matures, the plant develops many branches in its top half and may

eventually reach a height of 2 m in good soil condition. Its leaves are pale green, deeply lobed

and covered with fine soft hair. Its light green with branching stems. Finally lobed leaves, 3-20

cm long, 2-10 cm wide. Once stem elongation is initiated, smaller leaves are produced and the

plant becomes multi-branched in its extremities (I. Gnanavel 2013).

The plant flowers 4-8 weeks after germination and flowering continued until drought or

frost kills the plant. Parthenium weed achive highest germination rate at temperature ranging

from 12-27oC, the optimum germination temperature being 22-25

oC.

Small creamy white flowers occur on the tips of the numerous stems. Flower heads are

small (4 mm across) and numerous in open panicles. Achenes are black, obovate, 2-25 mm long

and light weight. Each flower contains 4-5 black seed that are wedge-shaped, 2 mm long with

white scales.

Large plants can produce up to 15,000 seeds on average and up to 100,000 seeds, which

can be distributed by floating on still or flood waters or in mud adhering to animals, vehicles and

machinery. As parthenium weed does not reproduce vegetatively from plant parts, the only

method of reproduction and spread is by seed.

Parthenium weed normally germinates in spring and early summer, produces flowers and

seed throughout its life and dies around late autumn. However, with suitable conditions (rain,

available moisture, mild temperatures), parthenium weed can grow and produce flowers at any

time of the year. In summer, plants can flower and set seed within four weeks of germination,

particularly if stressed.

7

2.3.1 Seed dormancy and seed-bank longevity

Soil seed bank is defined as the reservoir of viable seeds or vegetative propagules that are

present in the soil and able to recompose natural vegetation (Sagar and Mortimer, 1976). The

presence of seed bank in the soil allows a plant species to withstand harsh conditions over many

years to maximize its chance for survival and created benefits for the population (Hyatt, 1999).

The parthenium seeds have the ability to undergo dormancy. The seed banks are

persistent, with seed viability greater than 50% after more than two years in the soil. Seed near

the soil surface is rarely viable beyond 2 years. However, undisturbed, buried seed will stay

dormant for a longer period. It has been recorded as viable for up to 6 years and anecdotal

evidence suggests even longer (I. Gnanavel 2013).

In climates where rainfall is irregular, dormancy mechanisms prevent untimely

germination, the size and persistence of the seed banks has implication several years beyond a

reduction in parthenium weed populations. The germination of the seeds declined from 66% after

1 weed of burial to 29% after burial for 2 years (I. Gnanavel 2013).

2.4 How it spread

Parthenium weed can produce large quantities of seed, up to 100,000 per plant. More

than 340 million parthenium weed seeds per hectare can be present in the surface soil, compared

to 120,000 native grass seeds.

The seed is easily spread by vehicles, machinery and animals, and in pasture seed, stock

feed and water. Most long distance spread is in produce, vehicles and farm machinery. It can also

be spread by flooding and by animals.

2.5 Impact on Agriculture

P. hysterophorus aggressively colonises disturbed sites and causes major negative

impacts on pastures and crops. It competes strongly with crops such as sunflower and, in infested

sorghum; P. hysterophorus suppresses yield, as well as contaminating the grain samples it was

reported to cause yield losses of up to 40% in several crops and is reported to reduce forage

production by up to 90%. Parthenium produces enormous quantity of pollen (on an average 624

million plant), which is carried away at least to short distance in clusters of 600-800 grains and

settles on the vegetative and floral parts, including stigmatic surface inhibiting fruit setting in

8

crops like tomato, brinjal, beans, capsicum and maize when its pollen grains are deposited on the

stigmatic surfaces. The weed acts as an alternate host for many diseases caused by viruses in

crop plants It also acts as an alternate host for the insect mealy bug.

In Ethiopia, the yield in Sorghum bicolor grain was reduced from 40 to 97% when P.

hysterophorus was left uncontrolled throughout the season. In Queensland (Australia), the

species has invaded 170,000 km2 of high quality grazing areas and losses to the cattle industry.

Parthenium weed seed is also a contaminant of grain, pasture and forage seeds. Hence, it results

in restricted sale and movement of these produces (I. Gnanavel 2013).

