HUMAN BONE LEAD CONCENTRATIONSby

Tony Waldron

The uses to which the Romans put lead exposed them to a considerable risk of developinglead poisoning and there is a good deal of documentary evidence to suggest that the disease wascommon amongst them, and that on occasions, it assumed endemic proportions. There is notmuch in the way of scientific evidence to support this view, however, although it is a relativelysimple matter to assess the degree to which ancient populations were exposed to lead by ananalysis of the concentration of lead in bone. During life at least 90% of the lead which isabsorbed into the body is fixed in the skeletal tissues where it tends to accumulate with age, atleast until the fifth or sixth decades. A high bone lead concentration may thus be taken as anindication that the individual (or the population of individuals) was heavily exposed during hislifetime.

Some studies have already been undertaken to examine the lead content of bones from avariety of Romano-British sites, but the largest series so far has come from the excavations atCirenccstcr.

A total of 333 bones from this site, principally rib, vertebra or ulna, have been analysed froma total of 161 skeletons. Samples of different bone were taken from the same skeleton in orderthat the degree of variation in lead content from bone to bone could be determined. Each bonesample was cleaned, dried and weighed, and then wet ashed in a mixture of perchloric andnitric acids. The lead content was determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry andall lead concentrations expressed as micrograms lead/gram (f,Lg/g) dry weight of bone.

The reliability of the analytical method was tested by comparing the results obtained withthose of a physical method employing neutron activation and with those of another laboratoryusing chemical analysis. In both cases, the results from the secondary analyses confirmed thatthe original method was sound. As a further check of the method, 27 duplicate samples fromthe same bone were sent for analysis without the prior knowledge of the analyst and thedifferences between the results were not statistically significant.

From the results of the analyses it seems clear that the inhabitants of the site - or at leastthose who came to be buried there - were heavily exposed to lead (see Table 96 and fig. 85mf. 4/5). In the modern population, the mean concentration of lead in bone is variouslyquoted, but the maximum concentration seems to be between 40-50 f,Lg/g. The concentrationsin the Cirencester bones are markedly abnormal by present day standards and indeed, as can beseen from fig. 85, none is less than the contemporary maximum quoted above. The distributionof lead concentrations is very wide (fig. 85) and, especially in the rib and vertebra, noticeablyskewed to the right. There is a substantial proportion of values (approximately 5% in all) inexcess of 500 f,Lg/g, indicating exposure on a massive scale even for this population.

There are no consistent sex differences (Table 96), nor is there any correlation between leadconcentration and age (Table 97). In contemporary populations, bone lead concentrations arehigher in men than in women and there is an increase in concentration with age, and the factthat this was not the case in the Cirencester bones was unexpected. It is possible that thesimilarity in lead concentration in the male and female bones is an indication that degree ofexposure was the same, but since the differences noted in modern bones are thought to be dueto an underlying difference in rates of absorption from the gut this seems, at first sight unlikely.However, it is known that the absorption of lead from the gut is markedly affected by theconstitution of the diet; it increases particularly if the levels of calcium and iron are low. Now ifthe people at Cirencester had a diet deficient in calcium and iron but at the same time werepresented with a great deal oflead, this combination of factors might be sufficient to off-set therather small differences in absorption seen in men and women on well balanced diets containingrelatively small quantities oflead. Since we have no information on the composition of the diet

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204 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

of the Cirenccster people, this has to remain a matter for speculation.Failure to note an increase in lead concentration with increasing age may be due to a

combination of circumstances, the most significant of which being the small numbers in someof the cells, the wide spread of the results within each cell, and the difficulties inherent inassigning a precise age to the bones. In most cases, especially with adult bones, the age can onlybe quoted as lying within a five, ten, or even fifteen year range. This necessarily makes thechances of demonstrating trends with age extremely difficult.

The variations in lead content in the different bones was expected, mean levels in rib andvertebra being higher than in the ulna by a factor of 1.6-1.7. The correlation between levels inrib and vertebra is highly significant (Table 98), but not between vertebra and ulna. There is asignificant correlation between levels in rib and ulna in males but not in females; the reasons forthis difference are obscure.

The practical consequences of the variation in lead levels are that in any other studies of thiskind, the type of bone used should be specified in order to allow proper comparisons to bemade with the results of other investigations.

The major source of lead to which the individuals on the site were exposed must have beenthe diet, but how the lead got into their food and drink remains unknown, and there are nodues from the excavation. This is an area in which there is an obvious need for further studyboth at this and other sites.

Contamination of the bones by lead in the soil has always to be borne in mind although ingeneral this is not a serious problem since lead is firmly bound to organic materials in the soiland mobile only under conditions of high acidity, conditions which do not favour good bonepreservation. Soil samples were analysed from several parts of one of the trenches on the site(see figs. 38 and 86 mf. 4/5) and the lead concentrations were in no way exceptional (Table 99).

The most important question which we have to consider is, did the high lead levels to whichthose folk living at Cirenccster were exposed have any adverse effects on their health? Is itpossible that any of them died of lead poisoning?

So far as the adults in the group are concerned, it is not possible to state categorically that anyactually had lead poisoning since elevated bone lead concentrations may result if large (butsub-toxic) amounts of the metals are absorbed over a long period. Lead workers are an obviousexample of those who may be subjected to prolonged heavy exposure and, as expected, theirbones may contain several times the 'normal' concentration, and levels in excess of 200 J.l.g/ghave been reported. On the other hand, an enhanced intake of lead may also be due to environ­mental factors. In Glasgow, for example; where the water is extremely plumbosolvcnt, meanbone lead concentrations are almost twice as high as those in a hard water (non-plumbosolvent)area and in one study of autopsy material, 6.5% of the levels were in excess of 200 J.l.g/g, thehighest value being 540 J.l.g/g; none of the patients had had symptoms of lead intoxicationduring life. Chronic, heavy exposure to lead may not be an immediate threat to life, but it maywell be accompanied by an increased morbidity. For example, some of the Cirencestcr inhabit­ants with the highest exposure would very likely have been anaemic, and this would haverendered them less able to cope with infections and other relatively trivial illnesses.

If high bone levels in adults cannot be taken as necessarily implying a diagnosis of leadpoisoning, then conversely, levels within the normal range do not exclude it. Most cases ofsevere clinical intoxication arise from the absorption of unusually large amounts of lead over ashort period of time. This is expccially so in children. Now if previous exposure has beenslight, bone lead concentrations before the onset of symptoms may be correspondingly low andalthough they will certainly rise following the intoxicating dose, the increase may not be suf­ficient to take the concentration outside the range of normal values.

