HI THO QUC T VIT NAM HC

ADACHI, Mayumi

T CH V TR TRONG TING NHT V TING VIT

T CH V TR TRONG TING NHT V TING VIT

Adachi Mayumi*

t vn

C ting Nht ln ting Vit u c 3 loi t ch v tr (TCVT). Mc ch ca bi bo co ny l so snh chc nng ca TCVT trong c hai ngn ng. Trc tin, chng ti s ni v c trng hnh thi hc ca TCVT ting Nht (v d: kore, sore, are) v ting Vit (v d: y, , kia). Sau , chng ti s phn loi cch dng TCVT lm 2 nhm trc ch (deixis) v hi ch (anaphora) thng qua vic kho st cc v d.

1. c trng hnh thi hc ca TCVT

1.1. c trng hnh thi hc ca TCVT ting Nht

Ting Nht c 3 loi TCVT. (Xem Bng 1.)

Bng 1. TCVT ting Nht

ko- (gn)

so- (trung)

a- (xa)

TCVT

vt

kore

sore

are

ni chn

koko

soko

asoko

TCVT + danh ng (DN)

kono + DN

sono + DN

ano + DN

Sau y, TCVT ting Nht s c vit tt l: ko- (gn), so- (trung) v a- (xa).

1.2. c trng hnh thi hc ca TCVT ting Vit

TCVT ting Vit cng c phn loi lm 3 nhm (Bng 2). Trong nhiu trng hp, c th thay th c y hoc y nhng trong bi vit ny chng ti ch s dng vic lp lun c d dng hn.

Bng 2. TCVT ting Vit

y (gn)

o (trung)

kia (xa)

TCVT

y

o

kia

TCVT + danh ng (DN)

DN + nay

DN + o

DN + kia

2. Trc ch

Trc ch l cch dng TCVT ch i tng m ngi ni c th nhn thc c mt cch trc tip, c bit l ch i tng m ngi ni c th nhn thy c.

2.1. Trc ch trong TCVT ting Nht

2.1.1. Phn bit theo ngi hoc khong cch

Phn ln nhng nh nghin cu ting Nht u nht tr rng: ko- ch i tng gn ngi ni, v a- ch i tng xa ngi ni. Tuy vy, v chc nng ca so- c hai l thuyt nh sau:

a) Phn bit theo ngi: so- ch i tng gn ngi nghe.

b) Phn bit theo khong cch: so- ch i tng hi xa ngi ni.

Kinsui v nnk (2002) da vo (1) v (3) m cho rng khng th xc nh c l thuyt no l c bn hoc l thuyt no l phi sinh (p.219).

(1) Ngi ni v ngi nghe gn nhau. Nu c hai ngi s c i tng th ngi ni s dng ko- (thch hp vi a).

(2) Khi hai ngi xa nhau th ngi ni s dng so- ch i tng gn ngi nghe. Nu khng c ngi nghe th ngi ni s dng a- (thch hp vi b).

(3) V d: Khch ni vi ngi li xe taxi:

Sono kado-de tomete kudasai. (Xin dng li gc . )

Trong trng hp ny, hai ngi cng nhn mt chiu cho nn khng phi l sono kado gn ngi nghe. Hn na, ngi ni ting m c cm gic l chc chn sono kado nm gia kono kado v ano kado (thch hp vi a).

2.1.2. Ch phm vi m h

So- c s dng ch ni chn khng r rng nh trong cc v d sau:

(4) A: Watashi-no megane, shiranai

(Anh c bit knh ca ti u khng?)

B: Dokoka, sono hen-ni aru-n-jya-nai-no?

( u th phi.)

(5) A: Odekake-desu-ka?

(Anh i ra ngoi ?)

B: Ee, chotto soko-made.

(Vng, ti i ng kia mt cht.)

[Trch dn cc v d ting Nht t Kinsui v nnk (2002: 219)]

2.2. Trc ch ca TCVT trong ting Vit

2.2.1. Nhng nghin cu v TCVT trong ting Vit trc y

T trc n nay, cch phn loi v l thuyt v chc nng TCVT trong ting Vit cha c thng nht. Thompson (1987) phn TCVT lm hai nhm: y ch i tng gn ngi ni hoc mi c em vo ng cnh (close to speaker or newly introduced); y ch i tng xa hoc c xc nh ri (remote or already identified) (pp.142-143). Kia b loi ra khi cc TCVT c bn v c gii thch l xa hn y (more remote than y) (p.253).

Nguyn Hu Qunh (2001) phn TCVT lm ba nhm: ny ch i tng gn hoc hin ti; n, kia ch i tng xa; y, ch i tng c ni n trc ri (p.153). Tuy nhin, ng khng ni v trc ch ca y v .

Tomita (1988) cng phn TCVT lm hai nhm: y ch thi gian hoc khng gian gn ngi ni; y, ch i tng xa ngi ni, gn ngi nghe; kia ch i tng xa c ngi ni v ngi nghe, vi li ch thch: phn bit gia v kia khng r rng (pp.778 - 779).

2.2.2. Kt qu iu tra

Sau y l kt qu iu tra do tc gi thc hin H Ni t thng 4 n thng 6 nm 2008. Tc gi hi mt ngi ph n sinh ra H Ni vo nm 1968, ang sng H Ni v cc cu hi v TCVT ting Vit. V th, i tng nghin cu ca mc ny l phng ng min Bc.

2.2.2.1. Phn bit gia v kia

V y v kia, kt qu ca tc gi ging kin ca cc nh nghin cu trn: y ch i tng gn ngi ni; kia ch i tng xa ngi ni. Mc d vy, v , tc gi quan st thy nhng iu khc vi cc nghin cu trc y.

Th nht, tuy Nguyn Hu Qunh (2001) cho rng ch i tng c ni n trc nhng c th ch i tng cha c ni n trc nh v d (6).

(6) (Ngi ni tr ch xa:) Ch ngi nh.

Th hai, kia c s dng trong trng hp ngi ni mun so snh vi y. V d nh bn ny v bn kia. Trong trng hp ny, khng th thay th kia.

(7) (Tay ny) gi ci chai, tay {kia / *} m nt chai.

(8) Anh c th vit tip mt {kia / *} t giy.

[Trch dn (7) (8) t H Hi Thu v nnk (2006: 1726)]

Th ba, hin ti ngi ni c th nhn thy c i tng hay khng c th l mt trong nhng tiu chun phn bit v kia. Trong khi y v kia ch i tng m ngi ni c th nhn thy c th cn ch c i tng m ngi ni khng th nhn thy c. V d, ngi ni xa ngi nghe 100m v mun ch i tng gia hai ngi. Nu c th nhn thy c i tng th ngi ni s dng c c ln kia. Nu khng th nhn thy c th ngi ni ch s dng thi. Ngi ni nhn thy c i tng mi s dng kia. Tuy Thompson (1987: 253) cho rng kia ch i tng xa hn y nhng thc t khng phi lc no cng nh vy.

Th t, vic tn ti ca ngi nghe l iu kin rt quan trng i vi ting Nht nhng vi ting Vit th khng nh vy. Shoho (1981: 111-112) cho rng khi ngi ni ting Nht t ni v i tng m mnh nhn thy c gn mnh th dng ko-, nu xa th s dng a-. V trong trng hp ny khng c ngi nghe (ngi ni l ngi nghe) cho nn ngi ni khng s dng so-. Cn trong ting Vit th khi t ni v i tng m ngi ni nhn thy c th ngi ni c th s dng c y, v kia.

Trong ting Vit, nu ngi ni c th nhn thy c i tng th kia c th thay th . Tuy nhin, ta ch c th s dng c ch nh C trong v d (9). Khong cch gia ngi nh v ngi ni dn dn tr nn xa hn theo th t A, B v C. Ngi ni ang nh A. Ngi nghe ang nh C. i vi ngi ni ting Nht, v tr ca ngi nghe quan trng hn khong cch gia ngi nh v mnh, cho nn ngi ni c th gi c nh C m ngi nghe ang l sono ie, gi c nh B gn mnh hn nh C l ano ie. Tuy ting Vit gi c nh B l c nh v nh kia nhng ch gi c nh C l nh trong c hai trng hp ngi ni c th nhn thy c nh B v C hay khng.

(9) nh A nh B nh C

ngi ni ngi nghe

Ting Nht: kono-ie ano-ie sono-ie

Ting Vit: nh ny nh { / kia} nh { /*kia}

[Trch dn v d ting Nht t Shoho (1981:67)]

Nguyn Ph Phong (2002:139) cho rng khi cp y - c nhn cch ho tr thnh i t nhn xng th c kh nng biu th ngi ni - ngi nghe, nh (10) v (11).

(10) y lm cho.

(11) y vng, y cng ng en,

y hoa thin l, y sen Ty H.

Tuy th, vic phn bit theo ngi ca TCVT ting Vit khng c tiu chun r rng nh TCVT ting Nht. Theo trc gic ca ngi ni ting Vit, i tng ca khng nhng xa theo khong cch a l m li cn mi, l v s i vi mnh. Kia khng gy ra cm gic nh vy m ch dng ch i tng xa theo khong cch a l thi. V th, khng phi l lun lun ch i tng gn ngi nghe.

2.2.2.2. Ch phm vi m h

TCVT trong ting Vit c th c dng biu th vt, ngi, ni chn, v.v khng r rng bng hnh thc t nghi vn + , trong khi TCVT ting Nht ch biu th c ni chn khng r rng nh v d (4) v (5) trong 2.1.2.

(12) Trc khi i ng, em y thng bt m k mt cu chuyn no .

(13) Chiu nay c ai n tm anh y.

(14) Cu c ri khng? i u cho mt i.

(15) Chiu nay m nu mn g tht ngon nh.

[Trch dn t (12) n (15) t Nguyn nh Ho (1997: 140)]

3. Hi ch

Hi ch l cch dng t biu th i tng c ni n trc .

3.1. Hi ch trong TCVT ting Nht

3.1.1. Hi ch ca so-

So- ch c i tng cha c xc nh.

(16) Moshi tokkyuu-ni maniae-ba, {*kore / sore /*are }-ni notte ikou.

(Nu kp tu siu tc th chng ta i tu nh.)

Trong nhng v d sau, i tng ca so- c xc nh da vo cc t c ni trc.

(17) Kaijyou-ni dono-gakusei-ga kite-mo, kono-syoryou-wo {*kono / sono / *ano}

hi trng no sinh vin n ny giy

-gakusei-ni watashite kudasai.

(C Sinh vin no n hi trng, xin a ti liu ny cho hc nh.)

(18) 55% -no-kaisya-ga {*koko / soko / *asoko} -no komon-bengoshi-wo kaikoshi-ta.

(55% cng ty sa thi lut s c vn .)

[Trch dn cc v d ting Nht t Kinsui v nnk (2002: 220)]

3.1.2. Ch i tng trong k c do a-

Ting Nht s dng a- ch i tng trong tr nh ca ngi ni nh (19).

(19) (Cnh st vo phng hi:

Sakki kono-heya-ni 40-sai-gurai-no otoko-ga ita-darou. Aitsu-ha doko-da.

(Lc ny c ngi n ng khong 40 tui u phng ny ch? Ngi u?)

Trong trng hp ny, ngi ni khng cn ni n i tng trc.

(20) (t nhin cnh st vo phng hi:

Oi, aitsu-ha doko-da.

(Ny, thng u?)

Khi s dng so- th ngi ni cn ni i tng trc.

(21) Oi, *soitsu-ha doko-da.

[Trch dn cc v d ting Nht t Kinsui v nnk. (2002: 220-221)]

3.1.3. Hi ch ca ko-

Khi s dng ko- th ngi ni li cn ni n i tng trc nh so-.

(22) (t nhin vo phng hi:) Oi, {*koitsu / *soitu / aitsu} -ha doko-da.

Ko- ch c i tng cha c xc nh nh so- trong khi a- khng ch c.

(23) Watashi-ha, dare-demo ii-kara shisanka-no seinen - jitsugyouka -to

kekkonsuru-no. Soshite, {kono / sono / *ano} hito-to, sekai-jyuu-wo ryokousuru-no.

(Ti th ai cng c, ch cn kt hp vi mt thanh nin tr giu c. Sau ti s i du lch khp th gii vi ngi .)

