HOW TO WRITE A SUCCESSFUL DOCTORAL RESEARCH PROPOSAL:

THE MAKERERE FORMAT

By

David Onen (Ph.D.)

EASHESD, College of Education and External Studies

Makerere University

A Paper Presented on 12th June, 2014 at a Doctoral Colloquium at the College of Education & External Studies, Makerere University

Introduction… Writing and submitting an acceptable research proposal is

not easy. At Makerere University, the time for producing a

dissertation proposal is “frustrating” for many doctoral students!

But, a few students still write it in time: 1. How do those students write their proposals?2. What do they write that others don’t?3. What is a research proposal and how important is it in a

study?4. What are the elements of a proposal and what does he

Makerere guideline say about proposal?04/19/23Dr. D, Onpen

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What is a Research Proposal?

The word ‘proposal’ literally means a suggestion put forward for consideration or discussion by others.

Applied loosely, a proposal is a suggestion to resolve an identified research problem.

Technically, a proposal is a written presentation of an intended research specifying the problem, the purpose, scope/objectives, methodology, references and the financial plan/budget (Mak. 2011; Amin, 2003).

It is an overview of the intended research describing the proposed project: its design, financial requirements and its potential contribution to the existing body of knowledge (Oso & Onen, 2009).

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Role of a Research Proposal

Most researchers do not understand the value of research proposals.

Yet, one’s research is only as good as his/her proposal. Wong (2002) points out that a research proposal is used to: Convince other people and the supervisor that the researcher has

a worthwhile project to study. Demonstrate expertise in a particular area of study . Demonstrate one’s competency in his/her area of study. To produce a roadmap that the student will follow during his/her

dissertation project; Help in making admissions or progression decisions on the

candidate.

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Types of proposals

Broadly, research proposals can be categorized into: quantitative and qualitative proposals.

A quantitative proposal describes an inquiry informed by the philosophy of logical positivism and one that seeks to understand the world in quantitative and numerical terms.

While, a qualitative proposal is one which describes any inquiry that seeks to understand the world within the total context of what creates meaning out of people’s lived experiences (Amin, 2005).

The writing of quantitative and qualitative proposals differs. Amin (2005) asserts that quantitative studies are theory-based.

Meanwhile, qualitative proposals describe inquires which may not be grounded in any theory.

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Fig. 1: Structure of a Research Proposal

Title A research title is written on the first page, which is not

paginated. A title is a statement or phrase describing the topic of the

study. A good title should not exceed 20 words (Makerere

University, 2011) The Makerere format requires the following features on the

title page:1. University Name & Logo. NB: This is usually ignored at

CEES.2. The Study Title.3. Name of the student in order of First, Middle to Last Name..4. Purpose of the Write-up or publication.5. Date of Publication. 04/19/23NDr. D, Onen

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04/19/23Dr. D, Onen8

UNIVERSITY LOGO

RESEARCH TOPIC

BY-LINE

iAUTHOR(S) NAME(S)iPREVIOUS QUALIFICATIONS

A PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO … IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE/DIPLOMA OF (---NAME OF THE

DEGREE/DIPLOMA---) IN (---AREA OF SPECIALIZATION---)

DATE OF SUBMISSION

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

EFFECT OF REMUNERATION ON MOTIVATION OF DIPLOMA TEACHERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

IN UGANDA

DAVID MUSOKE

BEd; MEd (Mak)

A PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DIRECTORATE OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE

TRAINING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE

DEGREE OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

JANUARY 2014

Fig. 2: General Outlook of the Title Page

Declaration

In this section, the student ‘swears’ that this work is his/hers and as far as he/she knows, the work has never been submitted for any academic award anywhere else.

Usually, the statement goes like this: “I declare that this proposal titled “….”.is my original

work and to the best of my knowledge, it has never been submitted to any university or institution for any academic award whatsoever.”

Below this statement, the student puts his/her name, signature and the date when this ‘vow’ is made.

It is aimed at discouraging plagiarism in academia. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Approval

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This section contains a declaration by the supervisor(s) that he/she has supervised the writing of the Proposal and recommends it for submission.