These difficulties in the interpretation of bone lead concentrations apply equally to children asto adults, as noted above, although high concentrations in the bones of very young children aremuch more suggestive of clinical intoxication since infants are much less able to tolerate anincreased burden of lead than older children or adults.

The results of the youngest children in the study are shown in Table 100 (mf. 4/5) and itseems highly likely that some of these children did actually die from lead poisoning.

THE ROMAN CEMETERIES OF CIRENCESTER

In order to enhance the examination of the Bath Gate cemetery a study of the known burialpattern around the town was undertaken. The full gazetteer, mf. 5/5, brings together all therecorded information of burials within the immediate environs of the Roman town, culled fromjournals, manuscripts, museum records, newspaper cuttings, and excavations. An open-endednumbering system was adopted to permit additions in the future, with blocks of numbers beingassigned to the areas outside the west (A-1999 including those burials excavated in CS and CT69-76), south (2000-2999), east (3000-3999), and north gates (4000-4999). Finds of humanbones recovered from within the town defences are numbered 5000-5999; with unprovenancedfinds 6000-6999. The divisions are geographical around the town, and in no sense chron­ological. Wherever possible each number represents a single burial. For the earlier very generaldescriptions of finds such as Leland's account of Grismunds Tower (Gazetteer 1000) wherespecific numbers of burials are not given the gazetteer number may represent more than oneindividual. Tombstones have been numbered individually. In those locations where eitherinhumations and/or cremations occur with tombstones, duplication of individuals by num­bering the tombstone and the individual commemorated by the above ground marker mayhave occurred.

Fig. 87 serves to locate all those burials for which precise or more approximate find-spots areknown.

To date the greatest number of recorded burials, have been recovered from the Romancemetery to the west of the town. The earliest record of a burial was made by Stukeley in 1721in describing Gazetteer burials 1063-1068, when 5 tombstones, and several urns were found"near the Querns, half a mile west of the town". The descriptions of the eminent antiquariansLeland and the Rev. Skinner are of great interest in themselves when discussing GrismindsTower, gazetteer 1000, and the inhumations recovered during the digging of a pond to providewater for the cattle, gazetteer nos. 1107-1138.

Finds of burials to the south of the town are few. During the nineteenth century with theconstruction of the Midland and South Western Junction Railway and concomitant lightindustry and housing development, only three tombstones, gazetteer nos. 2003-2005, wererecorded. Building development and service installations resulted in the recording of a spate ofburials in the 1950's. Fuller observati~n in the nineteenth century for the more mundane andless obvious inhumations and cremations would no doubt have increased the total considerablyand given a truer reflection of the size of the cemetery.

To the east of the town the construction of the eastern by-pass revealed 14 burials, gazetteerburials 3005-3018. The land immediately outside the east gate has been little developed and theeastern line of the second century defences has continued to contain the line of the town sincethe Roman period.

The line of Gloucester Street, northwards from the site of the north gate at the junction withSpitalgate Lane, is bordered by medieval and post-medieval houses and thus the scope forinvestigation of the Roman cemetery has been limited to the recovery of one skeleton, gazetteerno. 4000 in c. 1842. Burials 4001-4003 from Stratton, a mile from the town, are of interest, andpossibly represent seventh to eighth century Saxon graves. The Anglo-Saxon burial dugthrough the floor of The Barton mosaic (Sewell and Powell, 1910, 67-8) and the finds ofAnglo-Saxon burials in the gravel pits nearby (Whatley, 1894-5) point to Anglo-Saxonoccupation in and use of this area.

The twenty-three sculpted and inscribed tombstones commemorate the names of tenindividuals - Julia Casta (1063), Cast. Castrensis (1071), Publia Vicana (2000), Dannicus(2003), Genialis (2004), Philus (2005), Igennus (2021), Nemomnius Verecundus (2022),Petronius (2023) and Ingenuina (2036). As works of art the two military tombstones ofDannicus and Genialis are noteworthy, with the civilian Philus representing the third three­dimensional figure. The finely sculpted hand of gazetteer burial 2035 is arguably from a militarytombstone also, with a provenance in the southern cemetery close to those of Dannicus and

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206 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

Genialis. The only other military tombstone comes from the Bath Gate cemetery, where afragment was found re-used in the footings for wall 2 of the roadside building, mf. 2/5. Re-useof tombstones, as for example the four civilian tombstones 2021-2024 in the base of the townrampart, would suggest that movement of tombstones from their original site and purpose wasnot an uncommon practice and the stray tombstone of military character in the Bath Gatecemetery may originally have stood outside the south gate, which appears to have beenfavoured by military personnel.

500,I I

'00

oIo

1000,I

500

2000, JOOO, <000, , '1500 M.

Fig. 87. Plot of Gazetteer burials

Only seven tombstones give the age at death of the individuals commemorated, rangingfrom Igennus aged only six, to Nemomnius living to 75 years. Both Pctronius and Genialisdied at the age of 40, with Philus 45 years of age, Julia Casta 33, and Ingenuina 20. With thebenefit of notes writen by the Rev. Skinner ofCamerton in 1824 (Brit. Mus. Ad. MSS 33(79) ithas been possible to substantiate the provenance of gazetteer 6010 as having been found in"Steep Stairs field", i.e. the area of the southern cemetery.

The transportation of large blocks of stone from the quarry source near the amphitheatre tothe southern outskirts of the town would appear to have presented no difficulties, and makes itthe more unusual that no stone coffins have been found anywhere else but in the Qucrns, wherethe total recovered is now twenty-five.

CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II 207

Similarly, cremation as a method of disposing of the dead appears more prevalent to the westof the town. The use of square blocks of limestone for 1002, 1062, 1073-5, 1083, 1088-1089,1095, 2002 and 2006, with a hollow scooped to take either the ashes, or a pottery urn containingthe ashes is in contrast to the less elaborate method of simple disposal in urns for cremationsfound in the grounds of Oakley Cottage, 1003-1056. An illustration in Buckman andNewmarch (1850, 111, fig. 44) illustrates clearly the form of these stone containers, on severaloccasions making usc of column sections, and re-using blocks of limestone cut from the nearbyquarries. From the cemetery outside the south gate an outstanding find of a cremation in a glasscinerary urn, 2002, was further wrapped in lead, according to several accounts, and placedwithin a cremation stone. Precise description of the stone is not given, but the form wouldpresumably mirror closely one of those from the westem cemetery. The second cremationstone from the southern cemetery, 2006, is doubtful, the receptacle possibly being a morticeand tenon fixing in a large slab of building stone.