Ko- ch c k hiu, ng, cu, trong ng cnh mt cch trc tip.

(24) $, kore-ha amerika-no tsuuka-kigou-desu.

(y l k hiu tin ca M: $. )

(25) Furuike-ya kawazu tobikomu mizu-no oto, kore-ha Bashou-no yuumeina ku-desu.

(y l mt bi th ni ting ca Basho: Ting nc con ch nhy vo ao c.)

C th i tng biu th sau TCVT.

(26) Kore-ha amerika-no tsuuka-kigou-desu, $.

(27) Kore-ha Bashou-no yuumeina-ku-desu, Furuike-ya....

[Trch dn cc v d ting Nht t Kinsui v nnk (2002: 224-225)]

3.2. Hi ch trong TCVT ting Vit

Trong TCVT ting Vit, c chc nng hi chi in hinh, v y cng c kh nng hi ch. Binh thng kia khng c chc nng hi chi nhng trong trng hp c bit, kia c th ch c i tng c ni n trc trong m thoi.

3.2.1. Hi ch ca

Nh so-, ch c i tng cha c xc nh nh (16) v i tng c xc nh da vo cc t c ni trc nh (17), (18). y v kia khng th ch c nh vy. V i tng biu th c xc nh da vo cc t c ni trc cho nn cch dng hi ch ca c gi l cch s dng in hnh.

(16) Nu kp tu siu tc th chng ta i tu {*ny / /*kia } nh.

(17) C Sinh vin no n hi trng, xin a ti liu ny cho sinh vin {*ny / /*kia }.

(18) 55% cng ty sa thi lut s c vn {*y / / *kia}.

Trong khi ting Nht s dng a-, ting Vit s dng chi i tng trong tr nh ca ngi ni.

(19) Lc ny n ng khong 40 tui y ch?

Ngi {*ny / /*kia } u?

Trong trng hp ny, ngi ni khng cn ni n i tng trc.

(20) (t nhin cnh st vo phng hi:) Ny, thng {*ny / *kia / } u?

c c hai chc nng hi ch in hnh ca so- v chc nng ch i tng trong tr nh ca a-. Mc d vy, trong trng hp sau, ta c th s dng v kia ch i tng trong tr nh.

(28) Chuyn {kia / } th no?

Kia c s dng khi ngi ni mun gi b mt gia mnh vi ngi nghe hoc trong nhm nh v khng mun cho ngi th ba bit iu . i tng thng tru tng, chng hn nh chuyn hoc vn . Tuy i tng c th v d nh quyn sch hoc ci bt cng c s dng nhng t hn. Ngoi hi thoi ra, chuyn kia c s dng trong bo ch khi vit v nhng iu cm k trong x hi. Trong trng hp ny, kia khng ch i tng xa ngi ni m ngi ni c th nhn thy c, hn na, khng i i vi y. Khi khng nh c tn ca i tng th ngi ta ch s dng thi. Cho nn kia c s dng khi ngi ni c nh lm i tng khng r rng.

3.2.2. Hi ch ca y

Khi s dng y th ngi ni cn ni n i tng trc nh .

(20) (t nhin cnh st vo phng hi:) Ny, thng {*ny / *kia / } u?

y v ch c i tng cha xc nh nhng kia khng ch c.

(23) Ti s kt hn vi nh doanh nghip tr c nhiu ti sn. Ngi no cng c. V, ti s i du lch khp th gii vi ngi {ny / *kia / }.

C y ln ch c k hiu, ng, cu, trong ng cnh mt cch trc tip.

(24) $, { ny / / *kia} l k hiu tin ca M.

(25) Furuikeya..., {ny / / *kia} l mt bi th ni ting ca Basho.

i tng ch th sau TCVT cng c.

(26) {y / / *Kia} l k hiu tin ca M: $.

(27) {y / / *Kia} l mt bi th ni ting ca Basho: Furuikeya....

Kt lun

Trong bi vit ny, cch dng TCVT ting Nht (ko-, so-, a-) v ting Vit (y, , kia) c phn loi lm 2 nhm, trc ch (deixis) v hi ch (anaphora), so snh chc nng ca TCVT trong c hai ngn ng. Sau y l nhng kt lun chnh ca bi bo co ny:

1) TCVT gn

Chc nng ca ko- ging nh y. C hai TCVT u ch i tng gn ngi nghe m ngi ni c th nhn thy c. Hn na, ko- v y ch c i tng c ni n trc trong m thoi. i tng c th l cha xc nh. y c i i vi kia.

2) TCVT xa

A- ch c i tng xa ngi ni m hin ti ngi ni c th nhn c hoc khng th nhn thy c. Nu ni chnh xc th a- khng c cch dng hi ch nhng a- ch c i tng trong tr nh ca ngi ni. Lc , khng ni n i tng ch th cng c.

Kia ch i tng xa ngi ni m hin ti ngi ni c th nhn thy c. Kia thng i i vi y. Mc d khng c chc nng hi ch nhng kia c th ch c i tng trong tr nh ca ngi ni.

3) TCVT trung

Chc nng trc ch ca so- c phn loi lm hai nhm: Th nht l ch i tng gn ngi nghe, th hai l ch i tng gia ko- v a-. Ngoi ra, so- c chc nng ch ni chn khng r rng, ch i tng cha c xc nh v i tng c xc nh da vo cc t c ni n.

ch i tng xa ngi ni m hin ti ngi ni c th nhn thy c hoc khng th nhn thy c. Ting Vit khng tnh khong cch gia i tng v ngi nghe nh ting Nht. khng thng xuyn ch i tng gia y v kia. to cho ngi ni cm gic i tng mi, l v s i vi mnh. ch c i tng khng r rng cng vi t nghi vn. bnh thng khng c i i vi TCVT khc. Tuy nhin khi c s dng nh i t nhn xng th ch ngi nghe v y ch ngi ni. c chc nng hi ch in hnh ging nh so-, c th ch c i tng cha c xc nh v i tng c xc nh da vo cc t c ni n trc trong m thoi. Hn na, dng ch i tng trong tr nh (kinh nghim qu kh) ca ngi nghe ging nh a-.

Tuy nhin, trong bi vit ny c hai iu cha c gii thch, l: 1) Phn bit gia v kia trong trng hp i tng xa ngi ni m hin ti ngi ni c th nhn thy c mt cch trc tip. 2) Quan h gia ngi nghe v . Ti mun tip tc nghin cu vn ny trn c s kt qu ca bi ny trnh by tiu chun phn bit ba loi TCVT mt cch r rng hn.

TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] H Hi Thu v nnk, T in Anh-Vit, NXB Tp. H Ch Minh, 2006, 2421 trang.

[2] Kinsui Satoshi v nnh, Shijishino rekishiteki - taisyougengogakuteki kenkyuu: Nihongo, Kankokugo, Torukogo [Nghin cu lch s v i chiu v ch th t: ting Nht, ting Hn v ting Th Nh K] Ogoshi Naoki (Ch bin) v nnk, Taishougengogaku [Ngn ng i chiu hc]. Tokyo daigaku shuppankai [NXB i hc Tokyo]. Tokyo 2002, 310 trang, pp. 217-247.

[3] Nguyn nh Ho, Vietnamese - Ting Vit khng son phn. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1997, 289 trang.

[4] Nguyn Hu Qunh, Ng php ting Vit, NXB T in Bch khoa, H Ni, 2001, 397 trang.

[5] Nguyn Ph Phong, Nhng vn ng php ting Vit Loi t v ch th t, NXB i hc Quc gia H Ni, 2002, 234 trang.

[6] Shoho Isamu, Ko-so-ano taikei [H thng ca ko-so-a]. Kokuritsu kokugo kenkyuujyo [Vin Nghin cu ting Nht quc gia], Nhihongono sijishi [Ch th t ca ting Nht]. Kokuritsu kokugo kenkyuujyo. Tokyo 1981, 122 trang, pp.51-122.

[7] Thompson, Laurence C, A Vietnamese Reference Grammar, University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii, 1987, 386 trang.

[8] Tomita Kenji, Vetonamugo [Ting Vit]. Kamei Takashi v nnk, Gengogaku daijiten 1 [T in ngn ng hc], Sanseido, Tokyo, 1988, 1824 trang, pp.759-787.

CHUYN M vi t cch l MT PHNG CCH KHNG NH C TNH: NGHIN CU TRNG HP CNG NG NGI VIT AUSTRALIA

Thi Duy Bo*

1. Gii thiu

Bi vit ny c rt ra t cc kt qu nghin cu trc y ca chng ti v c im ting Vit trong cng ng gc Vit hi ngoi (diasporic Vietnamese) vo nhng nm 2004 - 2006 ti i hc Quc gia c. Trong khun kh ca hi ngh ln ny, ngi vit ch nh nu bt nhng c trng ngn ng ca ting Vit c s dng chu c lm sng t cc yu t x hi, gn lin vi thc t s dng trong tng nhm cng ng. C th hn, bi vit s ln lt cp n cc hin tng v phng thc chn m, chuyn m v trn m ca th h th hai trong mt s cng ng dn c gc Vit t kt qu ca iu tra thc t. Nhiu phn ca kho st ny c tham lun ti Hi tho v ging dy ting Vit nh mt ngoi ng c t chc ti Phan Rang vo thng 8 va qua (nm 2008 BT).

1.1. Trong th gii a ng v a vn ho, ni m tip xc ngn ng thng xuyn xy ra v cc thnh vin trong cng ng thng c vn ng nng khng ng nht th khi nim cng ng ngn ng (speech community) ngy cng bin i (Lo, 1999). n lt mnh, cc nhm ngn ng hay cng ng ngn ng ny, k c cc h gia nh, theo lp lun ca mt s nh ngn ng x hi hc, trong thc t cng khng th ng nht v mt ngn ng c (Barch, 1969; Irvine, 1987), cho d cc thnh vin trong thng chia s nhng nh hng hay gi nh v chun mc v nhng chia s ny c khc nhau t nhiu v cp . Tuy nhin, chnh s khc bit v vn ngn ng cp c nhn ln cng ng cho php cc thnh vin chp nhn ln nhau v t , c th gi nh c nhng chun tc mi trong mt khng gian giao t khc vi x hi ngn ng trc y ca h. Khi nim ng nhm (co-membership) trong mt cng ng ngn ng cng t m hnh thnh v qu nhin, khi nim cng ng ngn ng cng c khoc ln mt din mo mi (Silverstein, 1997). Chuyn m, mt trong nhng phng thc th hin khi nim ng nhm, l hnh vi m ngi ni va biu minh bn sc nhm ln bn sc x hi ca mnh (Ochs, 1993) trong khi h cng chia s vi nhau nhng chun mc mang tnh biu trng trong mt ni b nhm. Do vy, tng tc bng chuyn m cng gp phn hnh thnh nn nhng gi nh v nhm (contingent validations), v bn thn v cc thnh vin khc trong cng mt cng ng ngn ng. bnh din rng ln hn, cc cng ng ngn ng s hnh thnh nn ci gi l hnh thi bn sc cng ng x hi (communalistic form of social affiliation) trn nn tng nim v cng ng trong nhn thc ca cc thnh vin (Ratcliffe, 1994; Phinney, 1990). V nh vy, nhng nh hng v chun mc, v tin gi nh cng nh nhng nim chia s chung gia cc thnh vin cng bin i theo thi gian. iu ny tng t vi nim v nhm, nhn thc ng nhm trong mt cng ng ngn ng.