2.6 Impact on Human and Animal Health

The major components of toxic being parthenin and other phenolic acids such as caffeic

acid, vanillic acid, ansic acid, ρ-anisic acid, chlorogenic acid and parahydroxy benzoic acid are

lethal to human beings and animals. Because of sesquiterpene lactone compounds, parthenium

induce severe dermatitis and often allergic symptoms in human beings. Parthenium pollen cause

itching, popular erythmatous eruptions, loss of hair, marked depigmentation of skin,

development of oedema ulceration and lesions in the mouth and intestine.

Parthenium causes general illness, asthmatic problems, irritations of skin and pustules on

hand balls, stretching and cracking of skin and stomach pains on human. It is a major cause of

Trinities and Sinusitis, affecting about ten percent of the people who live near it. Due to its

irritating odour, taste and presence of trichome hairs, parthenium weed is unpalatable, but cattle

and sheep will eat it when feed is scarce. Consumption of large amount will cause clinical signs

such as those of sanitation anorexia, pruritus and alopecia and gastro-intestinal irritation may

result in diarrhea. Being toxic to livestock, causing both acute and chronic toxicity, a noticeable

reduction in milk yield, tainting of milk with parthenin, depigmentation of skin, tainting in

mutton and bitter taste in milk have been reported by Batish et al. (2007). Frequent contact with

the plant stock or its pollen can produce serious allergic reactions such as dermatitis, hay fever

and asthma in live especially horses (I. Gnanavel 2013).

9

2.7 Control options

Ever since the weed became a menace in different parts of the world, several methods are

being recommended in containing the growth of parthenium.

2.7.1 Manual Method

Removing parthenium plants by hand has been employed for the past several years but

with disappointing results. In small areas and isolated pockets such as flower beds, lawns,

kitchen garden and in intensively cultivated agricultural fields, hand weeding can be really

effective and should be preferred. The plants should be uprooted (not cut or broken) before

flowering and burnt or composted. If uprooting is done after the flowering stage, the pulled out

plants are to be burnt without transporting too far off places, to avoid seed dispersal. Manual

method also finds a place in the integrated approach in order to achieve quick results. But

manual method is neither economical nor practicable in vast areas with heavy infestation. In

limited situations the method can work, that too by engaging persons insensitive to parthenium

allergy to uproot the plants. Even in such cases, with safety measures such as wearing of hand

gloves and nose covers are necessary. However, it should be noted that the relief expected from

this method alone is only temporary and needs to be repeated as and when the weed appears.

(M. Mahadevppa 1993).

2.7.2 Chemical Method

Several selective herbicides, soap water and salt water have been tried in experimental

plots and subsequently under actual parthenium infested field conditions. Chemicals like 2,4-D

sodium salt arsenate compounds, paraquat, bromacil, glyphosate or sodium chloride in

recommended dose kill the standing parthenium populations and to some extent suppress

immediate germination of the seeds deposited in the soil. (M. Mahadevppa 1993).

2.7.3 Biological method

Biological control is the use of living organisms to control pests on animals or plants. A

natural enemy such as parasite or predator or disease causing organism is introduced into the

environment of pests or if already present is encouraged to become more effective in maintaining

the number of pest organisms below the level of economic damage to crops or danger to human

health. Of the several methods of pest control in crop production as well as in the living

environment, biological approach is considered to be relatively less expensive and free from

10

harmful side effects to the environment and the organisms habituated in the natural course. Insect

pests, undesirable plants and many diseases were successfully controlled biologically in the past.

However, parthenium control through biological agents cannot be as simple as in other

successful cases because, parthenium is a hardy plant with exceptional adaptability to a wide

range of ecosystems. The successful cases are the only ones involving the host organism having

very specific adaptability. Use of more than one agent in an integrated approach is essential in

suppressing this obnoxious weed. The research on the biological control has revealed that at this

point, there are both plant and insect enemies that can contain the growth of this weed. (M.

Mahadevppa 1993).

2.7.4 Botanical agents

There are two approaches in using plant enemies in the control of parthenium. One is

maintenance of naturally occurring biodiversity and the other is planting selected plant species in

target areas.

Maintenance of natural biodiversity; Protecting the naturally existing flora forms is one

of the three biocontrol aspects suggested in the Integrated Parthenium Management. A botanical

survey in relation to parthenium control across the country has revealed an interesting factor that

the parthenium cannot penetrate into areas where the natural flora have not been disturbed.