All the pottery cinerary urns in the Corinium museum collection, reflect the general trendexhibited in other cemeteries in Roman Britain of cremation being a first-second century burialtradition, superceded by inhumation in the third and fourth centuries. The period of overlap ofthe two traditions is best illustrated in Cirencester in the grounds of Oakley Cottage 1003-1056where the two forms arc in close proximity to one another, but without physical overlap.

Lead as a medium for the encasing of cremated ashes has already been described in thecontext of burial 2002. In only two other instances has lead been recorded - in the case ofburial 356 for an inhumation where the inner coffin of lead was placed inside one of stone, seep. 92, a simple St. Andrew's cross decorating the lid; and burial 6000 represented by a farmore elaborate fragment, decorated with a St. Andrew's cross in cable pattern, ?paterae and afull-face female bust. By its nature, the fragment probably comes from one of the shorter sidesof a coffin.

Perhaps one of the most interesting groups of burials arc those catalogued 5000-5007, whichby their very provenance, within the walls of the town, call for individual attention and dis­cussion. Burial 5003, that of a small child, in an outside yard area of the Beeches Town House,is understandable in the context of Roman law. and custom. The adult inhumations 5001 and5006 lying in the ditch bordering Ermin Street have been used to argue for the decline of thetowns population, disruption of civil administration (Wacher, 1974, 289-315) and retreat to theamphitheatre in times of unrest at the end of the fifth century. The tombstone fragment desig­nating burial 5005 illustrates further the re-use of Roman material - in this case in the found­ation trench of the Saxon Church, pre-dating the twelfth century Augustinian Abbey.

ABBREVIATIONS

A.E.Am. j. Phys. Anthrop,Alltiq. j.Arthaeol. AelianaArchaeol, CambrensisArchacol, CantianaArthaeol . j.Brit. Archaeol, Rep.Brit. oe« j.Brit. Med. j.Bull. Board Celtic StudiesBull. Group. lilt, Redi. Sc. Stomat..

Bull, N. Y. Acad. Med.C.i.L.Dt. Zallll-Mulld KiiferheilkE.E.G.C.R.O.j. Archaeol. Scij. Brit. Archacol, Ass.J. Glass Studiesj. Hist. Geographyj. Hist. Med.j. Northampton MuseumMed. Bioi. must.Med. Hist.Norfolk & Norwich Arthaeol. Soc.Paleopath. Ass. NewsletterProc. Cotteswold Natur, Fld. ClubProc, Prehist. Soc.Prot, Soc. Antiq. Scot.S'HSex Archaeol, Collect.Trails. Bristol Gloucestershire Archaeol,Soc.Trails. London Middlesex Ardweo!. Soc.

Trail. Doc. Centre Paleoanthrop . Paleo­path.

Wiltshire Archaeol, Natur, Hist. Mag.Z. Rassenk.

Annec epigraphiqucAmerican Journal of Physical AnthropologyAntiquaries' JournalArchacologia AclianaArchacologia CarnbrcnsisArchaeologia CantianaArchaeological JournalBritish Archaeological ReportsBritish Dental JournalBritish Medical JournalBulletin of the Board of Celtic StudiesBulletin du Laboraroirc de recherche de l'lnstitut deStomatologic de l'Univcrsite, BruxcllesBulletin of the New York Academy of MedicineCorpus Inscriptionum LatinarurnDeutsche Zahn-Mund und KieferheilkunstEphemeris EpigraphicaGloucester County Record OfficeJournal of Archaeological ScienceJournal of the British Archaeological AssociationJournal of Glass StudiesJournal of Historical GeographyJournal of History of MedicineJournal of the Northampton Museum & Art GalleryMedical and Biological IllustrationMedical HistoryNorfolk and Norwich Archaeological SocietyPalcopachology Association NewsletterProceedings of the Cottcswold Naturalist Field ClubProceedings of the Prehistoric SocietyProceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandSussex Archaeological CollectionsTransactions of the Bristol and GloucestershireArchaeological SocietyTransactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeol­ogical SocietyTravaux cr documents du Centre Pierre Morel ctCalvin Wells Centre de Paleoanthropologic cr dePalcoparhologic, LyonWiltshire Archaeological and Natural History MagazineZeitschrift fUr Rasscnkundc

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212 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

Goodchild, R.G., 1941

Greene, K.T., 1973

Grcnstcd. L.W., 1959Griffith, A.F., & Salzmann, L.F., 1914

Griffiths, N.A., 1978

Grigson, c., 1976

Croschcl, W., 1937

Harcourt, R.A., 1974

Harden, D.B., 1956

Harden, D.B., 1959

Harden, D.B., 1960

Harden, D.B., 1962

Hardwick, J.L., 1960

Hart, W.H., 1863--7

Hassall, M.W.C., 1973Hassall, M.W.C., 1982

Hassall, M.W.C., & Rhodes, J., 1974

Hassall, M.W.C., & Tomlin, R.S.O.,1977Haverfield, F. ,1893Haverfield, F., 1917-18Hawkes, c.r.c.. & Hull, M.R., 1947