Usually it goes with a statement like: This proposal titled “…” has been submitted with

my (or our) approval as the University’s Supervisor (s).

Names of the supervisor (s) should be put below this declaration and the space where he/she can append his/her signature and the date when this approval is made.

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Table of Contents

This is a list of headings and sub-headings and their corresponding page numbers.

This is important in guiding the reader where contents of particular sub-headings are placed in the book.

The table of contents must be written according to an approved format.

The researcher should note particularly the indentation of the sub-titles under each major title.

The wordings of sub-titles in the table of contents must match the sub-headings contained in the text.

It is better to generate the Table of Contents automatically. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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List of Tables

This shows the list of tables in the Proposal and their corresponding pages.

The titles of the tables must be clear and descriptive.

They should be progressively and consistently numbered throughout the Proposal.

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List of Figures

This shows caption of illustrations used in the Proposal and their corresponding pages.

The same conditions as for list of tables described above should apply.

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List of Abbreviations (or Acronyms)

In this section, the researcher presents the list of abbreviations or acronyms as used in the proposal.

The title of the section should indicate so. This may include list of symbols and scientific

terms that are used in the text. NOTE: Pagination of all the preliminary pages up to

this point should be in Lowercase Roman Numerals. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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THE TEXT - CHAPTER ONE

The Chapter titled is INTRODUCTION Other Sub-titles in the Introduction Include: Introduction Background to the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the study Specific Objectives Research Questions/Hypotheses Scope of Study Significance of the Study Justification of the Study The Conceptual Framework (Debatable)04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Background to the Study

The background introduces the status, rationale and the theoretical orientation of the study.

It is provides evidence and conditions of the existing situation to make the reader feel the urgency of the problem.

Cresswell (2003) suggests that the background should be introduced with a good ‘narrative hook’ – a set of statements relevant to the theme being studied which attracts the reader to the work.

A research background has four main dimensions: the historical, theoretical, conceptual and contextual dimensions.

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In the introduction to Introduction

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The following are included: 1. An opening remark in which the researcher draws the attention

of the reader to the importance of the issue(s) under investigation.

2. The researcher points out that what is prevailing in his/her area or context of research seems different with the ‘ideal or expected’ situation. In other words, the author creates and problem scenario.

3. The researcher points out what this study will address or focus on, and

4. The author alerts the reader of what this chapter will entail. Cresswell (1994) calls these opening remarks a “narrative

hook”.

The Historical Background

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The first part of the historical background is ‘a narration of the history of the phenomenon under investigation’.

Here, the researcher tells the reader what was the ‘conditions’ like in the past; what is it like today?

In the second part, the writer reflects on the work of other researchers in this field.

But, the efforts of previous scholars must be down-played or criticized.

The researcher can describe the history from a global or regional to a contextual perspective.

The Theoretical Background

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The second part of the background is the theoretical background.

In the theoretical background, the researcher describes the theory (or theories) on which the study will be based.

It describes “any” discovered relationships between the variables in the study and the theory to be used.

The researcher should briefly describe the theory (or theories) and justify how it relates to the variables under investigation.

The Conceptual Background

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The third dimension of the background is the conceptual basis of the background.

In the conceptual background, the researcher provides the definitions of terms in the topic.

First, the variables should be defined literally. Second, the researcher should look at the

definitions of the concepts from experts. Third, the variables should be defined in terms of

their dimensions and indicators. This termed operationalization.

The Contextual Background

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In the contextual background, the researcher describes the problems in the context of the study.

He/she describes the problem in each isolated variable, pointing out the gaps that need to be filled by the study.

It is presented in several paragraphs, each paragraph describing the problems associated with each ‘operational variable’ or more specifically, each construct.

The background should be concluded by presenting the main question (or questions) to be answered by the study and should point directly to the research problem and act as an introduction to it.

Statement of the Problem

A statement of the problem describes what the researcher has identified as existing in literature, theory or practice – a condition which needs to be probed and solutions found.

It is a statement that describes the ‘why’ of the study. A good problem should be specifically limited in scope

so as to be manageable. It should also be clearly stated, be feasible, and

significant A problem statement can be written in a declarative form

or in question form. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Writing the Problem Statement…

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Start by describing the ideal situation; that is, the ideal relationship between your study variables.