1.2. Cng ng gc Vit sinh sng chu c vi s dn hn 200.000 ngi m trong hn 2/3 s ngi c qu hng ci ngun l Vit Nam ch yu n t 3 ln sng khc nhau, c th tnh t mc thi gian 1975 - 1979, 1979 - 1985 v sau 1985 (Thomas, 1997), khng k mt s lng nh thuc din hc bng Columbo lu li c trc ngy 30/4/1975. So vi ln sng di dn th nht khong hn 30.000 ngi, v ln sng th hai gn 50.000 ngi, ln sng di dn th ba c khuynh hng tng u c mi 5 nm. Chng hn, ch ring thi gian t 1985 - 1990, con s ny l hn 38.000 ngi, 1990 - 1995 l hn 39.000 ngi do chnh sch thng thong ca chnh ph c di hnh thc on t gia nh v trong nhng nm v sau, t 1995 - 2000, tuy s lng ny gim nhng c khuynh hng l gi u trong khong hn 12.000 ngi trong mi 5 nm. c im ca c dn ny l bin i t din di dn t nn chnh tr, kinh t sang on t gia nh (Clyne, 2003: 14) v sau ny c c din tay ngh lm phong ph thm thnh phn dn c v tnh hnh sinh hot ca nhng ngi gc Vit ti y. Tuy c mt b phn sng thiu tp trung, ngoi cc thnh ph nh lit k, cc cng ng gc Vit (d khc nhau v kha cnh nhn khu hc) vn c im chung l t l ngi ni ting Vit vn rt cao so vi cc cng ng di dn khc trn nc c, cho d thi i vi ngn ng ci ngun ca h t nhiu khng ng nht.

1.3. Trong thc t s dng, vic chuyn i t ngn ng ci ngun sang ngn ng tip c khng cn l vn bn ci na, do lc y ca cc yu cu hi nhp x hi nh c hi vic lm, thng tin cng vic, thun tin trong sinh hot hng ngy. Khng nh nhng cng ng sc dn khc c, hin tng chuyn i ngn ng sang ting Anh vn c ghi nhn l rt thp trong cng ng ngi Vit (Clyne, 2003: 35). iu ng ni y l trong bn thn cng ng Vit, t l ngi ni tr tui (di 14 tui, sinh ti c) li cao mt cch vt tri, xp hng th hai sau cng ng (m l ra, vn phi ng hng th nm theo tng s cng ng c lng ngi ni cao nht), d cho con s ny tng quan rt t vi trnh ting Anh v thi gian nh c ca h. Tuy vy, hin tng ny ch tn ti trong khu vc giao t gia nh m thi v t ra thp hn khu vc giao t trng hc, cng ng hay ngoi x hi (Thai, 2005b).

Trn bnh din giao t cng ng, vic chn m cho qu trnh giao t nhng cng ng di dn ni chung thng khng ch gii hn trong bnh din ngn ng m cn nhng khi nim thuc thc h, tnh cht ca cc tip xc xuyn vn ho v nhng quan nim v bn sc na (Barch, 1969; Irvine, 1987), cho d cc nhm x hi, hay nh hn l cc gia nh di dn, thng khng phi l nhng nhm ng nht v ngn ng (Lo, 1999). Nhng qua tip xc, giao t gia cc thnh vin c vn ngn ng khc bit m cc nhm dn dn hnh thnh v thm ch chuyn i nhng chun mc c tha nhn trong cng ng. Trong chiu hng ny, chnh thi nhn nhn v tip nhn ln nhau gip cho cc thnh vin gi nh c nhng g l c php, nhng g l king k trong mt khng gian giao t mi, c th khc vi vn sng ca h trc y; v nh vy, mt bnh din rng ln hn, cc cng ng ngn ng s hnh thnh nn ci gi l hnh thi bn sc cng ng x hi (communalistic form of social affiliation) trn nn tng nim v cng ng trong nhn thc ca cc thnh vin (Ratcliffe, 1994; Phinney, 1990). Do vy, nhng nh hng v chun mc, v tin gi nh cng nh nhng nim chia s chung gia cc thnh vin cng c nng cao dn theo thi gian. iu ny tng t vi nim v nhm, nhn thc ng nhm trong mt cng ng ngn ng.

1.4. Xt theo nim giao t hn hp, mt s nh ngn ng - nhn hc li cho rng nim v nhm khng hnh thnh mt cch t pht, m tri li, n l mt h qu ca cc tng tc gip ranh gia cc nhm tc ng c v tr thng th v khng thng th na (Bister-Broosnen, 1998; Finger, 2001; Carli et al, 2002). Do vy, bn sc x hi nhm cng c phn nh qua vic la chn ngn ng v n lt mnh, trong bn thn mi nhm u ngm nh ci gi l phng thc tng tc da trn m chn trong mt khung chun mc no . Hay ni khc i, vic chn m (code-choice), chuyn m (code-switching) v trn m (code-mixing) trong tng cng ng ngn ng cn phi c xem xt trn nhiu cung bc thuc gii hn va ngn ng hc, va x hi hc, ch c bng khu vc giao t (Fishman, 1965; Greenfield; 1972, Parasher, 1980), mng li x hi (Gumperz, 1966; Poplack, 1977; Lipski, 1978; Milroy v Li, 1995), v mi tng lin vi qu trnh pht ngn ca cc thnh vin trong cng ng (Scotton v Wanjin, 1983; Myer-Scotton, 1988, 1993). D vic miu t hin thc ngn ng trong cc cng ng di dn thng ch trng n cc tc t x hi dn n hin tng song ng hay a ng, nhng s rt thiu st nu khng cp n thi i vi vic s dng m nh th no, nht l nhng nh kin lm nn mt c o ngn ng ngay trong cc cng ng di dn v, do vy, d dng dn n hin tng rt lui khi tng tc x hi ca mt s thnh vin trong nhm mi khi xut hin hin tng c xt, tip xc gia ngn ng cng ng v ngn ng s dng chnh quc (Thai, 2005). Bi vit ny qu thc khng i tm li p cho cu hi nu ra, l ting Vit qu nh, vi t cch l ngn ng ch trong qu trnh gio dc ngn ng - nhn t gc s phm ngn ng hc, m ngc li, tin hnh kho st ting Vit ang s dng trong cng ng - c im vn hnh ca n ng hu xem xt trong chng mc no ting Vit cng ng (diasporic Vietnamese) c a vo ging dy.

2. Phng php nghin cu

i tng nghin cu ca chng ti l ting Vit s dng trong cc cng ng gc Vit, ch yu l khu ng ca 28 ngi gc Vit, tui t 20 - 62, gm 17 nam, 11 n c cng vic khc nhau nh: k s tin hc, bc s, nh vn, gio s i hc, sinh vin, nhn vin bn hng, phc v, th lm bnh, ni tr v.v Trong cc i tng ny, ch c 7 ngi c coi l thng tho c hai ngn ng Anh v Vit (bilingual), tt c nhng ngi ny u c thi gian nh c c t nht l 5 nm.

T liu thu thp trn cc i tng ny l hn 37 cuc i thoi, trao i t nhin v nhng ch xoay quanh nhng vn sinh hot hng ngy, nhng kha cnh vn ho x hi ca cuc sng c. Ngn ng trao i l ting Vit. a bn c tr ca cc i tng tham gia l vng Mt.Pritchard (bang New South Wales), Springvale (bang Victoria), Belconnen, Gungalin (th Canberra). Ngoi nhng quan st t nhin, thu ngn khong cch x hi v lm lin tc cu chuyn, ngi nghin cu c tham gia vo i thoi hoc ch ng phng vn s b. Tng di ca cc cuc i thoi l gn 10 ting ng h. Vi tng cuc i thoi, chng ti ghi m v phin m tt c nhng t, ng s dng trong sut qu trnh trao i, bao gm danh t, tnh t, ph t, ng t hay bt k n v ngn ng no c s dng. Ngoi ra, i tng nghin cu cn l hn 120 vn bn di hnh thc bi bo, mu qung co, truyn ngn, bn tin vi cc di khc nhau trn cc t bo lu hnh a phng. 52 bng bin thng bo, 40 bng v CD-video ca nhc lu hnh trong cng ng hay trn mng cng nm trong i tng kho st ny. im trng tm nghin cu vn l c im t vng - cu trc v hin tng chuyn i ngn ng trong ting Vit ca cng ng.

3. Bn lun

3.1. c im x hi ca ting Vit vi t cch l ngn ng cng ng

3.1.1. Nghin cu v cc yu t v tnh cht ca qu trnh duy tr ngn ng ngoi ting Anh trong cc cng ng di dn c cng nh cc nc chu u, M khng cn l ti mi m. Mt s trong cc cng trnh ny nhn mnh n tnh lnh mnh ca mi trng nhn vn h tr cho vic duy tr ngn ng cng ng ln s pht trin tnh a vn ho nh tinh thn cao bn sc hay chnh sch ngn ng tch cc v.v (Clyne, 1985; Haugen, 1971, 1979; Smolicz v Harris, 1976). Mt s khc li ch trng n yu t min nh l mi trng t nhin khi cc ch th pht li cm thy thoi mi la chn ngn ng m nhng bin s nh: tnh hung, ch , phong cch, mi quan h lin nhn, a im, phng thc v phng tin ng vai tr quan trng trong vic la chn ny (Fishman, 1965; Cooper, 1969; Greenfield, 1971 Sandkoff, 1971). Tuy vy, im chung ca cc cng trnh ny l nhiu gia nh (c bit l cc gia nh c nhng thnh vin thuc th h th nht) mun duy tr ting m nh mt phng cch duy tr vn ho truyn thng, trong khi cc th h tip theo ca h li s dng ting Anh (vi t cch l ngn ng ca x hi tip c) nh mt m duy nht trong hot ng giao tip thng nht.

3.1.2. D i u hay khng trc hai khuynh hng nghch chiu ny - hoc duy tr s dng ngn ng m , hoc tip ng ngn ng tip c - hin tng vay mn t ting Anh vo ngn ng ngun ci c cho l ph bin nht, c bit cc cng ng di dn vng th (Haugen, 1950; Myers-Scotton, 1977; Meyers-Scotton v Jake, 2000). Tuy nhin, mc vay mn t ting Anh i vi ngn ng ngun tu thuc trc ht vo iu kin sinh hot c nhn, mng li x hi, phong cch sng ln vn ng nng ca ngi ni ( c hai ngn ng); v theo thi gian, hin tng ny hot ng qua con ng ci bin, m rng, chuyn i v ti to ngha ngay trn ngn ng ngun. Qu trnh ny thng din ra nhng mc khc nhau do yu t gii tnh - chng hn nh, i vi th h th nht, hu nh vic chuyn i m xy ra tn sut cao hn nam gii, trong khi n gii duy tr ngn ng cng ng nhiu hn (Clyne, 2003). Trong mt nghin cu so snh hin tng duy tr v chuyn i ngn ng trong cng ng ngi c, Hy Lp v Vit Nam Melbourne, Pauwels (1995) ghi nhn l ph n cng ng Hy Lp v c s dng ngn ng LOTE nhiu hn so vi ph n trong cng ng ngi Vit. Nhng trong 3 nhm i tng ny th nhm ngi gc c khuynh hng s dng ngn ng ci ngun trong cc min khc nhau nhiu hn 2 nhm kia. Tuy vy, trong min chuyn di th ph n c v Vit Nam thuc th h th hai li s dng ngn ng ci ngun nhiu hn nam gii (Winter v Pauwels, 2000).

T thc t kho st, chng ti xin c bn lun cc hin tng vay mn, chuyn di v chuyn i m xy ra cp ngn ng v dng hc ca ting Vit cng ng c nh sau:

3.2. c im ngn ng hc ca ting Vit cng ng

3.2.1. Vay mn (Borrowing)

3.2.1.a. Theo Myers-Scotton (2006), vay mn l khuynh hng tt yu trong bui ban u ca bi cnh tip xc ngn ng. Tin trnh vay mn thng mang tnh mt chiu (one-way street) v kh xy ra trng hp hon tr gia ngn ng tip nhn (recipient language) v ngn ng cho (donor language). Qu trnh ny hin nhin cha tng l s trao i bnh ng (Myers-Scotton, 2006: 209-11). Vay mn ngn ng, n lt mnh, ch yu din ra trn cp t vng (lexical borrowings). Hai hin tng thng xy ra trong qu trnh tip xc song ng l giao thoa (interference) v ng quy (convergence) khi ngn ng cho li nhng nh hng tiu cc n ngn ng tip nhn (giao thoa) v trong ngn ng tip nhn c s dng mt s n v vay mn mt s n v c hnh thi tng ng vi ngn ng cho (ng quy). ng quy ngn ng thng xy ra cp m v, hnh thi m v, ngn iu cng nh c php.