Hawkes, S.C" 1977

Hearne, T.,

Henkel, F., 1913Henig, M" 1974

Henig, M., 1976

Henner, F., 1934Hoblcy, B., & Schofield, J., 1977

Hodder, I., 1974

Horsel y, J., 1732

Romano-British Disc-brooches derived from HadrianicCoin-types, /uuiq. j., XXI, 1--8The pottery from Usk, in Cum!11t Research ill Romano-BritishCoarse Pottery, (cd. A. Dcrsicas}, 25-37Contents of Brainpan of Skull, in Webster, G., 84-5An Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Alfriston, Sussex, 5t1SsexArdlaeol. Collca., 56,16-53A fragment of a Homan cavalry tombstone fromCircnccster, Brita/mia, ,IX, 396-7, fig. 5The craniology and relationships of four species of Bos: 3,J. Arthaeol, ss., 3, 115-136Pathologische Erschcinungcn an den Zahnen und Kicfcm clefAlcmanncn aus den Bcgrabnisstatcn der Merowingcrzcir desBczirkcs Dillingen and der Donau Dt. Zahn-MundKiiferhlk, 4, 370-38611,e dog in prehistoric and early historic Britain, j. Ardlacol.sa., 1, 151-175Glass vessels in Britain and Ireland, 400-1000, in Dark AgeBritaiPl: Studies presented to E.T. Leeds, LondonNew Light on Roman and Early Medieval Window Glass,GJastechisdsc BerithteThe Wint Hill hunting bowl, and other related glasses, j.Glass Studies, ii, 52Ehnracum: Ramal/ }'ork, Vol. 1, 11,e Glass, 136-140, RoyalCommission on Historical Monuments, EnglandThe incidence and distribution of caries throughout the agesin relation to the Englishman's diet, Brit. Oe/1/. j., 108,9-17Historic et cartuiarium m(1I1(15ICl1i Sanai [Jerri Glourcstriac, 3vols,Inscriptions 1969-1973, in McWhirr, 211-4Epigraphic evidence for the auxilliary garrison atCirenccstcr, in Earl)' ROl1lal1 Ocoipation at Circnccstcr, (cds. J.S. Waeher & A.D. McWhirr), 67-71Excavations at the New Market Hall, Gloucester, Tram.Bristol Cloncesurshirc Arthaeo'. Soc., XClII, 15-100Roman Britain in 1976: Roman Inscriptions, 13rirmmia! VIII,439Romano-British Inscriptions, 1892-3, /nttiq. j., L, 285Homan Circnccstcr, Archacolosia, lxix, 161-200Cnnndodunum J First Report 011 the Excavations at Colthestcr,1930-39, Soc. Antiquaries of London, XIV, OxfordOrientation at Pinglcsham: sunrise dating of death and burialin an Anglo-Saxon cemetery in East Kent, Archacol.Cantinna, 92, 33-51The [til/erary of )oh" Leland the amiql/O/'j' published from theoriginal manuscript in the Bodleian LibraryDie rocnischcn Fil1gcrril1gC der Rheiniandc, BerlinA Corpus of Roman Engraved Gemstones from Britishsites, Brit. Arttmeol. Rcp., 8, OxfordA silver finger-ring from Winchester Wharf, Southwark,Trans. LOI,dOl' Middlesex Ardmcol. S"c., 256La Gra,JjesCllql/e (Condatomago), ParisExcavations in the City of London, First Interim Report,1974-5, Antiq. j., LVII, 31-{16The Distribution of SavcmakcWarc, Wi/rs!lire Arc/wed.Natur. Hist. M~~., 69, 67-84Britannia Romano, or The Homan Antiquities of Britain,Londoll

CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II 213

found in the lead-mines at

Communications Cmltlm'~~e

Household, H., 1%9Imhoof-B1umer, F., & Keller, 0., 1889

Irvine. J.T., 1879

Jackson, D.A. & Ambrose, T.M., 1978

Jewell, P.A., 1%3

Keller, E., 1971

Kendrick, T.D., 1932Kenyon, K.M., 1948

Kibaltchitch, T.W., 1910Kilbride-jones, H.E., 1936-7

Knorr, R., 1910

Knorr, R., .1919

Krogman, W.M., 1938

Leeds, E.T. & Shortt. H. de S., 1963Lehner, H., 1904

Lewis, Rev. S.S.. 1876-80

London Museum Cat., 1930Lukis, W.e.

Lysons, S., 1792

Maclean, Sir John. 1886-7

Maiden, J., 1958

Manning, W.H., 1972

Manning, W.H., 1976

Marshall, F.H., 1907

Maczunska M., 1974

McGrath, P., & Cannon J., 1976McWhirr, A.D., 1973

McWhirr, A.D., 1976

MeWhirr, A.D., 1978

TI,e Thames and Sevem Caual, Newton AbborTrier und Pflallzenbilder mif MiinzeH wId Ccmmcn desKlassisthen Aftertll111S, LeipzigAntiquities at Circnccster and Berkeley, Trans. BristolCloucestershire Arc"aeol. Soc., III, 256-257Excavations at Wakcrly, Northants., 1972-5, Britanl1ia, IX,115-242Cattle from British archaeological sites, in Man and Cattle,(cds. A.D. Mourant & F.E. Zeuner), 80-\01Die spatromischctl Gralifimde ill Siid/Jayem, Munchcncr Beitragczur Vor- und Fruhgeschichtc. 14British Hanging Bowls, Amiql/ity, VI, 161-\84£waf'atiolls at the Jewry Wall Site, Leicester! Soc. Antiquariesof London XV, LondonCemmes de In Russie Mmdionale, BerlinA bronze hanging bowl from Castle Tioram, Moidart: and asuggested Absolute Chronology for British Hanging Bowls,Proc. Soc. AtlIiq. Scot., lxxi, 206-247Die vcrzicrtcn Terra sigilJata - Gcfassc von i. Cannstatr undKongen=Grinario, ii. Rortioeil, iii. Rortcnburg-sumcloccnnaStuttgartTopfer und Fabtikcn vcreierter Terra-sioillata ersten Jalmmderts,StuttgartThe role of urbanization in the dentition of various pop­ularion groups, Z. Rasscnh, 7, 41-72All Allglo-SaxOII Cemetery at PCtcrifi",gcr, Salisln,,)'Die Einzclfunde von Novacsium, BOI1t1er jahr/Jr'iche,., 111/112,243-418On nine Roman signets latelyChartcrhousc on Mcndip,Antiquarian Soc., IV, 277-284­London in Roman Times11" Jamily memoirs oj tire Rev. Wi[/iOlll Stukeley, M.D. and tireantiquarian correspondence ofWilh'a11l Stukelcy, Roger andSamuel Gale, etc. 3 vols. Surtces Society, lxxiii (1882), lxxvi(1883), Ixxx (1887)Account of Roman Antiquities discovered in the County ofGloucester, A rdwcologia , X, 131-{jNotes on a Roman inscribed stone at Weston Birt, TraIlS.Bristol Clouccstcrslnre Ardweol. Soc., XI, 336-339Three Gloucestcrshire Military Tombstones, Trans. BristolGlouccstershire Anhaeot. Soc., LXXVII, 31-41The Iron Objects, in VentlamiulIl Excavations, (ed. S.S.Frere), 163-195Catalogue (1 Romano-British Jrof/lIIork ill the Ml/SCUI1l ojAntiquities, Newcastle-upon-Tvnc, Dept. of Archaeology,Univ. of Ncwcastlc-upon-TyncCatalogue of the Finoer Ring), Greek, EtmSCall al1d ROIl1a1/ ill theDepartment (1 Antiquities! British Muscmn, LondonA Glass Bead with Faces from Balice Mosciska District,Bulletin Archaeologiqlle POIOlWis, XXXIX, 3, 297-300Essays in Bristol and Cloucestcrshire HistoryCirenccsrcr, 1969-1973: Ninth Interim Report, Antiq. j.,LlIl, 191-218Srudies in Archaeology and History of Circnccster, Brit.Atthaeo! Rep., 30Cirenccsrcr, 1973-6: Tenth Interim Report, Alltiq. j., LVIII,61-80