Then describe the actual situation prevailing in your research area or context.

Provide evidence of the intensity and magnitude (or scope) of the existing problem.

Give the implications of the current situation. Then state what needs to be done.

Purpose of Study

In this section, the researcher states the main objective of the study.

The researcher should point out what he/she intends to achieve, overall, in the study.

He/she should use active verbs to tell the reader what he/she intends to do e.g. to examine, describe, investigate, analyse, demonstrate, etc.

He/she should clarify on the actual things he/she would like to carry out e.g. effects, implications, impact, relationships, differences,, similarities, etc.

The purpose statement is captured in a single line or paragraph; it should therefore, be precise and concise.

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Specific Objectives

Objectives are specific goals arising directly from the purpose of the study.

A good objective should be: S.M.A.R.T , indicate the target population and the variables to be investigated.

Once the variables in the topic have been operationalized, the task of the researcher is to express the relationship between each specific aspect of the variables.

The words used to write objectives should be those that ‘imply action’ and which can be observed or measured.

The rule-of-thumb is to connect each specific unit of the operationalized variable to each other using a suitable verb.

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Models for Deriving Study Objectives

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Dr. D. Onen

Figure 2: Model 1 objectives

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

IV DV

IV

DV1

DV2

DV3

DV4

Operations of the DV

Figure 3: Model 2 Objectives

Figure 4: Model 3 objectives Figure 5: Model 3 objectives

DV

IV

DVIV

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IV

MV1

MV2

DV

Figure 6: Model 5 objectives

Objectives For Mediating Studies…

e

a

d

b

c

Dependent VariableModerating Variableindependent Variable

Research Questions/Hypotheses

Questions and hypotheses are usually used alternately i.e. If questions are posed, hypotheses should not be stated at the same time.

A researcher uses questions when he/she is not sure of the possible solutions to the research problem.

To write research questions, a researcher restates each objective in question form, being careful to:

Avoid questions that require Yes/No answers. Ensure that questions are systematically and logically

consistent. Ensure that all variables in the objectives are included

in the question. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Research Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a proposal about a solution to a problem: an “intelligent” or an “educated” guess to solve a problem.

They are declarative statements on the relationships between two or more variables on the nature of some phenomenon.

They form the elements for testing to enable the researcher make an opinion about certain phenomenon being investigated.

A well-stated hypothesis should be testable, clear and precise. It should also indicate both the IV & DV.

Hypothesis may be stated in either null form (Ho) or in alternative (or directional) form (HA).

A Null Hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the variables being studied .

Meanwhile, a directional (alternative) hypothesis states the relationship between the variables being investigated .04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Scope of Study

In this section of the Proposal, the researcher describes the width and breadth of the study in terms of:1.Geographical coverage (physical area covered by the study) 2.Sample coverage (the part or whole of the population the study covers)3.Content coverage (the dimensions of the variables the study looks at)4.Time coverage (the time period covered by the study) 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Significance of Study

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In this section, the researcher describes the relevance of the study in terms of its academic contributions and practical use that might be made of the findings.

It is always stated as a suggestion or intended expectation from the study.

The researcher should identify the potential parties and how they may benefit from the study.

These parties are often:

1. Policy-makers - depending on the area of research

2. Practitioners - those who participate in the activities under investigation

3. Scholars – fellow researchers and academicians

Justification of the Study

In the section for justification, the researcher provides arguments to defend the need for the study.

Some of such arguments include:

1. That what is being investigated is important/critical/topical.

2. That the area being investigated has ‘knowledge gaps’ that need to be filled.

3. The study intends to justify the applicability of a certain theory in a given field.

4. The study will be of use to different stakeholders.04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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The Conceptual Framework

A Conceptual Framework is a scheme of concepts (or variables) which the researcher will operationalize in order to achieve set objectives.