Wherever there is indiscriminate destruction of naturally existing plant species, the chances of

parthenium proliferation are more. (M. Mahadevppa 1993).

2.8 Preventing spread into new areas

Preventing the spread of parthenium weed is the most cost-effective management

strategy. There is a high risk of spreading parthenium weed by the movement of vehicles,

machinery, livestock, grain and other produce.

Double-check machinery (including the interior of the vehicle) moving onto your

property and drive visitors around in your own vehicle. Ensure that service provider vehicles (eg

telephone, electricity, gas) are free of parthenium weed seed.

Avoid moving cattle in wet weather as they readily transport seed in muddy soil. When

new stock arrives on a property, hold them in yards or small paddocks to let seed drop from their

coats and tails before releasing them into large paddocks. Always feed stock in the same area to

contain weeds imported in contaminated fodder.

11

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Description of the studied area

Wajale is suitable for agriculture and rearing livestock particularly cattle and most of the

people are agro-pastoralist, is the a leading area in terms of agriculture, on the major products

were cereals also small amount of vegetables, most farms are rain fed few are irrigated during

dry season.

With the application of new systems, technology and new methods for farming it is

generally noticeable that the region's agricultural productivity is increasing year after year, even

though the demand for the agricultural products in the country is far greater than the supply in

this sector of the economy.

3.1.1 Map of the studied area

Fig 2. Somaliland Map.

Fig 1. Gabiley Map include Wajale.

12

3.1.2. Location

SOMALILAND has been divided in to thirteen regions these are Awdal, Badhan,

Buhoodle, Gabilay, Hawd, Maroodi-jeeh, Oodweine, Saahil, Sanaag, Sool, Salal, Saraar,

Togdheer. WAJALE Located in North West of Somaliland on the border with Ethiopia. It is

about 230km and 90km from Berbara a port and Hargeisa city respectively

3.1.3 Soil and Climate

Wajale area has A bimodal pattern of rain fall as all other parts of the country, there are

two cropping seasons GU and DEYR the relatively long season GU, {March and April] and

short rainy seasons DEYR {October to November}.

And the soils: ARIDIC and soil classification: CALCIC VERTISOL and land form:

Pediment and also effective soil depth: 50-100cm and also moisture condition: dry and drainage:

moderately well and the rock out crops. (Swalim 2007).

3.1.4 Vegetation

The vegetation is characterized mostly by herbs and shrub also number of acacia species

are found but is limited according to other parts of the country.

3.1.5 Water resource

In Wajale the main resources of water for and livestock and irrigated their crops and

human are short-lived ponds, shallow wells and reservoir ponds and seasonal streams are mostly

of used during rainy seasons while wells and dams are used during the dry period, most of the

sources are empty at the time of the extended dry periods or during recurrent droughts.

3.2 Data collection technique

Multiple methods were used in collecting information. During field we visit farms for

visual observation of parthenium impact, interviewing farmers, asking unstructured questions,

taking note and then discussing professor’s related weeds also take note documentary sources

and reading international newsletter for parthenium weed, and contact international network for

parthenium weed.

13

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1 Yield impact

Parthenium weed can invade a wide range of crops, and of particular concern is the

invasion of cereal crops such as rice (Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), maize (Zea

mays L.), tef (Eragrostis tef Zucc. Trotter) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) in different parts

of the world (Adkins, Shabir 2014).

4.1.1 Crop production problem

According the study area, the crop production was the causes of parthenium infestation;

they also considered the cause as destiny and drought. The study on farm lands of Wajale also

indicated that is bad season, when the farm cultivated and above ground part exhausted the

underground part were up-rooted the feed livestock which resulted in reduced regeneration of

plants in the future, also it effect the crop flowers and also effect different stage of the crops and

also it reduce the yield on the unpalatable, but the lit shows mixed results other weed suppression

increase pasture yield, useful hand source of minerals and protein, and it has not been established

that weed removal increase animal production.