214 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

McWhirr, A.D" 1981Middleton, J.H., 1892

Morant, G.M., 1922Mourant, A.D. & Zenner, F.E., 1%3Nash-Williallls, V.E., 1932

Neal, D.S" 1974

Nicsscn, C.A., 1911

O'Neil, H.E., 1%8

O'Neil, H., & Grinsdl, L.V., 1960

Partridge, c., 1981

Peacock, D.P.S" 1%7

Peacock, D.P.S., 1977

Perrott, R., et ni., 1976

Picard, c.c., 1957Potter, K.R., 1955Powell, T.G.E. et al., 1%9Rahtz, 1'., 1978Rawes, B., and Gander, E.D., 1978

RCHM Glos., 1976

Reece, R., 1962

Reece, R" 1976

Reece, R., 1981

Reece. R., 1982

Reinach, S., 1895Rennie, D.M., 1971

Rhodes, J.F., 1%4

RIB

Richardson, K.M., 1%0

Richardson, K.M., 1962

Richter, G.M.A., 1956

Roman CloucestershircTIl(' Lewis Colleaion <1 Gems and Ri11gs in the Possession ofCorpus Christ! College, Caml",i~~e

A first study of the Tibetan skull, Biometrikn, 14, 193-260Mall mid Cattle, Royal Anthrop. Inst. occ. papcr 18, LondonThe Roman Legionary Fortress at Cacrleon, Mons. Reporton the excavations carried out in the Prysg Picld, 1927-9,Ardlaeol. Cam{,rensis, 87, 48-105TI/C Excavation of the Roman Villa ill Gade{,,;dge Park, HanelHempstead, 1963-8, Soc. Antiquaries of London, XXXI,LeedsBeschrcilnmg Rom;scher Alteniimcr Sa",ml",~,! Ncissen CO/II,CologneThe Roman Settlement on the Fosse Way at BourtonBridge, Bourton-on-thc-Warer, Glos., TraIlS. BrislolCloucestershire Ardlaeol. Soc., 87, 29-55Gloucestcrshirc Barrows, Trans. Bristol CiouccstcrshircAnhaeol, Soc., lxxxix. 5-148Skeleton GrcePl, a LAte lron A.~e and Romano-Britisi: Site,Britannia Monograph Series, 2The heavy mineral analysis of pottery; a preliminary report,Ardlaeometry, 10, 97-100POltlTY a"dl:i1r1y Commerce: Charartcrisation and Trade i"Roman and Later Ceramics, LondonAnthropologie d'un abri-sous-rochc prchisroriquc, Lc Rond­du-hcvricr (Haute Loire), Trov. Doc. Crlttye P(lh~oaltthrop,

Paltopath, 3, 1-261Les Troplzees Remains, ParisCesta Stephani: the deeds of SlephCII, Oxford]Hegalitlzic Enquiries iPI the West 'if Britain, LiverpoolGrave Orientation, Archaeol. j., 135, 1-14An Ancient Quarry at Manless Town in the parish ofBrirnpsficld, Trans. Bristo! Cloucestcrshir« Arc/weo!. Soc.XCVI,79-82Iron Age and Romano-British Monuments ill the CloutestershireCotSIlIO!dS, Royal Commission on Historical Monuments,EnglandThe Oakley Cottage Romano-British Cemetery, TraIlS.Bristol Cloucestcrshirc Archaeol. Soc., LXXXI, 51-72The Ashcroft Site, Circnccstcr, Trans. Bristol Clol(c('stersllireArthacol. Soc., XCIV, 92-100Excavations ill lona, 1964-1974, Institute of Archaeology,Occasional Publication, no. 5Acta of the Berne International Numismatic Congress 1979,forthcomingPierres Crarlecs, ParisExcavations in the Parsonage Field, Circncesrcr, Trans.Brislol Cloucestcrshir« Arthaeoi. Soc., XC, 64-94Catalogue of Sculptures in the Gloucester City Museum,GloucesterCollingwood, R.G., and Wright, ItP., TIle Roman lnsaip­tions oj Britain, I, 1%5A Roman Brooch from the Outer Hebrides, with Note onOthers of its Typc, Antiq. j., XL, 200-13Excavations in Parsonage Field, Circnccsrer, 1959. .AlIliq, I.XLII, 167Metropolitall Muscutn qf Arl, Neill York, Catalogue if BII,'i!rarlcdGems, Creek, Etruscan, and Roman. Rome

CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II 215

)

I

Rigby, V., 1982

Riha, E., 1979

Rivet, A.L.F. & Smith, C.; 1979Rogers, G.B., 1974

Ross, C.D., 1964

Rudder, S.,.1779Rudder, S., 1800Sewell, E.C. & Powell, A.H., 1910

Silver, LA., 1969

Skinner, Rev. j., 1824Slater, T.R., 1978

Smith, A.H., 1964Smith, C.R., 1850Smith, C.R., 1880

Smith, G.E., & Dawson, W.n., 1924Stanfield, j.A., & Simpson, G., 1958Stead, I.M., 1967