It is a schematic (or a diagrammatic) presentation of the theory. In developing a conceptual framework, a researcher should: Place the IVs on the left and DVs) on the right separated by EVs Use one-way arrow leading from each determining variable to

each variable dependent on it. One-way arrow suggests the presence of a hypothesis about

causality. Use curved double-headed arrows to show unanalysed

correlations between variables. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW

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This is Chapter Two of the research Proposal. It starts with an introduction. In the Introduction, the researcher prepares the

reader’s mind for what he/she can expect to find in the whole Chapter.

The researcher should endeavour to make the Introduction appealing to draw the reader’s interest on the entire Chapter.

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW

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After the Introduction, the researcher presents the Theoretical Framework or Theoretical Review.

A Theoretical Framework is an examination of the existing or self-formulated theories in relation to the research objectives.

It refers to a set of interrelated variables, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomenon being investigated.

Theoretical Framework

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In developing a theoretical framework, the researcher should:

Name the theory and its source. Indicate where the theory has been used and who used

it. Describe the propositions or hypotheses in the theory. Explain the variables in the study. Discuss the implications of the theory to the study. It is also important to mention a few competing

theories in the same area.

Review of Related Literature

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This involves the systematic identification, location and analysis (or evaluation) of the documents containing information that are related to the research problem.

The purpose of literature review is to help the researcher develop a thorough understanding and insight into previous works and trends pertaining to the research problem.

Literature review should be carried out on sub-headings corresponding to the study objectives.

The review should be critical (pointing out the gaps) and analytical ( grouping similar works together)

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

Introduction Research Design Study Populationa) Target Populationb) Accessible Population Sample Size and Sample Distribution Sampling Techniques Data Collectiona) Methodsb) Instruments Quality Controla) Validityb) Reliability Research Procedure Data Analysis Ethical Considerations

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Introduction

In the introduction, the researcher needs to tell the reader what he/she should expect in the chapter.

The style of making the reader aware and interested in this section of the proposal depends on the writing skills of the researcher.

Effort must be made to make the reader feel like knowing more what is contained in the chapter.

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Research Design

In this section, the researcher describes the nature of the pattern ( or framework) the research intends to follow.

This is termed the research design. The design is the plan or strategy for conducting the research. Broadly, research designs are divided into: qualitative &

quantitative designs. However, within these broad classifications, there are specific

designs categorized according to particular criteria. The researcher should describe the specific research design, rather

than the paradigm. Before choosing a design, a researcher should consider the

purpose/objectives/hypotheses/questions of the study.

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Figure 3: Classification of Quantitative Research Designs04/19/23Dr. D, Onen41

Figure 4: Classification of Qualitative Research Designs04/19/23Dr. D, Onen42

Study population

The study population is the target group under investigation. It is the entire set of objects, things and people under

consideration in an investigation. Target Population

The target population refers to the total number of subjects or the total environment of interest to the researcher.

Sometimes the population is too large or too scattered that a sample cannot logically be drawn from the whole population.

In which case, the researcher may describe an accessible population.

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Accessible population

An accessible population is part of the target population which the researcher can reach and out of which the researcher can draw a sample.

The choice of the target and the accessible populations must be justified.

The researcher should describe the characteristics of the population in terms of size, sub groups and all other variables of interest.

The researcher needs to point out that the study targets such and such a group of his/her population.

Remember, population includes people, schools, hospitals, groups, etc. depending on what your study focuses on.

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Sample Size and Sample Distribution

A sample is part of the target or accessible population that the researcher has chosen to study, representing the rest of the other members of the population.

In this section, the researcher should tell the reader the size of the sample size and how that sample size has been determined.

The researcher should also indicate the composition of the sample population by category and size.

Category of Target/Accessible Population

Total numbers

Sample size

Head teachers 21 19

Teachers 124 92

Students 1200 291

Total 1345 402

Table 1: Sample Size and Sample Distribution

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Determination of Sample size

There are many methods for determining sample size in a study. The method chosen depends on several factors including:

information on target/accessible population, knowledge of technique, etc.

Common methods for determining Sample sizes include:1. Use of statistical tables for determining sample size, e.g. Krejcie

and Morgan (1970).2. Use of established mathematical formulae, e.g. Amin (2004)3. Adapting sample size from a similar study whose findings are

published in a referred journal.4. Using Non-Statistical methods, e.g. Kathuri and Pals (1993)

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Type of Research Sample Size

Survey:

-Each major group.