3.2.1.b. Clyne trong mt s cng trnh nghin cu hin tng a ng ch ra 3 phng thc m ngi di dn s dng xy dng vn nhm p ng nhu cu sinh hot trong mi trng nh c mi l: t to ra t mi, m rng ngha v chuyn di ( cp c t vng ln cu trc). n lt mnh, to lp t mi (neologism) l phng thc, ng thi l tn gi mt sn phm c sng to cho ting Anh vay mn t ting Php. Qua c liu kho st, hin tng to t mi xy ra trong cng ng Vit da trn n v t vng vn c ca ngn ng tip c. Chng hn, quan st cc trng hp sau:

(1) i lm pham (farm)

(2) tch phom (form), ghp phom

(3) n gueo-phe (welfare), n tt kt (ticket)

(4) lm neo (nail)

Trong cc trng hp trn, cc t ng ting Anh nh farm, form, welfare, ticket, nail c Vit ho vi cch pht m ca ngi Vit (trong kho st). Tuy nhin, ngha ca cc t ny c bin i quy theo ngha ca bi cnh trong ngn ng ngun. Chng hn, i lm pham (to work on a farm) khng phi l i lm trang tri hay i lm rung nh trong ting Vit; m y l cng vic mang tnh thi v, d trang tri, nhng l nhng cng vic c tr tin mt (khng phi ng thu) v thng dng ph bin trong thnh phn kinh t phi chnh thc (informal sector). Hoc t form trong ting Anh c ngha l phiu, t khai, hay mu k khai, nhng khi t hp vi ng t tch hay ghp th ngha c chuyn i theo ngha ca ting Anh nhng trong bi cnh ca nc c, c dng biu th hnh vi sng ly thn hoc ly hn, chnh thc hoc cha chnh thc (tch phom). Ngc li, ghp phom l hnh vi kt hn, hp hn hoc cng chung sng chnh thc vi nhau nh v chng nhm c tha nhn hoc th hng chnh sch an sinh x hi ca nc ny, nh tr cp ti chnh, xem xt khi khai thu v.v

Trong khi , trng hp (3) v (4) c s bin i ngha nht nh, qua con ng vay mn b phn (ch yu l thnh phn nng ct), chng hn, t welfare (c ngha l phc li) v ticket (v), nhng c kt hp vi ng t n trong ting Vit (khng tng ng v ngha vi ng t eat trong ting Anh) nhm to ra mt nt ngha mi l hng c ch an sinh, phc li x hi nh c tr cp tht nghip, hoc tin tr cp cho ngi gi hay cho con ci tui v thnh nin v.v Tng t, n tt-kt c ngha l b pht tin do vi phm hnh chnh nh u xe sai quy nh, li xe qu tc . Cn (4) c ngha l lm th mng tay nh mt ngh nghip (manicurist), ch khng n thun l i vin thm m, lm p mng tay v.v

3.2.1.c. C th ni, vic to lp t mi bng con ng vay mn t ngn ng ca x hi tip c thng l nhng n v t vng c nn tng vn ho - x hi khc vi x hi xut c (cultural borrowings), nhng phn nhiu trong s to lp mi c hin tng vay mn thnh phn nng ct (core borrowings) trng m vi cc n v ngun. Chng hn nh sp (shop: ca hng), cao-s (council: hi ng chnh quyn), neo (nail: mng tay), bk (book: ng k), lm (claim: k khai), lt (flat: cn h) v.v Trng hp vi nhng hc gi nghin cu song ng trc y (Zentella, 1997; Simango, 2000), kho st ghi nhn c hin tng vay mn vn ho l do iu kin sinh hot trong mi trng tip c mi, buc phi vay mn c ni hm vn ho ca t , trong khi i vi vay mn b phn, mc d vn c nhng n v t vng tng ng trong ting Vit, nhng thun tu l do p lc ca nn vn ho thng th (sheer magnetism of the dominant culture) (Mougeon v Beniak, 1991).

3.2.1.d. Ngoi ra, trong thc tin s dng ngn ng ca cng ng Vit c mt lng n v t vng ln cu trc c ghi nhn l c lu dng t trc nm 1975 v t thy s dng trong nc na. C khi cc n v ny c th c xem l c hoc li thi (archaism). Tnh hnh ny chia s vi nhng kt qu nghin cu ca nhng ngi t nn Hungary, Croatia, Ba Lan, Latvia vo cui thp nin 40 - 50 ca th k trc l do t hiu bit c lng t vng ng i nc xut c, hoc khng chp nhn cc n v t vng gn vi din bin chnh tr (Clyne 2003). Chng hn, quan st cc trng hp:

(5) Khi i t s tho thun ny, mn ting Anh l mn hc u tin m hc sinh ton quc s c chng trnh hc ng nht

(Trng hc trn ton nc c s c chng trnh hc thng nht, Thi bo, s 300, 21/7/2003)

(6) Sang Thng V: i dp. C hi lm n rt tt, khng cnh tranh, lm nhiu n nhiu Cn tin sang gp. Xin lin lc

(Thi bo-Vietnamese Community Newspaper, s 300, 21/7/ 2003)

(7) bn Vit Nam ai c b giy bng nht trnh

(T ch di dn, Vit Lun Online, s 18/2/2005)

(8) Nh chc trch c ku gi s gip ca cng chng c trong mt c gng tm ra cn cc ca ph n ny.

(Mt ph n Sydney b giam gi nhm ln trong tri di tr, Nam c Thi bo, 18/2/2005)

T v d (5) n v d (8), cc t khi i, thng v, nht trnh c khuynh hng t s dng dn trong khu ng cng nh vn bn chnh lun trong nc, nhng li c s dng vi tn s kh cao trong khu ng (nht l vi cc i tng trn 50 tui) v kh nhiu trong ngn ng bo ch cng ng. Khng t cc t ch tn gi cc quc gia hay cc n v lin quan n tin t vn c s dng nhiu nh: Hoa Lc, Nam Dng, Nht Bn, Mc T Khoa, Lun n, Hoa Thnh n, ng-L, c i Li, c Kim, M Kim, phn li v.v

3.2.1.e. Tri li, t liu thu thp t i thoi ln phng tin truyn thng cho thy mt lng t khng nh c xem l ph bin qu nh li t xut hin hay gn nh khng s dng cng ng, chng hn, cc t nh khn trng, phn khi, h hi, mnh dn, nhn thc, ng k, qun chng, bao cp, h khu v.v L do ca hin tng ny c th xut pht t mi tng lin gia nhu cu v ch vn l lc y mang tnh va b sung va loi b, nht l trong bi cnh giao t ca nhng ngi n ng khi h mun lu gi nhng yu t nm trong vn ng nng ca h hoc quyt tm bin ngn ng s dng thnh mt phng tin rt ring cho cng ng (Clyne, 2003: 104).

3.2.1.f. Mt iu ghi nhn thm v hin tng vay mn ngc (reverse core borrowing) l: vay mn t khi xy ra theo chiu ngc li nh cp, song n vn tn ti di dng mt s rt t t ng quen thuc trong mt s ngn ng qua tip xc, chng hn nh nhng chuyn gia ni ting Anh sng Trung Quc thng dng t Guan-xi ch quan h thay cho relationship, ngi Anh ni safari mn t ting Rp thay cho journey th kho st cha ghi nhn c n v no trong ting Anh c mn t ting Vit, ngoi tr qua bin qung co ca mt hiu n s dng t ph thay cho t ng m far bin thnh ng so far so good thnh so ph so good (IG 08) hoc mt s t xng gi (ch yu l i t nhn xng ca ting Vit) m chng ti s cp sau.

3.2.2. Chuyn di (Transference)

3.2.2.a. Chuyn di thng xy ra trn cc cung bc khc nhau: ng m, t vng, ng ngha, hnh thi v ngn iu. i vi cc ngn ng di dn (migrant languages), chuyn di t vng thng a dng, nhiu thnh t (multiple transference) v l i tng nghin cu su rng ca nhiu hc gi, m in hnh tin phong trong lnh vc ny l Haugen (1953), Weinreich (1953) v gn y l Clyne (2003), Meyers-Scotton (2006). Nguyn nhn dn n hin tng ny, theo Clyne (1979), l vn ngn ng c nhn (idolect) ca th h di dn th nht c xt vi tnh hnh tip xc hn nhp vng th (urban melting-pot situation). Hin tng chuyn di ni chung c th trng lp nhiu cp khc nhau, ng thi, chng tc ng ln nhau hoc c th lm ny sinh nhng bin th ngn ng (Clyne, 2003: 111).

Trong t liu ca mnh, chng ti ghi nhn hin tng chuyn di t vng (lexical transference) xut pht t vic ngi ni khng tm thy n v tng ng trong ngn ng m nh danh nhng i tng, s vt hay khi nim tm thy x hi mi, ngay t nhng ngy u nh c. Hin tng ny c ghi nhn trn c hai i tng, song ng v n ng v hu nh theo kt qu phn tch cc i thoi ca kho t liu, chuyn i t vng khng nht thit tng ng vi trnh thng tho ting Anh ca i tng. Mt khc, trong mt s trng hp, n cn biu th mt phong cch ni nng mi, khu bit vi li ni truyn thng trong ngn ng xut c trc y.

3.2.2.b. Cc phm tr chuyn di t vng vo ting Vit trong cng ng thng ri vo cc min giao t gia nh, trng hc, sinh hot thng nht nh mua sm, lm vn, gii tr v chim s phn trm rt thp min giao tip cng s. Chng hn, quan st hin tng sau:

(8) sp tht, sp hoa, sp vi, sp Tu (ch tim thc phm chu hay Vit Nam), sp neo, lm ga-n (garden), -kao-tn (accountant), xen-t-lin (Centerlink), tht- gu (take-away), lin nh (cleaning), thng bi (boy), con g (girl), phom (form) (in form, khai form), stem iu-t (stamp duty), kao-s (council), t st-i (Aus Study), ai-t (diet), (ph) lt (flat), rt (rate), lum-b/lum-m (plumber)...

3.2.2.c. Mt c im khc ca qu trnh chuyn i ny l s lng t vng ch np sng hin i c ghi nhn l tri, nhng li xut hin nhiu vn ng nng ca ngi c thi gian nh c ngn, ng thi, c gc xut c l t vng nng thn Vit Nam. Chng hn, nhm t ch sinh hot gii tr nh:

(9) i lp (go to clubs), ko my (nh bi trn my sng bi), ka-si-n (casino), pa-ti (party), i/ly ho-li-y (take holidays), thu lt (rent a flat), -p-st (deposit), tin ren (rent), in-t-rt fri (interest-free), -dn (real estate agent), lc-k (locker), goa-rp (wardrobe), p-b-ga-ra (double garage), b-rt-v-nia (brick veneer), i bt (going by bus), p-chc (pay-check), bi-zi-nt (business), goa-rn-ti (warranty), in-sua-rn (insurance), cng-trc (contract), in-pc-sn (inspection) v.v...

3.2.2.d. Trn phng din t loi, t liu ca chng ti cho thy trong tng s n v chuyn di, t l danh t chim cao nht (gn 80%) (Thai, 2005) do mi lin h trc tip gia hnh thc v ni dung ca t (Haugen, 1953: 406; Clyne, 1985: 95). V mt hnh thi, chuyn di ny thng c hin tng va chuyn di nguyn dng vo trong ngn ng cng ng (transversion) v c th tn ti di hnh thc l cc li ni khun thc ngang cu, cc ng hay thnh ng. Chng hn:

(10) personal issue, private matters, cash-on-hand, brandnew-in-the-box, first come first serve, walk-in walk-out, so far so good, buy one get one free v.v

Trong khi , t loi ng t ghi nhn trong t liu kho st c tn s cao th hai, k n l tnh t, ph t, thn t c hai i tng n ng v song ng. Chng hn:

(11) cc ng t: lin (clean), bc (book), tht (take), rn (run), m-nt (manage), hen- (handle), iu (deal), tht -v (take over), li (lease), seo (sell), ruy-lt (relax), lt p-(t) (look after), tht-ke (take care), ke (care), n-g-shi-t (negotiate), rin (ring/ call), ko (call), phn (phone), ken-s (cancel), guc pt-thai (work part time)/ phun-thai (full time), ga-rn-ti (guarantee), ph-gt (forget), t no (ignore), phi-nen (finance).