Stead, I.M., 1980

Steer, K.A., 1960

Steiger, R., 1966

Steiner, r.. 1911Srukclcy, W., 1724, 1776

Swain, EJ, 1978

Swan, V.G., 1975

Sydcnham, E.A., 1952Tattersall, I., 1968

Taylor, C.S., 1889Thawlcy, C.R., 1982

Thorpe, W.A., 1949Toller, H., 1977

Torrens, H.S. 1982

Toulmin Smith, L., 1964

Toynbcc, j.M.C., 1964Toynbee, j.M.C., 1976

Trevor, j.c., 1950Trotter, M., and Gieser, G.c., 1952

The Coarse Pottery, In Early Roman Oaupotion at Cirentester,(cds, j.S. Waeher & A.D. McWhirr), 153-200Die Romisthen Fibetn ailS AfI...l?st lmd Kaiserau...l?st, Forschungcnin Augst, Band 3, AugstTile Place-A/ames oj Roman Britain, BatsfordPoteries sigillees de la Caule Centrale, I: les motifs 110" figures,Gallia, Suppl. 28The Cal1ufary oj Cireucester AMJCy, Cloucestersliire, vols, I &II, LondonA New History oj Cloucestershire, CircnccstcrA History oj the Town of Cirerzccstcr, CircnccsrcrThe Roman Pavement at the Barton, Trans. BristolCloucestershire Archaeol. Soc., XXXIII, 67-8Ageing in domestic animals, in Science ill Archaeology, (cds.D. Brothwcll & E. Higgs), 283-302Skilmer [ournals, vol. XLVn, British Museum MS 33679Family. society and the ornamental villa on the fringes ofEnglish country towns, J. Historical Geograph)', 4, 129-144The Place-Names oj Clouastershirc, Cambridge.The Antiquities of RichbmvHgh, Remlller, and LYI111/JC ill KentRoman lead Coffins and ossuaria in Colleaanea AnriquaJ V11,

LondonEgyptian Mummies, LondonCentral caulis1l Potters, LondonA La Tenc 111 burial at Welwyn Garden City, Arcllaeologia,CI, 1-{j2Rudston ROlllall Villa, The Yorkshire Archaeological Society,LeedsExcavations at Mumrills Roman Fort, 1958--fill, Proc. Soc.Alltiq. Scot., 94, 113-129Gcmmen und Kamcen im Romcrmuscum, Augst, AutikeKWIsf, 9, 29Sammlung des Neiderrheinisihen Altenlll11s Vercins, FrankfurtItinerarium curiosum; Centuria I, '1724; Ccnruriae I, II 1776,LondonExcafJations at the Chesselis, Kingscotc, Kingscotc Archaeol­ogical Association, StroudDare reconsidered and the origins of Savernakc Ware inWiltshire, Britannia, VI, 59-{jlThe Coilwge ,ifthe Roman Repuhlic, LondonDental paleopatho1ogy of medieval Britain, J. nt«. Med.,23, 380-5An mlalysis (if the Domesday Survcy 1 Clouccsurslnrc, BristolThe Animal Remains, tn Earl)' ROl1lall Occupatio» atCirencester, (cds. J.S. Wacher & A.D. McWhirr), 211-227English Glass, LondonRoman Lead Coffins and Ossuaria in Britain, Brit. Arc/laco!.Rep. 38, OxfordThe Geology of Circnccsrer and District, in Early RomanOccupation at Cirencester, (eds. J.S. Wacher & A.D.McWhirr), 72-78The Itillermy oj JO/1II Leland ill or aholll tile )'ears 1536-1539, 5vols., London Centaur PressArl ill Britain under the Romans, OxfordRoman Sculpture in Clouccstcrshire, in Essays in Bristol arIdCloucestershirc Hist"'}', (cds. P. McGrath & j. Cannon), 132Anthropometry, Chambers E",,)'c!ol'aedia, I, 458-{)2Estimation of stature from long bones of American whitesand negroes, Am. J. Phvs. Alii/WOp., 10, 463-514

216 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

Trotter, M., and GIeser, G.C., 1958

Tudor, D., 1938-40

Vanderhoeven, M., 1962

Vcrcy, D., 1970

Vcrmeule, c., 1952

Wacher, ).S., 1961Wacher,.).S .. 1962

Wacher, ).S .• 1963

Wacher. ).S., 1964

Wacher, J.S .• 1969

Wacher, ).S., 1974Wacher, ).S., 1976

Wacher, ).S., 1981Wacher, ).S. & McWhirr, A.D., 1982

Wade-Martins. P., 1980

Walters, H.B., 1926

Warhurst. A., 1955

Waugh, H .• and Goodbum, R., 1972

Webster, G., 1959

Webster, G., 1982

Webster, P.V., 1976

Weicker, H .• 1888

Wells, c.. 1962Wells. c., 1964Wells, c.. 1968

Wells, c.. 1973

Wells, c.. 1974a

Wells, c., 1974b

Wells, c.. 1974c

Wells. c., 1975

Wells, C., 1976

A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measure­ments of stature taken during life and of long bones afterdeath, Alii. j. l'hys. Awlm,p., 16, 79-123Monurncnrc incdite din Romula, Buletiullal ComisirmiMonumentelor lstoriceDe Romeinse Clasl'crz(1lP1rl;,~~ in bet Provincial Colto-RomeinsMuseum, Tongcrcn77" Biliidings oj Englmid: Clouccstcrshirc, vol. I. TheCotswolds, PenguinRoman Imperial Gems, Numismatic Circular, Aug.-Sept.1952Circnccsrcr 1960: First Interim Report. Anuq. J., XLI, 63-71Circncestcr 1961: Second Interim Report, Awiq. j., XLII.1-14Circnccsrcr 1962: Third Interim Report, Antiq. j., XLIII,15-26Circnccsrcr 1963: Fourth Interim Report, Antiq. j., XLIV,9-19Excavations at 13rOflgll-ol1-HfllJrbcr, 1958-61, Soc. Antiquariesof London, XXV, London1IlC Towns oj Roman Britain, BotsfordLate Homan Developments. in Studies ill Archaeology alldHistory oj Circncester, (cd. A.D. McWhirr), 15-17Circncester Roman Amphitheatre, Dept. of the EnvironmentEarl)' Roman OCOlpatiol1 at Cirencester, CirenccsrcrExcavations IExcavations at North Elmham Park, 1967-1972. EastAnglian Archaeology, Report no. 9, 247-374Catalogue of the Engral1ed Gems and Cameos, Greek, Et11lsCt111and RommJ in the British A1I1sm"" LondonThe Jutish Cemetery at Lyminge, Archaeol. Cmiliana, LXIX.1-40The finds: non-ferrous objects, in VmJlamium Excavations,(cd. S.S. Frere), 115-162Circncesrcr: Dyer Court Excavations, 1957, Trans. BristolCiouccstershire Anhaeoi. Sor., LXXVIII. 44-85Gazetteer of Military Objects from Circnccstcr, 111 EarlyRoman Occupation of Cirencestcr, (cds. ].S. Wachcr & A.D.McWI,;rr), 109-117Severn Valley Ware: A Preliminary Study. Trans. BristolCloucestershire Archaeol. Soc., 94, 18-46Cribra orbiralia. ein cthnologish-diagnosrisches Mcrkmal amSchadel mehrer Mcnschcnrasscn, Arch. Anthrop.• 17 (I): 1-18The Human Remains, in Reece, 1962, 62-70BOl1es, Bodies and Disease, LondonOsgood-Schlatter's disease in the ninth century?, Brit. Med.j., 2. 623-4A Palacopathologica] Rarity in a Skeleton of Roman Date.Medical History, 17 (4) 399-400Torus mandibularis in an early Scottish cemetery. Paleopath.Ass. Newsletter, 8, 7-9The results of 'bone-setting' in Anglo-Saxon times. At/cn.Bioi. Illust .• 24, 215-20Osteochondritis dissecans in ancient British skeletal material,Med. Hist., 18 (4): 365-9Ancient obstetric hazards and female mortality, 13flll. N, Y.Acad. Mcd., 51. (11). 1235-49Ancient lesions of the hip joint, u«. Bioi. lllust., 26,171-7

ClRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II 217

Wells, c., 1977

Wells, c., 1980Wells, c., 1981

Wells, c., & Green, c.. 1973

Wenham, ~.P., 1%8Whatley, E., 1894-5

Wheeler, RE.M. & Wheeler, T.V., 1928

Wheeler. R.E.M. & Wheeler. T.V., 1936

Williams, D.F., 1977

Willmore, H.H., 1939

Wilson, D.R., 1972Witts, G.B., 1883

Wright, R.P., & Hassall. M.W.C., 1972Young C.J., 1977

Une curieuse blessure dans un squclettc du dcuxicmc sicclcA.D. (cirncricrc Romano-Britanniquc de Circnccstcr, corntede Gloucestershire, G.B.), Trav. Doc. Centre Palioanthrop,PalCopath., 4 (1): 9-19The Human Bones, in Wade-Martins, 247-324Discussion of the skeletal material, in Excavations i" lona,1964-1974, (cd. R. Reece), 85-118Sunrise dating of Death and Burial, Norfolk & NonoithArc/weol. Soc., XXXV, 435-442TIle RommlO-Britis1l Cemetery at Trenthobne Drive, York) LondonOn the discovery of skeletons at The Barton, Circncestcr;and other Roman finds of 1896. Trans. Bristol Gloucesters{,;reArelJaeol. Soc., xix, 394-8The Roman Amphitheatre at Caerlcon, Monmouthshire,Archaro{ogia, 78, 111-218Vernlamirlln: A Belgic and tUlO Roman cities, Soc. Antiquariesof London, XI, OxfordThe Romano-British Black-Burnished Industry: an essay oncharacterisation by heavy mineral analysis, in Pottery andEarl)' Commerce, (cd. D.P.S. Peacock), 163-220Stone Coffins, Glouccstcrshirc, Trans. Bristol Clo/lccstcrshireArchaeol. Soc., 61, 158-171Roman Britain in 1971: sites explored, Britannia, III, 339Archaeoloc~i(Q{ Handhooe oj the COIlllt)' oj Gloutestcrshire,CheltenhamRoman Britain in 1971: Inscriptions, Britannia, III, 352-3Oxfordshire Roman Pottery: The Roman Pottery Industryof the Oxford Region, Brit. Archaeol. Rep., 43

INDEX

This index covers both the printed text and the material contained in five microfiche. References to pages in theprinted text aTC in roman. Microfiche references arc explained p. 22, and arc in italic.

Abbey. St. Mary's 28-9; 5/5 D04age 135-7. 197. Table 4

assessment of individuals 4/5 COl-C14, 5/5A02-C04

alignment. of burials 76, 100-1, Table 4amphitheatre 19, 23, 25, 27anatomical analysis 19

Bath Gate Cemeteryassessment of individuals 3/5, 4/5discussion and summary 135-202lead concentrations 4/5 G05-G 14

EA 78 32-5; 5/5 Bll-B141981 Observations 41; 5/5 COtGazetteer entries 5/5

Anglo-Saxon burials, Circnccstcr 205anima! bone

associated with burials 92, 129; 2/5 C07-C09recovered from CT 72-76 2/5 EI3-C07

breeds Fl0-F13gnawed bones F03-F04ox butchery F13-C05pathology F07pig butchery C07sex determination F03sheep butchery C05-C06species E13-F03stained, calcined and charred bones F04-F07

archive 20arm position, of burials '85, Table 4attitude. of burials 76-81. Table 4

Bath 19. 31Bath Care 19, 46. 47Bath Gate Cemetery 1969-1976

analysis of burials 70-97, Table 4; 1/5 A07-C04cemetery organisation 100-111excavation and recording techniques 69finds from 128-132; 2/5lead concentrations in bone 203-4; 4/5 C05-C14pottery from 97-8, 112-115,132; 1/5 C07-G12skeletal material 135-202; 3/5, 4/5

beads 132bone bead 2/5 Dllglass beads 132; 2/5 D04-D06

bone objects 129. 132; 2/5 D07-DllBourton-on-the-Watcr 67-8

218

brooches 2/5 A 13-B07Colchester Derivatives A 13Crossbows B04-B05Fragments B07Hod Hill BOINaubcim Derivatives A 13-A 14Penannulars B05-807Plate B01-B03Unclassified A 14

burials, archaeological recording ofBath Gate Cemetery excavations 1%9-7669-111,

Table 4eastern cemetery 205-7; 5/5 CIO-DOInorthern cemetery 205-7; 5/5 DOt-D02southern cemetery 205-7; 5/5 C01-CIOunprovenanced 5/5 D05-D08western cemetery 205-7; 5/5 A05-COIwithin town defences 205-7; 5/5 D02-005

Cacrwcnt 136. 142carbon-14 analysis 100; 2/5 Cl1cemeteries, at Circnccstcr

outside East (VenI1a",;"",) Gate 19. 205-7; 5/5eta-cot

outside North Gate 205-7; 5/5 D01-D02outside South Gate 205-7; 5/5 C01-CIOoutside West (Bath) Gate 19.69-111. 205-7; 5/5

A05-COIChesterton 27Christianity 76-8chronology, of burials 101-6, Table 4day objects 2/5 E03-E05Clopton 150coffins 3')

sec also lead coffins, stone coffins, wooden coffinscoins 103-5. 126-32; 2/5 A04-AI2Colchester 127congenital defects 144-6contour survey, The QUCMlS 24-5copper alloy objects 128-9. 132; 2/5 B08-C04cremations

anatomical analysiscremation 1804/5 A12cremation 293 4/5 DlOcremation 294 4/5 DIO