-Each minor subgroup.

 

100

20 – 50

Ex-post

Facto/Experimental

15 in each condition

Correlation 30Source: Adapted from Kathuri & Palls (1993).

NON-STATISTICAL METHOD OF DETERMING SAMPLE SIZE

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Sample size in Qualitative Studies

In qualitative research, since it involves an intensive study of individuals, a small sample is usually required.

In most cases, the researcher does not determine the sample size in advance.

The researcher simply moves to the field and as he/she analyses the information collected, saturation is reached and at which point data collection is stopped.

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Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques 1.Simple Random Sampling2.Stratified Random Sampling3.Systematic Sampling4.Area (Cluster) Sampling

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

1.Convenience Sampling2.Purposive Sampling3.Quota Sampling4.Snow-ball (or Networking) Sampling

In this section, the researcher describes how he/she will select, with reasons, the units and subjects that will make up his/her study sample population.

The researcher can use several sampling methods in a single study. The choice depends on the nature of data to be collected, time, nature of

target population, etc. Some of sampling techniques the researcher can use include:

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Data Collection Methods

Questionnaire Survey

Interview Survey Observation Documentary

Analysis

Key informant Interview Focused Group

Discussion Observation Documentary analysis Study of Artifacts Testimonies of

Witnesses

Quantitative Data collection Methods

Qualitative Data collection Methods

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Data Collection Instruments

Questionnaires Interview schedules Observation check-list Documentary checklist

Interview Guide FGD Guide Observation

Check-list/Guide Guide on study of Artifacts Conversation Guide

Common Quantitative Data Collection Instruments

Common Qualitative Data Collection Instruments

In this section, the researcher describes the study instruments he/she will employ for collecting his/her data.

The data collection instruments chosen should match with the data collection methods selected.

The researcher must justify the choices made.

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Quality Control

This section of the proposal, requires the researcher to describe how he/she will ensure that the instruments that will be used in the study are valid and reliable.

By validity of study instrument, we mean the extent to which the instrument truly measures what it is intended to measure (Amin, 2004).

There are various forms of validity including: Content Validity, Face Validity, Predictive Validity, etc.

The researcher needs to describe how the important dimensions of validity will be ensured in the study.

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Commonest Approach for Ensuring Validity

Most often, researchers compute the Content Validity Index (CVI) for each item in the instrument as rated by two or more experts in order to determine how valid the study instrument is.

The CVI = Number of items rated relevant by all judges

Total number of in terms in the instrument

Note: If the CVI is 0.7 and above, the instrument can then be considered valid (Amin, 2004; Kathuri & Palls, 1994).

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Reliability of Study Instruments

In this section, the researcher describes how he/she will ensure the reliability of his/her study instruments.

Reliability of an instrument is the ability of the instrument to collect the same data consistently under similar conditions (Amin, 2004; Odiya, 2009).

Reliability is usually ensured by pilot testing the instruments using different methods.

Common methods of reliability tests include: Test re-test method, Split-half method, Parallel form reliability method, and Internal Consistency Method. 04/19/23Dr. D, Onen

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Research Procedure

In this section, the researcher describes the steps he/she will follow in the whole research process.

It is advisable to start narrating from the time this proposal is approved: What next?

Key steps include: Getting permission from the University Recruiting and training Research Assistants ( if need be) Getting permission from relevant authorities from the field, e.g.

from the District Education Officer, or Regional Health Inspector, etc.

Pilot testing instruments Carrying out data collection, e.g. interviewing head teachers,

distributing and collecting back questionnaires, etc. Assembling, analyzing, interpreting the data Writing draft and final reports

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Data Analysis

In this section, the researcher describes how the raw data expected to be collected will be cleaned, coded, analyzed and eventually interpreted.

The researcher needs to know whether he/she will collect quantitative or qualitative data and thus propose appropriate techniques for assembling, analyzing, and interpreting each type of data.

The researcher needs to propose, with justification, which data analysis techniques he/she will most likely use to analyze the data to be collected.

