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How to draft and outlineScientific Communication

Stages of writing

• Drafting

• Revising

• Editing

• Evaluating

• Publishing

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Drafting

• Review the literature• What has been done?

• What is known?

• Organize your thoughts• Create an outline

• Write down bullet points and sort them

• Arrange material from general to specific

• Write the main body of the text• ___________________• ___________________• ___________________• ___________________

Revising

• Improve your draft

• Requires multiple revisions

• Ask colleagues to provide comments

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Editing

• Check • Grammar

• Spelling

• Punctuation

• Consistency• In-text citations

• References

• Figures & tables

• Format it for the journal you have chosen

Evaluating & Publishing

• Submit your manuscript to the journal you’ve selected

• Anonymous peer review

• Editor considers evaluations from reviewers and makes a decision

• Respond to reviewer comments

• Check proofs

• Manuscript is published

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How to draft?

Follow the IMRAD format

• Title page

• Abstract

• Introduction

• Materials & Methods

• Results

• Discussion• Acknowledgements

• References

• Tables

• Figure Legends

• Figures

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The hardest part of writing is the beginning.

• Ways to make it easier to begin…

• Break it down into small sections

• Gather all your materials (notebooks, references, figures, tables, coffee, etc.)

• Set aside a block of time without interruptions• when are you most productive?

• make it a habit (schedule a regular time)

Momentum

• The most helpful thing for writing a first draft is momentum.

• Do not worry about… writing pretty sentences

whether pronouns are clear

whether paragraphs are in the right order

(or any of the rules we’ll be discussing in the upcoming weeks!)

• Just keep writing• Write down all of your ideas in once place

• Worry about revisions later

• “. . . start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper” - George M. Whitesides

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Think about…

• What is the topic of my paper?

• Why is this topic important?

• What are my hypotheses?

• What are my results? (including figures)

• What is my major finding?

Collect, organize, and study your references.

• You should already have read many references. Run a literature search to include any new papers.

• Reading papers on similar research can offer ideas for your introduction and discussion.

• But be careful not to plagiarize!

• Use a reference manager

• EndNote

• Mendeley

• etc.

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Outlining

• Pay attention to order and organization.

• Outline main ideas/topics

• Example:A. Known/background

• General

• Specific reported data

B. Unknown/problem

C. Research purpose/Question

D. Experimental approach

Which section is this an outline of?

Example of organizing notes into an outline

• Fertile soil – supports life• Plants require macro-, secondary, and micronutrients• Macronutrients = nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium – in large amounts• On very acidic soils, phosphorous forms insoluble complexes• Secondary nutrients = calcium, magnesium, and sulfur – in lower quantities• Micronutrients = boron, copper, chlorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc – only small amounts• Soil depletion usually gradual• Best soil drains well and retains water• Ideal soil acidity is between pH6-7• Rebuilding soil takes patience• Crop yields and their nutritional value are reduced if soil is depleted• Nutrients and organic matter are removed with every harvest• Fertile soil requires microorganisms to support plant life• Decomposed plant and animal material are best for replenishing nutrients• Fertile soils are high in organic matter• Addition of organic material can improve soil structure• Organic matter/topsoil improves soil structure and retention of moisture• Good soil contains many microorganisms that support plant growth• Depletion = if soil fertility components are removed and not replaced

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Example of organizing notes into an outline• General background information: What defines good, fertile soil?

• Fertile soil – supports life• Fertile soils are high in organic matter• Best soil drains well and retains water• Ideal soil acidity is between pH6-7

• More specific information: What are the components of good soil?• Fertile soil requires microorganisms to support plant life• Good soil contains many microorganisms that support plant growth• Plants require macro-, secondary, and micronutrients• Macronutrients = nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium – in large amounts• Secondary nutrients = calcium, magnesium, and sulfur – in lower quantities• Micronutrients = boron, copper, chlorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc – only small amounts

• Define poor soil, and its consequences• Depletion = if soil fertility components are removed and not replaced• Soil depletion usually gradual• Nutrients and organic matter are removed with every harvest• Crop yields and their nutritional value are reduced if soil is depleted

• Explain how to improve depleted soil• Rebuilding soil takes patience• Addition of organic material can improve soil structure• Organic matter/topsoil improves soil structure and retention of moisture• Decomposed plant and animal material are best for replenishing nutrients

Once the outline is complete…

• Discuss ideas with colleagues, co-authors, advisors

• saves time (you don’t waste time on unnecessary writing)

• gain additional ideas

• improve organization

• re-evaluate where you want to submit your work

• make a list of 2-3 choices

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From outline to first draft…

• expand on each point, add data, elaborate

• decide which information can be reduced or cut

• do not worry about pretty sentences yet (still!)