Gazetteer. recordings of 31. 205-7; 5/5

CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II 219

in inhumation-sized pit 99100in pottery urns 97-100, 207; 5/5in stone 207; 5/5

cribra orbitalia '186-7crucible fragments 2/5 BOS'Crundles' 27

decapitation 108-9, 194diet 148-51dislocations 175-7

Ermin Street 59excavations

chronological summariesEA 78 35sites CS and CT 55; 1/5 A04-A05

recording system, sites 19, fig. 3reported in this volume

Bath Gate Cemetery 19--22, 42-5, 68, 69-111; 1/5A04-A05

Bath Gate Roadside Building 19-22,46-9,50-68;1/5 A04-A05

Quems House Kitchen GardenEA 78 19-22, 31-37, 46-491981 observations 19-22, 37-41

Qucrns Maternity Hospital 19-22, 49techniques 50-52, 69-71

exostoses 173-5, 200extraction of stone 31-45

sec also quarrying

fabric classification, pottery 1/5 C13-Dtofinds from Bath Gate Cemetery 128-133; 2/5finds from Roadside Building 128; 2/5Fosse Way 19, 35, 41, 4f>-9, 55-9fractures 161-8, 200

geology and topography 23-5, 41sec also extraction of stone, and quarrying

glass vessels and objects 132; 2/5 DII-E03gnawed human bones 107-8, 194-6gout 185, 191graffiti 2/5 Ellgrave goods

Bath Gate Cemeteryassociated with burials 128-132from grave earth 133; 2/5from grave shafts 132-3; 2/5

Gazetteer 5/5grave types

Bath Gate Cemeterycremations 97-100inhumations

lead coffins 92shrouds 85--{jstone coffins 88-92stone packing 92-97wooden coffins 86-8

Gazetteer 205-7; 5/5

historical summary, The Quems 26-30hobnails 66-8, 128, 129, 132

infections 180-3inhumations

Bath Gate Cemeteryarchaeological analysis 70-85, Table 4anatomical analysis 135-202; 315, 415grave goods 128-133grave types 85-97organisation within cemetery 100-111

Gazetteer, recordings of 205-7; SISinscription 2/5 Ell -E12

see also tombstoneslena 148, 151iron objects 129; 2/5 C04-CI4

see also hobnails, wooden coffins

Jarrow 136, 142jet objects 2/5 D06-D07

Kingsworthy 136, 142, 153, 154

Lankhills 101, 129, 132lead coffins 92, 207; 5/5 D05lead concentration in human bones 203-4; 4/5

G05-G14lead objects 2/5 EIO

see also lead coffinsleg position, of burials 83-4, Table 4leprosy 181lifestyle 135-204long barrow 26; 5/5 BOILydney 187

meric and co ernie indices 141, 143, 198microfiche 19, 22; 1/5 A03

contents of fiche 1/5Layer concordance A04-A05Table 4 A06-C04The Pottery C05-G 12

contents of fiche 215The Finds A02-G II

contents of fiche 3/5Tables 34-7, 48-9, 77-8, 92 A03-B14Anatomical details COI-GI4

contents of fiche 415Anatomical details contd. A02-G04Human bone lead concentrations C05-G14

contents of fiche 515Gazetteer of Romano-British Cemeteries at

Circnccstcr A03-D13miscellaneous lesions 187-92, 201Mithraism 29Monkwearmouth 136, 142

nails 78, 81, 128National Monuments Record 19neoplasms 183non-metrical variants 140-2, 197-8North Elmham Park 136, 147, 148, 150, 153, 154, 167

orientation, of burials 76, 100-1, Table 4osrcoartbrosis 152-60, 199-200osteochondritis dissecans 178-80osteomyelitis 182

220 CIRENCESTER EXCAVATIONS II

ostcophyrosis 152-5Owslcbury 136, 137

parity 192-4periostitis '182-3physical type 137-9, 197poliomyelitis 181POst-sockets 60pottery 97-8, 112-125, 132; 1/5

fabric classification 1/5 C13-010introduction 112; 1/5 C07pottery catalogue 1/5 E06-GI2

amphorae 1/5 E08, E14, 1'07, 1'09, 1'10colour-coated wares 1/5 E06, EII-EI2, 1'07, FlO,

G02, G03-G05, GIO-GIIdishes, bowls and jars 1/5 E08-EII, 1'01-1'05,

1'07-1'09, mo-en, FI4-G02, GI2flasks and flagons 1/5 E08, EI4-FOI, 1'07, 1'09,

1'13-14morraria 1/5 E06, EI2-EI4, 1'07, 1'09, 1'13, G06­

G08, G09pottery groups 112-7; 1/5011-E05sam ian 1/5 C08-C12

prone attitude. of burials 78-81, Table 4

quarrying 23, 25, 26, 27, 31sec also extraction of stone

Quems, Thcderivation of name 27historical summary 19, 26-30. 31

rheumatoid arthritis 152roads

discussion 18. 46-9excavations 35-45, 46-9, 55-9

roadside building, excavation of 19, 50-68finds from 128; 2/5pottery from 117-125; 1/5

round barrows 26

samiandecorated 1/5 CI2potters' stamps 1/5 C08-C12

Schrnorl's nodes 153-6sex and age 135-7, 197, Table 4

assessment of individuals 3/5 C01-C14, 4/5A02-G04

distribution of sexed burials 109-11shale objects 2/5 006-007shrouds 85-86side attitude. of burials 81silver objects 132; 2/51)02-1)04sinusitis 181skeletal survival, of burials 83, 135, 197, Table 4skull position. of burials 82-3, Table 4slag 2/5 E05smithing-hearth 64-8spina bifida 144squalling facets 141, 198stamps

samian 1/5 C08-C12tile 2/5 E05

stature 139-140, 197stone coffins

Bath Gate Cemetery 88-92Gazetteer 206; 5/5

stone, construction 31stone objects 2/5 E06-EIO

see also stone coffins, tombstonesstone packing, in graves 92-7Snlinus 31sunrise dating of burial 76supine attitude. of burials 81. Table 4synostoses 183-5syphilis 181

teeth 147-51, 199; 3/5, 4/5Thetford 136, 147tile 31

stamps 2/5 E05tombsroncs 31, 50, 97, 205-7; 2/5 EII-EI2, 5/5topography 23-5torus 151-2Trentholmc Drive 88, 148trephination 171tuberculosis 181twins 191

weapon wounds 168-72wooden coffins 78, 86--9, Table 4

York 109, 135