Cereals were the primary source of food in good, pre-drought (period immediately before

the drought and determine ability to cope with the drought) and drought times for all sampled

households in the study districts

In this study digestibility of some weeds compares favorably with sown grass species,

much better than native grasses also high, the effect of grazing on weeds as on grasses it produce

a greater proportion of actively growing tissue with higher digestibility as lower cellulose, on the

negative side, some are unpalatable or many have toxic substance, certain weeds are indicators

the tribes people of soil exhaustion and declining crop yield, therefore time to move their shifting

cultivation system attitudes to a particular weed can charge over time characteristically it has

escaped from trial plots to over un adjusts areas, at first considered an in eradicable weed.

14

4.1.2 Increase Farm Cost

Due to hire people in the other farms in the area to help manage of weeding two times or

sometimes three times in the one season, that farms does not like that much amount increasing

the farm cost.

Almost 90% of the interviewed people tell us about 1/3 of the farm input is to control and

fight parthenium weed, every one time they weed, the daily life of every person working in that

field in the person of the farm.

4.1.3 Land value infestation

The study districts, parthenum has infested rangelands, home yard, crop production, foot

paths, crop fields and watering points. Sixty percent of interviewed crop-farmers ranked the

infestation level of parthenium to be highest in the grassing areas, followed by crop fields and

home yards and near watering points, according to them, the grazing land in the study districts

experience frequent disturbance by livestock, and it damaged the benefit land, and it is fighting

the other plants, that has been advantage the human being and environments and also livestock,

they speculated that has a result of the infestation the area has already been largely over grazed

and competitive pasture plant have already diminished due to parthenium dominance.

Furthermore, animals that happened to graze the parthenium infested area and then

moved to none infested sites carry the seeds in their hooves and drop the dung or compost which

contains the parthenium seed. Within few days, the parthenium weed starts to grow in clean

areas when it is gets moisture,

This weed is combating the natural resource of parthenium occurs in areas that have been

cleared of native vegetation or where there has be continued disturbance as a result mainly of

heavy grazing, although weed is rated a significant weed, we will not consider it further because

if it is in cultivated land, if it is range land it is welcome because it is highly regarded as a food

plant of livestock.

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4.2 Animal impact

Consumption of large amount will cause clinical signs such as those of sanitation

anorexia, pruritus and alopecia and gastro-intestinal irritation may result in diarrhea.

4.2.1 Animal Health

Majority of the livestock had problem with Parthenium weed that effect animal and cause

toxicity mostly cattle, the study consequence amount weed in the diet had killed animals, in

addition the toxicity of parthenium is more causes animals to develop determatits with well

defined skin lesions, the animal eventually due to rapture of tissue and hemorrhage in their

internal organs the juice of parthenium is extremely irritating to the skin and eyes (Ahmed et al.,

1998)., and if the skin is punctured by the stem or if small wounds such as scratches are

contacted or eaten, the wound may become septic, contradictory opinions on it is use and value

for stock, eaten the animals, suspected of poisoning cows.

The weed is poisonous to livestock and may cause death after 30 days if significant

quantities are ingested. Chemicals within the plant are thought to alter the microbial composition

of the rumen of dairy cattle, buffalo and sheep and can impart a bitter taste to their milk, and the

meat of cattle and sheep can develop an undesirable flavor (Adkins, Shabir 2014)..

4.2.2 Meat

In the study districts, the pastoralist expressed their views pertaining to the quality of

animal products and their marketability, they pointed out that the milk had bitter task or taint,

they added that the meat quality is depreciate and has bad scent (odor) found livestock that fed

on parthenium when eaten by cattle in dry season, no digestive problems but changes milk test,

become very sour, most livestock get diarrhea if they feed it, and may even die in dry season

when there is nothing else they feed, when cattle graze it they get problems, which causes

diarrhea, and eventually cause death.

However when parthenium is offered as a supplement other forages the taste might

slightly improve, all respondents also discovered they face market problems for milk, they point

out that nobody would purchase the milk if a alternative milk is available, also cattle would not

normally graze parthenium since it is not palatable due to its irritating odor.

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4.3 Human Health Problems

There are many problems in the health that the farmers face when parthenium

hysterosphorus grow in their farms these problems have an effect on their health directly and

sometimes indirectly, the problems that affect their health directly include: parthenium

hysterosphorus has pollens , which include the risk factor of Asthma , when the farmer is

exposed to that extrinsic antigen (pollen) it induces a hypersensitivity reaction and then the

farmer develops shortening of breath and the other signs and symptoms of Asthma , so when the

parthenium weed grows in the farm, the farmers which are Asthmatic do not enter the farm and

they avoid it, because if they enter the farm it makes exacerbation of Asthma .