(12) cc tnh t nh i-z (easy), bi-z (busy), hp-pi (happy), lt-k (lucky), te-ri-b (terrible), sc (shocked), nai (nice), ke-fun (careful), xp (safe), gt (good), ph ri/ phi (free) hay trong t liu i thoi:

Con g lt-ki gh. Xu m sng hp-pi lm nghe. c thng b thit nai.

(CR 27 b)

(13) cc yu t mo u, a y, hoc thn t: geo (well), -n gu (anyway), mai gt (Oh my God!), s-r nghe (sorry!).

Hu nh c liu khng pht hin trng hp chuyn di no ca t loi gii t v lin t vo ting Vit. iu c bit ghi nhn trong c liu l hin tng chuyn di ca hai i t nhn xng you v me c s dng rng ri trong giao t i thoi, b qua bin i ng php ca ngn ng cho. Chng hn, trong i thoi ghi nhn:

(14) i t nhn xng: , Ti, ngy mai du (you) ly xe ca mi (me) m i lm.

(CR 18)

3.2.2.e. Ngoi ra, i vi chuyn di trn cp m v v ngn iu, theo phn tch t liu, c hin tng to ra mt loi t v (lexeme) gn ging nh hnh thc nguyn dng ca ting Anh, ng thi, c khuynh hng loi b mt s ph m u nh /f/ trong lt ca flat, /c/ trong lm ca claim hoc mt s ph m cui nh /k/, /z/, /s/ nh trong chc ca check, li ca lease, phi-nen ca finance v /dz/ trong m-nt ca manage, chn ca change. iu ny tng thch vi nhn xt ca Rayfiled (1970) v Clyne (1976, 1980,1985) l trong khi chuyn di t vng, thng din ra t ngn ng tip c n ngn ng cng ng, song chuyn di m v trong i tng thuc th h th nht thng theo ng ngc li.

3.2.2.f. Trn cp c php, c liu ghi nhn mt s chuyn di t ting Anh sang ting Vit m t tm thy trong khu ng thng m; thay vo l mt s vn bn chnh lun hay mt s i tng hc thc thuc th h di dn th nht. Ph bin nht l vic s dng th b ng trong ting Anh nh:

(15) B i ra khi bnh vin Manly trong nm ngoi v i n Queensland, cui cng c tm thy bi th dn c ti Coen, thuc min Bc Queensland, ngy 31 thng 3 nm ngoi.

- Ngi ta tin rng n chng bao gi c kim tra bi cc nhn vin di tr.

(Mt ph n Sydney b giam gi nhm ln trong tri di tr, Nam c Thi bo, 18/2/ 2005)

- Mt quyt nh chnh thc ca ng T Do s khng c a ra cho ti khi cuc hp ca ng NSW v vn ny .

(T do khng tranh c Werria, Nam c Thi bo, 19/2/2005)

3.2.2.g. Cui cng, trn bnh din dng hc, ngoi hin tng ph bin l vay mn i tr hai i t nhn xng you v me nh ni trn, hnh thc chuyn i trt t trong tn ngi (trt t o gia h v tn nh Tai Van Dang, thay cho ng Vn Ti, hay s xut hin t bin vi tn s s dng cao mt s hnh vi cm n v xin li l ng ch . Song, chuyn i ngn iu vo ting Vit l khuynh hng thanh iu ho vi hin tng xung ging cui (tonalization with falling at end) c xem l nt c th. Chng hn, t liu ghi nhn hin tng xung ging vi thanh huyn cui nh:

(16) tt-su (tissue), gng-ga-ln (Gungalin), hen-r (Henry), m-n (money), ken-s (cancel), kao-s (council), i-z (easy) v.v

hoc, mt s t trng hp c ging xung cui vi thanh nng nh:

(17) Ki-pc (Kippax), den-tt (dentist) v.v

3.3. Phng thc dng m ca ting Vit cng ng v con ng hnh thnh bn sc

3.3.1. Thch ng hay ho nhp (integration) l qu trnh gn lin i vi mi hot ng vay mn trong bi cnh tip xc ngn ng. Haugen (1953) phn bit qu trnh vay mn hoc du nhp (borrowing hay importation) vi chuyn i (switching) trn c s nhn vo b ba vay mn/ thch ng/ chuyn i. Thch ng to ra tnh lin tc gia yu t trung tm v thnh phn ngoi bin (center-periphery continuum), nu r mc chp nhn ca mt n v vay mn mi trn mt ngn ng tip nhn (Clyne, 2003). Cc kiu loi thch ng thng, ghi nhn l thch ng ng ngha, ng m, hnh thi, c php v ngn iu. Song, t thc t kho st trn ting Vit, vi t cch l ngn ng tip nhn, thch ng cp t vng v c php khng l iu gy ch do tnh cht loi hnh hc ca ngn ng n lp ny. Chng hn, quan st cc pht ngn sau, ta thy:

(18) -Du book (+0) bc s cho mi cha vy? (CR 18a)

(khng c hin tng bin i ng php (th qu kh) i vi book)

-Cho mnh 2 sandwich (+0) i nh!

(CR 37)

(Khng c bin i ng php hnh thc s nhiu i vi sandwich).

Hin tng ni tri ny cng l nguyn nhn lm ny sinh s chuyn i hay trn m trong bi cnh tip xc ngn ng ca ngi Vit cc ni ni chung v c ni ring, i khi c phn tu tin, phi chun mc. Chng hn, hin tng thch ng sau t mt mu qung co trn bo a phng trong t liu (IG 23).

T mu qung co ny, iu ghi nhn l thch ng trn c s vay mn v bin i chnh t khc xa vi thnh phn trung tm, nh complete tr thnh komplit trong khi kitchen gi nguyn nh dng ban u ca ting Anh kitchens di hnh thc ng php s nhiu.

IG 14

Ngc li, mt mu qung co khc (IG 14) xut hin mt trung tm mua sm, c thch ng d chp nhn. y c hin tng m rng ngha t shop sang doanh nghip, m ch thc l business sale (sang doanh nghip). Thm vo , cm t walk in walk out li c chuyn di nguyn dng va t vng, va c php (lexicosyntactic) nhm chuyn i ni hm ngha ca mt phng thc thc hin (din ra ngay khi thanh ton).

Hoc tng t, mu qung co sau (IG 26) ca mt nh hng mn n t chn v thc khch n theo nhu cu, theo ngha bao bng hay gi l buffet hoc all you can eat l hin tng ho nhp, thch ng d chp nhn, nh:

IG 26

Mt khc, c liu cho thy nhng min giao t chuyn bit tn ti kh nhiu hin tng thch ng mang tnh gn-nh-thay-th cc n v ngn ng ting m do yu cu i hi v bt buc ca bi cnh x hi; ngha l, vic s dng nhng n v vay mn l phng cch duy nht c. Chng hn, trong qung co sau (IG 33), dch v kim tra xe cp phiu kim tra (pink slip) l mt trong nhng yu cu ca ng kim lu hnh xe c gii nhm chuyn i giy php lu hnh hoc chuyn i s hu phng tin giao thng thng ch thc hin mt s ga-ra c u thc - ni c cc dch v bo dng khc nh thay nht, thay cc b phn xe nh lc kh, bnh xng phun in t (EFI service), lm my (reconditioning engine), cn vnh v tay li (wheel alignment) hoc dch v bo dng theo nht k s dng ca cc xe ang trong thi gian bo hnh (service logbook under warranty) v.v l nhng n v t vng thch ng ton phn ni ln tnh chuyn nghip ca n v cung cp dch v, ng thi, phn nh mt cch chnh xc yu cu ca cng ng vn c nhng nhu cu, sinh hot khc vi mi trng xut c ca h trc y.

IG 33

3.3.2. Chuyn i ngn ng hay chuyn m (code-switching) c xem l tin trnh thc hin chc nng ngn bn (Gumper, 1964; Alvarez-Caccamo, 1998, Meeuwis v Blommaert, 1998) m qua , vic chuyn i hay bin i m khng nht thit to ngha trong giao tip (Clyne, 2003: 70). Sau mt thi din ra nhiu tranh lun gay gt, gii hc gi dng nh thng nht trong lp lun khi phn bit gia vay mn (din ra cp t), chuyn m ( cp rng trn t hay lin cu) (Myers-Scotton, 1992; Treffers-Daller, 1994; Backus, 1996; Mahootian, 1996; Boyd, 1997) v trn m (code-mixing) ( ni b cu) (McClure, 1977; Kachru, 1978; Sridhar, 1978; Plaff, 1979). T kt qu kho st, ti ghi nhn l c s trng khp vi khuynh hng chung nghin cu trc y trong cc cng ng, l hin tng chuyn m t ngn ng cng ng sang ting Anh v khuynh hng ngc li (trong gii tr, nht l khi c mt hay vng mt thnh vin ngi ln). Chng hn, mt i tng trong phng vn ca chng ti th l v chin lc chn m nh sau:

Extract 1:

Nu ngi ln hn th mnh phi dng ting Vit, n khng c rude, cn nu mnh c nh l Hey, howre you going? thy nh l l khng c ng nh l vi ngi ln, th mnh tha ch, tha bc, n khng c rude cn nu nh mnh c you, me, I th mnh hng c em nh khi hi nh, th b ngoi em ni hng c you, me, I g ht, hng c tn trng ngi ln g ht trn h. Bi zy, em thy vi ngi ln l phi tha ch, tha bc, tha c (h)

(i tng l n, 18 tui, sinh vin)CR 18

Nhiu i tng trong c liu th l rng h cng cm thy kh khn trong vic la chn m ban u, nht l i tng tr. Mt trong nhng nguyn nhn ny l do s kh khn trong vic xc nh t xng gi thch ng trong ting Vit, vn c ch c cht ch hn so vi you v me trong ting Anh. n lt mnh, cc t ny cng l tc t kch y cho vic chuyn m. Phn tch hi thoi (CA), ghi nhn trong mt bng video lu hnh trong cng ng nh sau:

Extract 2:

A: Ci ny me tng cho you n. Me gi mt ci, you gi mt ci. Chng no you nhn thy n, you ngh ti me.

B: , you lucky hn me nhiu lm: v you c ba n, you c m n. Mi ln me i hc v, me bun lm. Me khc hoi Er...M me ni me l hng c me, l m me kills herself. Ri ba me ni me l Ba me thng me vi M me nhiu nht trn i.

A: Oh, oh, nhng m ba you xo qu . Nu m ba you thng you vi m you lun h, th ba you u c i theo girlfriend lm chi u? Mi ti, me cng pray to God, cho ba me ng c ging ba you. Nu m Ba me m ging Ba you, th me s mt ba me. Chng no you qua bn A-ls k, you nh gi cho me nhe. Oh, c ci tm hnh ny me tng cho you. Tm hnh ny n, gia nh ca me vi you i trn chic tu n.

B: OK. Chng no n , me gi cho you lin. Er. Me kim hnh p p h, me gi cho you

VCD HB 4

(Bi cnh ca 2 i tng tr em, tui 10 - 12, ch xoay quanh vic ngi cha c bn gi)

lt p, chin lc tng tc ca i tng B c nhiu thi c chuyn i, nh vo cc yu t nh me vi t cch l t kch y (trigger-word) thng ko theo hin tng chuyn/trn m nh m me kills herself. Tng t, lt khi tip theo, i tng A, c hu thun bng cc biu hin do i tng tip li (B) khai m, v do vy, vic chuyn di c din ra d dng hn so vi lt khi u tin. Ngoi i t xng h you v me thch ng vi hnh thc ng php ca ting Vit hn l ting Anh, chng ta ghi nhn vic chuyn di lp t cm thn Oh, oh!, chuyn i t vng di hnh thc ng ng t pray to God v chuyn i thanh iu xung thp A-las-k v.v Tm li, trong chin lc dng m nhng thnh phn chuyn di hay kt trn (transference or mixing constituents) t ting Anh nu l nhng ni dung ca ngn ng cho (embedded language) nhng trong qu trnh chuyn m, trn m li mang hnh thc ca ngn ng tip nhn vn hnh (matrix language) (Meyers-Scotton, 1992).