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Data Analysis (Contd)

Quantitative data are commonly analyzed using descriptive statistics (e.g. means, median, mode, standard deviations, Range, minimums and maximums, etc.) and inferential statistics (e.g. Pearson Correlation, Spearman Correlation, Phi Correlation, Regression Analysis, T-test, ANOVA, Chi-Square techniques, etc.)

Qualitative data are commonly analyzed using Interpretational Analysis, Structural Analysis, Reflective Analysis, Chronological Analysis, Comparison Method, General Content Analysis, etc.

The researcher needs to know when and how we use any of these data analysis techniques before he/she can say he/she will use that and not this technique, with reasons.

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Ethical Considerations

The issue of ethics is very important in research. Despite the high value of knowledge gained through

research, knowledge should not be pursued at the expense of human dignity.

The major ethical issues of concern are informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, anonymity and the researchers’ responsibility.

The researcher should describe how he or she will ensure that ethical requirements are upheld in the study.

This will include seeking clearance from the University’s Ethics and Review Committee, seeking for informed consent of respondents, and taking responsibility to ensure that the study is valid and reliable.

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Other Considerations According to the Makerere Guidelines….

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1. Environmental Considerations According to Makerere University (2011, p.3), where applicable, the research student should “include a statement on environmental concerns.” 2. Gender Consideration The section presents the gender issues addressed by the study and how they will be handled in the analysis (Makerere University, 2011).  3. Limitations/Anticipated Problems (Optional) This refers to anticipated constraints imposed by methods/location/situation of research. The researcher needs to point out any potential sources of bias in the proposed study and how the limitations/bias will be addressed.

References

References refer to the list of all the scholarly works cited in the proposal.

It is intended to help in identifying and retrieving each source of information cited in the text.

It should be written according to an approved format. The format adopted by Amoud University is the APA Publication

Manual (6th) edition. This guideline can be retrieved from the internet. The general format of writing references is: Author. (Year of publication). Title. Place of publication:

Publisher. e.g Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A

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Budget This is the financial implication of

carrying out the research. It should consider the following: Personnel (e.g. field assistants.) Travel and accommodation. Stationery. Equipment/materials. Consultancy (e.g. for data

analysis, if required). Subsistence. Services (e.g. secretarial,

photocopying, printing, binding, etc.)

Miscellaneous – usually 1% of the total cost.

The budget is usually presented in a tabular form.

No. Item DescriptionEstimated Amount (Shs)

1.  

Name of the item (e.g. Stationery)

Indicate how many of each item you intend to use and its unit cost. For example:

i.10 reams of photocopy papers @ 400/=.ii.2 packets of diskettes @ 500/=.iii.Writing materials @ 1000/=. 

 

   4,000/=1, 000/=1, 000/=

6,000/=

2.  Personnel5 filed assistants @ 500/= per day for 14 days.

25,000/= 

25,000/=

3.  * * *

Table 2: Sample of a Research Budget

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Time Framework

This is a schedule or timetable of the activities the researcher will undertake during the course of the study.

The researcher should present it in a tabular form stating the specific activities to be carried out and the time each phase is expected to last.

It could also be presented in the form of a Gantt Chart.

Table 3:Sample of a Time Framework

Phase/ActivityTime

(Months)

Dates

Development of Proposal

3June -

August 2004Development & piloting of Instruments

1 September

2004

Data Collection 1 October 2004

Data Organisation, Analysis and Interpretation

2November – December

2004 Typing/Editing/Report Writing/Submission

3 January –

March 2005

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Other Appendices

Explanatory notes: These may include such information as research approval letters, maps and lists of areas to be visited, etc.

 Instruments: These are tools to be used to collect research data.

 

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Challenges in Proposal Writing

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Limited understanding of research methodologies Lack of scholarly writing skills Poor supervisor-supervisee relationships Personal Challenges Inadequate reading materials Lack of focus and commitment Administrative challenges e.g.1) Do you know the institutional format of proposal writing?2) Do you know relevant policies regarding your programme?3) Have you registered with the University?4) Have you paid relevant fees for your programme?5) Do you know how to co-orperate with others?

Thank you for your attention!

Any questions or comments ?

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