Parthenium pollen causes asthma, bronchitis, and hay fever in humans. Contact with any

part of the plant often causes dermatitis with pronounced skin lesions in human beings and

domestic animals (Wondi Mersie 2007).

Animals when they eat the parthenium weed their milk become bitter and when the

children drank, it increases the secretion of intestines and decreases their absorption and they

develop a diarrhea. Rather than that there are other factors that affect the farmers health

indirectly and these include : back pain due to prolonged when they are cutting the parthenium

weed, as we know the parthenium hysterosphorus grow rapidly and spread throughout the farm,

so in order to cut it all it takes time and because of the farmers by using their hands, leads them

to develop pain in their back and most of the farmers practice to cut it by using their hands due to

lack of agricultural equipments that could help them to cut the parthenium weed and eradicate it

easily, not only the back pain what the farmers are claiming about it, but they also claim about

tears and ulcers in their hands faces them when they are cutting it using their hands.

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4.4 Control method of parthenium

The only method and the most common method for controlling parthenium weed in the

Wajale area is manual method for managing parthenium weed, farmers manage parthenium

hysterosphorus within their crop field by uprooting the weed out in a group of farmers by two or

three times in that season. Uprooting the weed manually when the soil is wet and then collecting

and burning the weed before flowering are some of the effective means of control. However,

they do not care to manage the parthenium weed along the adjoining road side, wasteland or

fallow land which soon causes re-infestation of the weed into their fields.

Uprooting the weed after seed setting will increase the area of infestation. The manual

removal is usually result farmers with allergic reactions. These practices require frequent

operation on a single crop field in each season. This method of management may also affect the

health of the workers who are employed to do this job, as parthenium weed is known to cause

contact dermatitis and asthma (Adkins, Shabir 2014).

4.5 Parthenium weed dispersal agents in Wajale

Most of the seeds of parthenium weed spread in many ways like vehicles, machinery and

animals, and water. The common method of dispersal the seeds of parthenium in Wajale is

runoff water, the water stream intercrossing the farms takes the seed from the infestation area to

non infestation area.

Seeds of parthenium weed spread through vehicles working the farms in that area

attached to the vehicle and stayed there for several farms before falling off in an area where that

infestation is not yet present. For example, tractors as they cultivating and travel up and down in

the farms with parthenium hysterosphorus. As a result, parthenium weed seed are easily carried,

after the tractor move in other farm with another area the seed of parthenium weed is not yet

present.

The seed is easily spread by vehicles, farm machinery and animals (domestic and wild),

can contaminate pasture seed lots and stock feed and can be carried in river or flood water.

International spread between countries occurs mainly by the movement of contaminated produce

(grain for human or cattle feed) or by motor vehicles (Adkins, Shabir 2014).

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4.6 Invaded time of parthenium in Wajale

As parthenium weed continues to grow farms, rangelands and along roadsides it will have

a very efficient way of dispersal through transport and other dispersal agents, farmers of the

studied area within the border of Somaliland and Ethiopia, Wajale, place the parthenium weed

dispersal takes place inform the parthenium hysterosphorus explore to the farms before 3-4

decades.

After 1977 (time for the war between Ethiopia and Somali Democratic Republic) up to

now parthenium weed disperse village to village, town to town, and region to region through.

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5. Summary and Conclusions

5.1 Summary

The aim of this study was to explain how parthenium weed effect the farmers in Wajale

district in the western part of the Somaliland, now everybody knows the impact of parthenium

weed in farming system and it is higher density, so as we suggesting that is complicated to

control the weed in short period, it needs a lot of time to expend investment and also hard work

to eliminate parthenium weed and requires the local people, government, agriculture experts,

local NGO’s to coming together to do that hard work.

The farmers identified the problem of parthenium impact, it consequence every side it

related the life cycle and also the result of parthenium harmfully effect milk and meat quality and

reduce the marketability of milk and meat, on the other hand, effect humand and animal health,

and also effect the environment aspect and also to eradicate the local species on the other side

our farmers the method of control this weed, they don’t have suitable equipment they use hand

picking method to eliminate parthenium weed.