3.3.3. Yu t bn sc

3.3.3.a. Chuyn m khng lun lun phn b u trong mt cng ng ngn ng (Gumpez, 1982; Bourdieu, 1982), mc d cc thnh phn trong cng ng/ nhm c th chia s cng thang gi tr. Mt trong nhng ng c chuyn i hay trn m xut pht t vn ng nng ca tng thnh vin (Heller, 1995). Thc hin hnh vi chuyn m, cc thnh vin ang dn thn vo cuc chi trong mt th trng (marketplace), theo cch lp lun ca Bourdieu, c ch c bng nhng quy lut ca h thng mng (network) theo nh quan nim ca Gumpez. H tm cch s dng nhng ti nguyn sn c (available resources) gii quyt nhng hn ch hay ro cn c th gp phi. Lun lun, nhng bi cnh song ng, qu trnh thng lng c xem nh l thng trc v cc ch th pht li buc phi la chn mt chin lc hnh x tng hp vi nhng iu buc phi lm v c bn phn phi lm trn nn tng ca h gi tr chia s trong nhm (Thai, 2006). Mu trch t c liu sau y c th minh ho cho nhn nh ny, biu th thi i vi ngn ng ci ngun min giao tip gia nh khi i tng phi loi b ting Anh vn d dng cho giao tip ng nhm.

Extract 3:

Er, trong gia nh em th er, em phi dng ting Vit, bi v ba m em dy em t nh l lun lun nh phi dng ting Vit er nhng c nhng chuyn m em khng dch c th em phi chm vo ting Anh lun lun phi ni ting Vit nh. ngoi nu nh l gp ngi Vit, nu l ngi ln th em xi, em dng ting Vit. Cn nu l nh, nu l cn tr tr hoc bng tui em, th em dng ting Anh. Ti v nh em, em ch c ni chuyn vi ba m em thi, vi li vi gia nh th khng c bit, ging nh l giao tip vi ngi tr nh bng tui em , th I dont know, khng bit xng l sao l sao you know, completely different words vi li vi gia nh th d, tha, Im always successful, but with friends, th em khng bit ni sao sao yeah!... completely different words.

(i tng l n, 20 tui, sinh vin)CR 33a

R rng, trn m bng vic chm vo ting Anh trong trng hp trn l phng thc khc phc giao thoa i tng song ng nhng khng phi bng con ng ngc li. Thi tun th theo l gio gia nh y cng gn lin vi quyt nh chn m, hoc chuyn m ca i tng ny. Ni bt hn, ng thi chuyn m trc nhng i tng khc bit l h qu ca qu trnh phn tch, d xt phng thc we-code v they-code, theo Gumpez, nhm bo tn mi quan h trong nhng bi cnh thn mt (informal) ng nhm (in-group) hoc t thn mt ngoi nhm (less personal out-group).

3.3.3.b. Ngc li, vic la chn ngn ng ci ngun ngay t ban u cng l hnh thc biu minh bn sc nhm. Theo Myers-Scotton (1988), ngi ni cn phi nhn bit nhanh nhy v nhng kiu loi tng tc c l (interaction type of conventionalized exchange), gi l nhn bit h thng tnh tri (markness metric). Trng hp ghi nhn sau y trong c liu, mt ln na khng nh cho l thuyt v tnh tri ca Myer-Scotton. Trong khi trn m hay chuyn m trong bi cnh ny l biu hin ca mi quan h tng thn th vic chn m ci ngun cng c th c ngm n nh mt bin php t v nhm.

Extract 4

Theo em, em ngh l bt u ting Anh, nhng nu m mnh tr nn thn h, th theo em, em s dng hai ngn ng. V dng hai ngn ng nh l khi mnh ni you, me, th it sounds so more egalitarian, nhng m khi mnh mun c mt conversation m khng mun share chung between both of us v khng mun nhng ngi xung quanh nghe th bt u ni ting Vit. So you know, we can keep it as a secret. Nh vy thng thng th ni ting Vit ch v khng mun ngi khc nghe.

(i tng l n, song ng, 18-20 tui, sinh vin) CR 33b

3.3.3.c. Mt khc, chn, chuyn m theo tnh hung l phng thc ph bin trong thc t a ng chu c. V khi cc thnh vin khng tho mn vi mt trong hai bn sc hoc gn lin vi hnh vi ni nng ca (trong mt ngn ng) hoc vi vic tng tc vi ngi khc (bng th ting khc) h s cm nhn c nim tng thng cho c hai bn sc (Myerscotton, 1993b: 122). Tuy nhin, trng hp sau y li chng minh iu khc bit: vic chn m bi cnh a ng khng hon ton l mt la chn ni tri (code-switching itself as an unmarked choice), m thay vo , n tr thnh mt la chn bnh thng, to nhiu bn sc c trn qu nhiu hn (more positively evaluated identities).

Extract 5:

V t nc ny c rt nhiu ngn ng m ai nu mun th cng ni ging nh they speak their own languages. Ging nh ngy xa, khi hc cng high school hi cn nh h, you more like behaving mnh cn by gi th mnh holding up to your values. You know, you dont care what people think about you. So you do what you would like to do and what comes easy to youth em ngh khng c g sai khi ni ting Vit trong m ng m h khng hiu em. Tc l khng ngh l mnh try not to be so rude nu m h khng khng say chung vi mnh. V d nh mnh c ngi bn l ngi Vit th mnh ni ting Vit mnh khng exclude h out. Cn nu nh l h different ngi ngoi, th ti sao mnh phi care?

(i tng l nam, 20 22 tui, sinh vin) CR 34a

3.3.3.d. Cui cng, chuyn m khng nhng gn lin vi nng lc ngn ng ca tng c nhn, vi yu t bn sc m cn biu minh cho thi v h gi tr ca ton nhm i vi m chn. Khi ting Vit hnh chc nh mt m chn trong cng ng s c nhiu c hi thc hin chc nng x hi ca mnh l gn kt, lu gi nhng gi tr ngoi ngn ng. Tuy nhin, do thiu vng iu kin tng tc lin quc, m ni ng hn, l mi lin h vi x hi xut c, ting ni ca cng ng di dn vn c t nhiu nhng khc bit vi ting Vit qu nh. iu ny d to ra hin tng t thng hiu hay thi xa l i vi ngn ng ang s dng qu nh. Cm nhn sau y do mt i tng trong c liu chia s, ng thi, l im nhn ca nghin cu nh ny, trc khi chuyn n li kt.

Extract 6

Em ngh ci ting Vit y khc hn vi bn Vit Nam ch. y nu c mun gi th anh phi not forget ci identity before 1975. So they want to keep identity but not as a whole. Vi li, em cng khng hiuyeah, nhng m i qu hoc some more hin i ging nh bn Vit Nam bn kia, th c ngi y suy ngh nh l you wanna wanna following the wave, becoming traitors pretty much. V vy y lc no cng gi li ci identity ca ngi Vit before the war and I think its a separate identity.

CR 35b

4. Kt lun

4.1. T thc t kho st ny, c th ni, ting Vit s dng cng ng gc Vit c nhng c im khc vi ting Vit s dng qu nh do s c mt ca cc yu t vay mn, chuyn di v thch ng vi ngn ng ca x hi tip c. Nhng hin tng ny thng xut pht t nn tng vn ho - x hi khu bit v cho php ting Vit cng ng vn hnh mt cch t nhin, a dng v linh hot trong sinh hot hng ngy ca cng ng. Nn tng vn ho - x hi tng a phng, n lt mnh, cng vi mng li x hi ca c nhn, nhm cng ng lm cho ting Vit tng vng a l t nhiu b sung thm nhng bin th; chng hn nh ting Vit vng Sydney phn no mang nhng yu t t vng khc bit vi ting Vit Perth hay Tasmania v tng t, ting Vit c c nhiu thnh t t vng, ng m - hnh thi khc vi ting Vit Nht, Nga hay M.

4.2. Do tnh cht loi hnh, so vi cc ngn ng cng ng khc, ting Vit cng ng m rng mt cch ng k cho hin tng vay mn, thch ng cng nh chuyn m v trn m. V l , ting Vit cng ng ni chung thng c nhng bin th t hon cnh kinh t - x hi (practice-based variations) khc bit vi ting Vit ang s dng qu nh. Khi hnh chc, ting Vit trong tng cng ng cng c mang nhng yu t c th, do vn ng nng c nhn, thi gian nh c, b dy tri nghim v thi i vi vic hi nhp x hi ca bn thn cc thnh vin s dng. Kt qu c liu cho thy, mc thng tho ngn ng tip c cng cao th hin tng thch ng ng m trong ting Vit cng thp, m thay vo , xy ra hin tng chuyn di, chuyn m hoc trn m vi ting ca x hi tip nhn. Cc hin tng ngn ng ny ch thc l tm gng phn chiu bn sc ca ngi s dng, ni ln thi ca ngi ni i vi hin thc x hi (cng ng), i vi ngn ng ca x hi tip c ln ngn ng ci ngun.

4.3. iu khng loi tr l tnh hnh khu bit gia ting Vit cng ng (diasporic Vietnamese) v ting Vit qu nh (Vietnamese in the homeland) c th thu ngn c tu thuc vo cc yu t ngoi ngn ng nh mi quan h lin quc gia (transnational links) ca cc c nhn, nhm cng ng v mi quan h gia cc cng ng hi ngoi vi nhau v gia cc cng ng hi ngoi vi cc cng ng trong nc. Do vy, duy tr, gn gi v pht trin bn sc ting Vit (trong bi cnh song ng hay a ng) nh mt phng thc duy tr vn ho Vit cng ng l qu trnh chia s khng ch trong ni b cng ng m cn ton x hi ngn ng Vit ni chung, din ra di nhiu hnh thc v tng bc khc nhau, t cp quc gia n cng ng, c s tip sc ca cc cp chnh ph x hi tip c ln x hi xut c.

TI LIU THAM KHO

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[2] Auer, P.(1984). Bilingual conversation. John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

[3] Auer, P. (1991). Bilingualism in/as Social Action: A Sequential Approach to Code-Switching. Paper for the Symposium on Code-Switching in Bilingual studies. European Science. Foundation Network on Code-Switching and Language Contact, Strasbourg, pp.319-352.

[4] Auer, P. (1995). The Pragmatics of code-switching: a sequential approach. In: L.Milroy & P.Muysken (Eds.), One speaker, two languages: cross disciplinary perspectives on codeswitching. Cambridge University Press, pp.136-57.

[5] Auer, P.(Ed.). (1998). Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity. Routledge, London.

[6] Auer, P.(2005). A Postscript: code-switching and social identity. Journal of Pragmatics 37, 403-410.

[7] Barth, F.(1969). Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of culture difference. Boston: Little, Brown.

[8] BIR (Burreau of Immigration and Population Research) (1994). Community Profiles: Vietnam-born, Statistics Division.

[9] Bister-Broosen, H. (1988). Sprachkontakle und Sprachattituden Jugendlicher im Elasass und in Baden. Frankfurt: Lang.

[10] Bourdieu, P.(1982). Ce que parler veut dire. Paris: Fayard. Brown, B.(2003). Code-convergent borrowing in Louisina French. Jounal of Linguistics 7(1).

[11] Brown, R.W. & Gilman, A. (1960). The pronouns of ower and solidarity. In T.A Sebok (ed.). Style in language. Cambridge: 53-76.

[12] Cameron, D. (1990). Demythologizing sociolinguistics: why language does not reflectsociety. In: Joseph, J.E., Taylor, T.J. (Eds), Ideologies of language, London, Routledge, pp.73-93.

[13] Carli, A., Sussi, E.& Kaudidi - Basa, M. (2002). History and stories: identity construction on the Italian-Slovene border, in Meinhof, U.H.(ed.). Living (with) borders. Identity Discourses on East- West Borders in Europe. Aldershot: Ashgate, 33- 52.

[14] Cashman, H.(2005). Identity at play: language preference and group membership in bilingual talk in interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 37, 301-315.

BUNG O, BUNG THU HAY BUNG THAO?

GS.TS Nguyn Ti Cn*

1. Trong 3 cu Kiu s 526, 527, 528

Tin u thy ca ngn gi VO

Nng th vi tr bung...............

Sinh th do bc sn O vi ra

cui cu th hai (tc cu 527) hin c ba d bn: BUNG O, BUNG THU v BUNG THAO.