• many people find it easiest to write the sections in this order:

• Methods Results Discussion ↔ Introduction Abstract & Title

From outline to first draft…

Fertile soil supports life and is high in organic matter. The ideal soil acidity lies between pH 6-7. The best soil drains well but at the same time is able to retain water.

To support plant life and growth, good soil requires several components. One important component is the presence of microorganisms. Plants also require macro-, secondary, and micronutrients. Macronutrients are needed in large amounts and include nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Secondary nutrients are needed in lower quantities. They include calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Micronutrients are needed only in small amounts. They include boron, copper, chlorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.

Soil depletion occurs if soil fertility components are removed and not replaced. Depletion is usually a gradual process and happens because nutrients and organic matter are removed with every harvest. If soil is depleted, crop yields and their nutritional value are reduced.

Rebuilding fertile soil takes patience. The addition of organic material can improve soil structure and moisture retention. Moreover, decomposed plant and animal material are best for replenishing nutrients.

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From outline to first draft

Fertile soil supports life and is high in organic matter. The ideal soil acidity lies between pH 6-7. The best soil drains well but at the same time is able to retain water.

To support plant life and growth, good soil requires several components. One important component is the presence of microorganisms. Plants also require macro-, secondary, and micronutrients. Macronutrients are needed in large amounts and include nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Secondary nutrients are needed in lower quantities. They include calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Micronutrients are needed only in small amounts. They include boron, copper, chlorine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.

Soil depletion occurs if soil fertility components are removed and not replaced. Depletion is usually a gradual process and happens because nutrients and organic matter are removed with every harvest. If soil is depleted, crop yields and their nutritional value are reduced.

Rebuilding fertile soil takes patience. The addition of organic material can improve soil structure and moisture retention. Moreover, decomposed plant and animal material are best for replenishing nutrients.

Things to note:

- The first draft is a ROUGH draft- Probably need to include more

information in each paragraph, especially the first paragraph

- Each paragraph has a topic sentence- Not all of the bullet points were

included in this draft- After writing the first draft, you may

decide to re-organize your outline- This is okay - Sometimes we re-arrange our

outline many times!

Revising the first draft

• After you have written the entire first draft:

1. revise the structure of the paper

2. revise the structure of each section

3. revise the structure of each paragraph

4. revise individual sentences/words to improve clarity

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Overcoming Writer’s Block

1. Organize your materials – your notebook, your figures and tables, your references.

2. Buy a cheap notebook. Pretty, expensive notebooks often make people feel as if they have to write and draw polished things in them. If you use an ugly notebook, you are better able to be yourself, to doodle, to write down even things that do not make sense, to scratch out or change thoughts, etc. Ugly notebooks let you write down anything that comes to mind.

3. Write one paragraph and one section at a time. Often people feel overwhelmed thinking of all the writing in a paper at once.

Overcoming Writer’s Block

4. Make your own rules. Do not follow any preset rules on where or how to start writing. Start wherever you want: the Methods, the Conclusion, the Reference List, etc.

5. Learn to imitate. Look at how other authors in the field have worded their Introduction, Methods, or Results, but do not copy them word by word. Instead, use their ideas, paraphrase, and cite them.

6. Write as if you are explaining your work to a friend or parent. Be informal and use simple words. Do not write as if you were trying to impress someone in your field.

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Overcoming Writer’s Block

7. Set yourself some deadlines or have someone else set them for you. Many people do not get tasks done unless they feel some pressure (either self-imposed or from a superior). Setting weekly or daily goals can help to finish tasks. Make writing a priority, and be aware that you probably need to double any estimated time for completing a writing task.

8. Involve your coauthors. Ask them for comments on drafts.

9. Spend time thinking about your ideas. Ideas and theories often need time to be formed. Spend time letting your thoughts wander (when you are commuting to/from campus, when you cannot sleep at night, during a boring seminar).

For ESL authors

• Methods for writing:• Write the paper in English to the best of your ability (the best method).• Writ the first draft in your own language, then translate it into English

yourself. • Hire a translator who is familiar with the terminology of your field.

• Ask for help from a colleague or friend who is a native speaker (and preferably a scientist)

• Editors and reviewers will gladly correct minor mistakes, but the English must first be good enough for them to understand what you are trying to say.