5.2 Conclusions

The goal of this research was to observe the impact of parthenium the crop production

and environment and also land use and impact the land cover and vegetations, the main purpose

was to evaluate out though the ability of crop species with parthenium weed Results of the study

have shown that agriculture is the major livelihood activity for the communities and how

parthenium disturbe their farms.

On the other hand if we see the control systems is used show no meaning and not play a

good role of controlling parthenium weed, throughout the world urgent problems that need to be

solved through include to demonstrate the farmers other management options, the weed plant

growth and spread, bare soil surface, which would be colonized by other weeds and by native

species, how-ever the one benefit of parthenium as soil cover in the areas with no cover

vegetations as its very palatability, if palatable species try to colonize and establish they are

subject to the very heavy stock pressure.

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5.3 Recommendation

Due to the heavy problem of parthenium hysterophorus into the farmers, as we discuss

chapter four we suggest to create awareness of parthenium weed in to non- infested areas to not

spread in the other parts of the country.

Trained farmers how to control weeds in many options and give equipments used for

controlling parthenium weed and other weeds, also advice to not use manual method of

uprooting the weed in hands that causes allergic in the farmers.

Map and report parthenium weed infestations and develop parthenium Action Group to

eradicate parthenium, and establish local management policies to contribute to the management

of parthenium weed.

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Reference

Arne Witt, 2008 impacts of invasive plants and their sustainable management in agro-

ecosystems in Africa.

Dr. M. Mahadevppa, methods of parthenium control .

Dr Stephen Atkins 2009 Farming System overview “Study for the Review and Identification of

the Agriculture Programmes for Somalia”.

Dr. A.Shabir, Prof S.W.Adkins, 2011,12,13,14 International parthenium News.

Ethiopian Weed Science Society, 2005 Spread and Ecological Consequences of Parthenium

hysterophorus in Ethiopia.

Gualbert Gbèhounou, 2009 Africa under threat of invasive alien plants.

International journal, 2010 Current and potential geographical distribution of the invasive plant

Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae) in eastern and southern Africa.

International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science (ISSN: 2251-0044)

Impact of parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) on the above-ground and soil seed

bank Communities of rangelands in Southeast Ethiopia

K. G. BECK 1994,. How do weeds affect us all? Associate Professor of Weed Science,

Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado

Ministry of National planning, 2009, 2010 Somaliland in Figures

Sultan-Adam 2013 Website Article- The harmful source of a healing honey.

www.somalihoney.com

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Science International - Research Article, 1 (5): 124-131, 2013 Parthenium hysterosphorus L. a

major threat to natural and agro eco-systems in India.

Shashie Ayele 2007 The impact of parthenium (parthenium hysterophorus l.) On the range

ecosystem dynamics of the jijiga rangeland, Ethiopia.

Steve Adkins, Asad Shabbir 2014 Biology, ecology and management of the invasive

parthenium weed Parthenium hysterophorus L.)

Somaliland Vision 2030, 2010 Somaliland Food & Water Security Strategy

Swalim 2007 Soil Survey of a Selected Study Area in Somaliland

Wondi Mersie, 2008 Abating the Weed Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) Damage in

Eastern Africa Using Integrated Cultural and Biological Control Measures.

23

Appendix

Parthenium hysterophorus L. photos

Fig 4. Parthenium weed invasion in a rangeland.

Fig 5. A cow grazing parthenium weed.

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Fig 6. A local boys, unaware of the health hazards, sitting in a pure stand of parthenium weed.

Fig 7. Parthenium weed growing in a highly eroded and disturbed landscape.

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Fig 8. Parthenium hysterophorus growing in a tomato field.

Fig 9. Parthenium weed, dying the late of autumn.

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Questions, to collect information through farmers

1. Does parthenium weed growth your farm yes No

2. Time that parthenium weed invaded you field and wajale

3. Do you control Yes NO

I. Weeding Control

4. Farmer health problem

5. How parthenium weed impact yeild

6. How parthenium increase farm input

7. How Parthenium weed contact land use

8. How parthenium causes problem animal.

I. Health

II. Milk

III. meat

9. Time animal feed Parthenium weed