- BUNG O hin thy trong cc bn Liu Vn ng 1866, 1871 (LV), Quan Vn ng 1879 (QV), Abel des Michels 1884 (ADM), bn h on v bn Minh mng lc nin ;

- BUNG THU hin thy bn Thnh M ng 1879 ca Nguyn Khc Bo (TM/NKB), bn VNB-60, bn Trng Vnh K 1875 (TVKI), bn Lm No Phu 1870 (LNP) v bn Kiu Onh Mu 1902 (KOM);

- Cn cch c BUNG THAO th ch c trong bn di co Quc ng ca c Hong Xun Hn, khi c phin Nm bn TM 1879. Ring bn Duy Minh Th 1872 (DMT) khc rt l (+ = THP+TRIU): nu THP l 3 chm THU vit cch hi c bit= mt s ngn / /, ri nt ngang / _ /, ri li mt nt thng ln / v /, khc khng chun m to thnh, th y cng l ch ng m vi d bn THAO.

(Ch thch ca Phan Anh Dng: xem hnh minh ho th nt ht ln c l thuc v ch TRIU , cn ch THP cc bn khc Nm c th i din cho mt s b khc nhau.)

2. D bn BUNG O phm mt sai lm rt ln v lut th: gieo vn hai ch O cng m, cng ngha, cng t dng.

- D bn BUNG THU cng to ra mt s gieo vn gng p bt ng, v trong cc trng hp khc, THU u hip vn rt hi ho. So snh:

Cu156: Mt nn ng tc kho xun hai KIU

157: Nc non cch my bung THU

158: Nhng l trm du thm YU chc mng

Cu1316: Li li chu ngc, hng hng gm THU

1317: Hay hn l cng ni IU

1318: Ni qu cn mt hai IU ngang ngang

- D bn BUNG THAO ca c Hong Xun Hn th trnh c hai nhc im ni trn. Nhng c ch thch: THAO l THU, nh ni HNG THAO, l iu lm cho chng ti c cht bn khon.

- Chng ti khng ngh rng c Nguyn Du vn vit THU c chch thnh THAO nh vy. Chng ti ng rng y c vn dng mt ch THAO khc, m sau ny c cn s dng tr li mt ln na, trong cu 3141:

Canh khuya bc gm r THAO

Di n t rng m O thm xun

3. Nhng ch THAO trong R THAO l mt ch c im cn phi cn nhc v cc bn chng ti hin c t ra c nhng cch vit, cch hiu hi khc nhau:

- C mt ch gc Hn, c Hn Vit l THAO, vi t dng l MIN+DIU : (DIU l b phn bn phi ca ch THAO nh trong THAO LC ). Ch THAO ny c ngha l dy t kt dng lm vt trang tr, nh thao nn, dy thao buc o, dy thao lm tua mn (theo o Duy Anh, T in Truyn Kiu); cordon de soie = di la, (theo Couvreur, Gnibrel), hoc tua kt bng t ch (theo Hong Ph, v theo Vit Nam t in ca Khai tr tin c). Bn P. Schneider cng hiu THAO l vin c tua (=frange).

Ch THAO ny hin thy trong bn Minh mng lc nin, trong bn h on v trong bn KOM (C iu ch bn u v bn KOM do Nguyn Th, Phan Anh Dng kho nh l vit ng chun mc nh trong ting Hn).

- C mt ch THAO na m Hunh Tnh Ca cho l ch Nm v ghi l MIN+TO . Ch ny c ngha l mt th hng dt, Vit-La ging l mt loi t la. Hong Ph th bm st Hunh Tnh Ca, ging l hng dt bng thao, tc bng loi t th, to si. Nhng chuyn t si khng phi l mt c im bt di bt dch, bao gi cng nht thit phi vy, v chnh ngay Hunh Tnh Ca cng cho bit c loi THAO nh ch. Hn na, A.D.Michels cng dch thnh mousseline (=mt th hng, mng, tha v nh - theo cch dch ca o Vn Tp).

Ch THAO ny hin thy dng trong hai bn ca Lm No Phu v A.D.Michels .

4. Xt v ngha, cng nh cu 3141, k ra ngha no trong hai ch THAO trn y cng u c th t vo kt cu BUNG THAO ca cu 527 c c.

Nhng n y, mt cu hi li ni ln! Hai ch THAO - va thy trn y u c t dng khc rt xa ch O , ch THU . Vy v sao cu 527 li c th xy ra mt s nhm ln ng lot THAO chuyn thnh O, hay thnh THU nh 12 bn nu?

Mun tr li cu hi , trc ht chng ta phi quay li xt cch vit cu 3141:

Canh khuya bc gm r THAO

cu ny, ho ra trong 11 bn Kiu Nm chng ti hin c, ch c 3 ln l ngi chp dng ng t dng c sn trong t in ting Hn v t v Hunh Tnh Ca vit. Tm bn cn li u phi t to ra nhng cch ghi ring c... iu cng d hiu v ngay trong Hn Vit T in ca o Duy Anh, ch THAO (=MIN+DIU) b b st v trong cc t in Nm ca Trn Vn Kim, V.V.Knh, Maiorica, Gnibrel..., ch THAO (=MIN+TO) cng khng c mt. (Phi chng v chng thuc loi ch him hc, t khi dng?)

5. Trong bi cnh nh vy, chng ti phi i n my gi thuyt nh sau:

- Khi em ch THAO (m sau ny cn s thy cu 3141) dng vo cu 527:

Nng th vi tr BUNG THAO

chc c Nguyn Du cng thy khng cn thit phi vit ng theo t nguyn him hc vn c, m ch cn ghi cho ng theo m Nm l c.

- V c tm ra mt cch ghi Nm gc Hn Vit rt n gin, m li rt ph bin (v c c trong o Duy Anh, c trong Trn Vn Kim): l dng ch THAO gm 3 chm THU + ch TRIU, m ta thng dng khi ghi tn SNG THAO hay tn a danh LM THAO chng hn.

- Ch THAO (=THU+TRIU) ny c t dng rt gn ch O , v theo T Hi, li cn c c kh nng c l O vi ngha l ra ry na. y hn l l do v sao nhng bn sao chp v sau nhm ch THAO (=THU+TRIU) ca nh th thnh ch O (=MC +TRIU) hoc thnh THU (=MIN+TRIU).

6. Kt lun

Vi nhng c liu v gi thuyt nh trn, chng ti xin kin ngh, t nay v sau, ba cu 526, 527, 528 c l chng ta nn c nh trong di co ca c Hong Xun Hn li, thnh:

Tin u n ca ngn gi VO

Nng th vi tr BUNG THAO

Sinh th do bc SN O vi ra

Nhng hai ch BUNG THAO chng ta s hiu gn gn nh BUNG THE, ngha l mt ci bung c treo mn bng hng la dt, chic mn c th n gin m cng c th c vin c nhng tua trang tr kt bng t ch. Phi ngh n c 2 kh nng v ch THAO (=3 chm THU+ TRIU) m c Nguyn Du dng va ng m vi ch THAO Hn (gm MIN+DIU) c trong Gnibrel, va ng m vi ch THAO Nm (gm MIN+TO) c trong 2 bn t in Vit-La ca B a Lc v Taberd cng nh Hunh Tnh Ca.

LGIC NG NGHA CA T TH

GS.TS Nguyn c Dn*

1. Nhng quan im v t th

1.1. Th mt t c nhiu chc nng

Hu ht cc nh Vit ng hc u coi th l mt t nhiu chc nng, nh lin t, tr t, ph t kp, nh du - thuyt

1.1.1. Chc nng lin t (hay kt t)

Cc tc gi Hong Tu, Nguyn Kim Thn, Hong Trng Phin, Dip Quang Ban [Dip Quang Ban, 1992], Trng Vn Chnh & Nguyn Hin L [1963], Trng Vn Chnh [1970], coi th l mt lin t.

Lin t th biu th quan h qua li Lin t th c tc dng quan trng hn na bi v mt mnh n t on u cu ch kt qu biu th quan h iu kin kt qu. [Nguyn Kim Thn, 1963, 400-402].

L Vn L cng coi th l mt lin t nhng dng mt tn khc: ph t tp hp. Ph t ny ni mnh chnh vi mnh tu. [L Vn L, 1972, 130]. Cu Ti n th anh hng i c coi l s rt gn ca cu iu kin Nu ti n th anh hng i [Trng Vn Chnh, 1970, 165].

Hong Tu coi th l tiu t gii tr (particule mdiane), mt tiu loi ca lin t [Hong Tu, 2001, 536]. Chc nng c bn ca n l tham gia to cu phc kiu Nu M1 th M2, kt ni mnh chnh M2 vi mnh ph M1 ch iu kin, gi thuyt, trng hp thi gian hay khng gian.

Dip Quang Ban [1992, 212] vit: Trong cu ghp c quan h iu kin/ gi thit - h qu V ch h qu c m u bng kt t th. Cp kt t nu... th cn c th nu ln quan h i chiu. Sau ny, Dip Quang Ban t b quan nim hai t th, m l kt t. Khi cp n cc cp t phn nh quan h iu kin - h qu, mc ch, nguyn nhn h qu ca cu ghp chnh ph, nh nu th, h th, th, v m, ti m tc gi ch thch hai ting m, th y l tr t. [Dip Quang Ban, 2005, 305].

1.1.2. Chc nng tr t (hay ph t i lp)

Nguyn Kim Thn cn coi, cng vi l, m, th l mt tr t. [Nguyn Kim Thn, 1963, 403]. L Vn L, Trng Vn Chnh cn cho th l mt ph t i lp (Ngoi th l l song trong th l tnh). Trng Vn Chnh v Nguyn Hin L cho rng: Ta thng dng tr t th (thi) phn cch b t thi gian vi ch , vi ch t, vi thut t [TVC&NHL, 1963, 563]. Hai ng cng dng thut ng tr t vi ngha ca lin t: ta thng dng tr t th (thi) phn tch b t gi thit vi chnh.

Khi so snh hai s vt hay em hai s vt i vi nhau, ta thng dng tr t th t sau ting tr s vt y. [TVC&NHL, 1963, 607]

1.1.3. Chc nng to ra ph t kp

T th kt hp vi mt s t khc thnh nhng ph t kp[LVL, 1972, 132]. V d: Phn th phn th; Khi th khi th; Vy th; Th th

1.2. Th nh du - thuyt

Khng dng thut ng - thuyt, nhng Trng Vn Chnh vit: t th phn cch phn ch ng c nu vi phn cn li ca cu: Sc th hai ngi ngang nhau; Go th c go np, go t [Trng Vn Chnh, 1970, 166]. Hoc: T th phn cch b ng thi gian vi phn cn li ca cu: Lc ti n th Gip i ri; Hm nay th anh y kh ri; Bao gi th Gip i? [Trng Vn Chnh, 1970, 131].

Cao Xun Ho quan nim: Th l mt t chuyn bit ch nh du - thuyt. [Cao Xun Ho, 1991, 124]. Quan nim cc oan ny c mm bt i trong cng trnh do Cao Xun Ho ch bin sau : Th l mt t ch yu dng phn gii - thuyt [Cao Xun Ho, 1992, 25]. Vi t ch yu, nhm tc gi trnh c nhng trng hp t th hin nhin khng c dng nh du - thuyt, nh nhng cu c bt u bng t th: Th vo chi ni chuyn vy. (Nguyn Cng Hoan); Th c ra nm ngoi ging kia mau! (Nguyn Hng); Th anh c lm g em u. (NNT)

Tuy nhin, Cao Xun Ho vn ph nhn t cch lin t ca th v ph nhn cu phc. ng vit Trong lgic hc, tt c cc quan h c biu trng bng lin t (conjunctions v disjunctions - quan h v v quan h hoc) u ch mi quan h ng lp gia hai mnh hay hai thnh t ca mt mnh . Nhng trong ngn ng hc truyn thng, ngi ta thm mt th lin t ph thuc (l nhng gii t ci trang). ng cn vit Ni tm li, cu phc l sn phm ca mt o gic khng th no dung th c [Cao Xun Ho, 2002, 4 - 5]. y l mt ng nhn ng tic. Nhng ngi t nhiu hiu v lgic u bit rng tt c cc ti liu v lgic u ni ti tc t ko theo, cn gi l lin t ko theo ((, implication hay conditional), v u ni rng tc t ny tng ng vi cp lin t if then ca ting Anh. Ngay c cng trnh Semantics ca John Lyons, trong mc 6.2 gii thiu v cc php tnh mnh cng nhc ti iu c bn ny. Tt nhin, trong lgic c php ton chuyn quan h ko theo thnh quan h tuyn hoc hi v quan h ph nh (Xem 2.1.3.1). Nhng iu khng c ngha l khng c quan h ko theo trong lgic v cng khng c ngha l khng c cp lin t nu th trong ngn ng t nhin.

1.3. Ng ngha ca t th

Trn Trng Kim tuy thy t th l mt ting t n khng c ngha nhng cng li thy ting th lm cho ngi ta ch vo ting (hay my ting) ng trc, ( l): a) lp li: Ni th ai ni cng c, Mua th mua i cho xong; b) i nhau: My th gy, n th bo (mc 3.2.1).

Trng Vn Chnh v Nguyn Hin L c nhng nhn xt kh tinh t v cch dng t th. Hai ng phn bit nh sau:

Anh bn bao nhiu? (1)

Bao nhiu th anh bn? (2)

Bao nhiu m anh bn? (3)

[TVC&NHL, 1963, 603]

D bn ri hay cha, mun bit gi ta cng c th dng cu (1). Ta dng cu (2) khi cha bn v dng cu (3) khi bn ri.

Cc t th, m trong hai cu trn c Trng Vn Chnh gi l t h. T th trong cu (2) tr quan h iu kin - kt qu Nu c bao nhiu th anh bn?, cn trong cu (3), t m li tr quan h nguyn nhn - kt qu. Cng vy, cu Tin ca n th n ung ru, mc k n cng biu hin quan h iu kin - kt qu [TVC, 1970, 161].

2. Lgic ng ngha ca t th

2.1. "Th" l mt lin t: Hm ngn ng trong cu ghp nu th

Chng ta s xt nhng hm c lp vi ng cnh trong cu cha cp lin t nu th. Nhng hm ny khin mt cu c th c mt hnh vi ngn ng (HVNN) gin tip xc nh, nh th bi, khuyn can, cnh bo, e do, cm on, khng nh

2.1.1. "Th" biu hin kt qu trong quan h iu kin - kt qu

Lin t th kt hp vi lin t nu trong cu trc y nu A th B, nu nh du iu kin A, cn th nh du kt qu B.

V d: Nu n c tnh tt mt th tao mt nhiu ln ri (Mt ci v, Nguyn Cng Hoan).

T nu c th c thay bng lin t khc: bao gi, gi

Bao gi cy la cn bng

Th cn ngn c ngoi ng tru n (Ca dao)

Tha thy, gi nh con kho khon th con ch dm ku (Nguyn Cng Hoan)

T nu cng c th c rt gn. nhng cu di y, c th thm t nu trc phn iu kin v ta vn c nhng cu ng ngha. Chng hn, Khng nghe li ta th ri s bit. (CCPSTV, Nguyn D); Con c dm ni gian th tri chu t dit (Ch Pho, Nam Cao) Ai cng im th x hi lon mt (Ma Vn Khng); Chng chng th chy; Sinh con u lng chng gi th trai.

2.1.2. Quan h nhn qu

2.1.2.1. Cc nh nghin cu phng Ty phn chia cc cu ra lm nhiu kiu th hin nhng quan h khc nhau: nguyn nhn - kt qu, iu kin - kt qu, iu kin phi hin thc (irreal condition), thi gian - bin c v s khng nh tng qut (time-event & universal assertion). Ti cho rng nhng kiu quan h khc nhau trn y c mt c trng chung m chng ti gi l quan h nhn qu, mt quan h bao cha nhng quan h trn.

Hai hin tng x v y c quan h nhn qu l khi xy ra hin tng x th s xy ra hin tng y. Ngha l:

x ( y

V d: x = tui tc, y = tnh trng th lc. Chng ta c quan h: Nu tr th kho; nu gi th yu; v tr nn kho; v gi nn yu; h tr l kho; h gi l yu; c tr l kho; c gi l yu. Ngha l nu x v y l nhng hin tng c quan h nhn qu th khi xut hin x trng thi A s xut hin y trng thi B, cn khi xut hin x trng thi C s xut hin y trng thi D.

2.1.2.2. Cu trc ngn ng. Trong ting Vit, quan h nhn qu ny c th hin cc loi cu phc, cu ghp v chng c chia thnh cc hnh vi lp lun:

- Nguyn nhn - kt qu (v nhng s vic xy ra): V chm hc nn n rt gii.

- iu kin - kt qu (v nhng s vic cha xy ra): Nu chm hc th n s rt gii; Bao gi A th [by gi] B.

- Quy lut nhn qu (v hin thc tng xy ra hoc v lng tin v s vic tt yu xy ra): Khi c quyt tm [th/ l] chng ta s thnh cng; Khu ny, h tri ma l ng li ngp; ng c khch l n quy; C thy anh l n khc

- Gi nh - kt qu (hay l iu kin - kt qu phi thc): gi nh v nhng iu tri vi s vic xy ra): Gi chm hc th con rt gii.

Trong nhng cu trc ngn ng trn, c th rt gn lin t v thng l lin t th nht:

(a) [Nu] Tao m ra tay th go xay ra cm.

(b) [Gi] B m c mt ci m bng go th ht c au lng.

(c) Tuy rng o rch ty sng, [nhng nu]

ng gp vi lng th thi.

V th nht c th c thay th bng mt i t:

(d) [Nu] Th th con bit ri. (Nguyn Hng)

C cu trc nu th cng c th chm trong mt cu trc khc:

(e) M [nu] c bit [th cng] khng bao gi m ta ni vi ti. (L Lu)

X m P th Q ( X [khng P th thi ch nu X] m P th Q. V d: Ti lm th ( Ti khng lm th thi ch nu [ti] lm th

(g) Tha ra th cng may i

Lm ra mang ting con ngi nh nhen (Truyn Kiu, Nguyn Du)

( (Nu) Tha ra th cng may i

(Nu) Lm ra (th li) mang ting con ngi nh nhen.

2.1.2.3. Lu

(1) Nhng cu trn u th hin quan h nhn qu nhng chng khng h ng nht. V d: Ngha ca cu V chm hc nn n rt gii khc hn ngha ca cu Nu chm hc th n s rt gii. Tng t: H n n l ti i ( V n n nn ti i; C thy anh l n khc ( Mi ln trng thy anh, y nh rng n khc ( V thy anh nn n khc

Cho nn, ch v thy hai cu H n n l ti i v V n n nn ti i khc ngha nhau m vi kt lun l cu u khng th hin quan h nhn qu. Cu u vn p ng nh ngha v quan h nhn qu: Khi xy ra x (= n n) th s xy ra hin tng y (= ti i).

(2) nh ngha trn y (2.1.2.1) khng h ni rng x l nguyn nhn duy nht ca hin tng y. Mt ngi b ght (y) c th v ngi ni di (x1), ni by (x2), c th v ngi ni nng xch m kiu cng (x3), c th v ngi hay gy b cnh (x4), c th v ngi tham nhng li hay thuyt ging o c (x5) Vy th, trong mt cu phc hp c th cha ng nhiu quan h nhn qu. Cu C thy anh l n khc, v n nh n b phn nh nhng quan h nhn qu sau: S xut hin ca anh lm n nh n b: C thy anh l n nh n b (anh ( b ). Nh b n khc: V nh b nn n khc (b ( khc). Vy th s xut hin ca anh lm cho n khc phn nh quan h nhn qu C thy anh l n khc (anh ( khc) thng qua hai quan h nhn qu khc:

(anh ( b) ( (b ( khc)

(3) Nhng quan h nhn qu ny c cng ng x hi chp nhn. Chng tr thnh nhng l l lm cn c cho nhng lp lun trong giao tip v thng c th hin thnh nhng tc ng.

(4) Php ko theo trong lgic l mt khi nim c bn. N phn nh quan h nhn qu.

2.1.3. Cu trc ngn ng ca nhng hin tng c quan h nhn qu

2.1.3.1. Quan h ko theo v s suy lun

T cu trc lgic (I) dn ti nhng cu trc ngn ng: Nu th; V nn; Bi v nn; Do m; Khi th; H th/l; C l; ng l

Nhng cu trc trn c nhiu bin th khc nhau.

Trong giao tip, con ngi lun lun c nhu cu suy lun, lp lun. Suy lun theo lgic v suy lun theo nhng c th ca ngn ng t nhin. Chng l c s cho nhng li ni c hm v nhng hnh vi ngn ng gin tip.

Quan h ko theo: (Ia) Nu x th y; (Tc l: x ( y).

Ia tng ng mt cch lgic vi Ib, Ic:

(Ib) Nu khng y th khng x (Tc l: ~y ( ~x).

(Ic) Khng x hoc l y; (Tc l: (~x ) ( y).

Nh vy, t (Ia) cha php ko theo, c th chuyn tng ng v (Ic) cha php tuyn. V d:

(Ia) Cc em ch , nu khng gi im lng s phi ra khi lp. (

(Ic) Cc em ch , hoc l gi im lng hoc l s phi ra khi lp.

C hai loi suy lun: trc tip v gin tip. Suy lun trc tip l suy lun t mt tin suy ngay ra kt . Suy lun gin tip l suy lun t hai tin mi suy ra c kt . V vy, n cn c gi l php tam on lun. Hai tam on lun hay dng nht v quan trng nht trong lgic mnh l modus ponens v modus tollens. Tip n l tam on lun gi nh hypothetical syllogism, cn gi l tam on lun bc cu:

(MP) modus ponens: ((x ( y) ( x) ( y

(nu c x th c y v c x. Vy th: c y. ngha: Trong quan h ko theo th x l iu kin ca y.) V d: Ai chuyn cn ngi s gii. Ba chuyn cn lm. Tho no, Ba gii khc thng.

(MT) modus tollens: ((x ( y) ( ~ y) ( ~ x

(nu c x th c y v khng c y. Vy th: khng c x. ngha: Trong quan h ko theo th y l iu kin cn ca x.). V d: Nu tin anh y s mua nh. Hin anh y vn cha c nh. Ngha l anh y vn cha tin.

Php suy lun trn y c th xut hin di dng tnh thi. ting Vit, ta c:

(MT1) nu c x th c y v khng mun c y. Vy th: ng x/ khng nn x. Tc l: ((x ( y) ( ~mun y) ( ng x / khng nn x

V d: Nu sng bung th, bn tt s xa lnh. Ai khng mun bn tt xa lnh th (ngi ) ng sng bung th.

(MT2) nu c x th c y v khng c th y. Vy th: phi khng c x = khng th x.

Tc l: ((x ( y) ( ~c th y) ( (phi ~ x)/(khng th x)

V d: B i ht th ny th ai gip ti lm bp? Ba nay rt ng khch, cn c ngi gip ti lm bp. Do vy, khng th b i ht nh vy c.

Trong ngn ng t nhin, loi cu nhn qu Nu x th y,V x nn y c th c hiu x ng thi l iu kin ca y (x ( y) ng thi l iu kin cn ca y (~x ( ~y) [ND, 1996, 238]. l khi hiu x l iu kin duy nht ca y th s c php suy lun c th:

(MV) ((x ( y) ( ~x) ( ~y

(nu c x th c y v khng c x. Vy th: khng c y)

V d: Bao gi cho chui c cnh/ Cho sung c n cho hnh c hoa/ Con chim bay vt qua nh/ M bit c, ci th ta ly mnh. (Ca dao). Khng c chuyn chui c cnh, sung c n Do vy, chng bao gi c chuyn ta ly mnh!

(MV1) Nu c x th c y v khng mun x. Vy th ng y/ khng nn y. Tc l: ((x ( y) ( ~mun x) ( ng y/ khng nn y.

(nu c x th c y v khng mun x. Vy th: ng y). V d: Mun mt vn th mi dnh vo ma tu. Con mun thnh t, ng khng? Vy ng c di m dnh vo ma tu.

(HS) Hypothetical Syllogism: ((x ( y) ( (y ( z)) ( (x ( z)

2.1.3.2. Phng php khi qut xc nh hm trong cu ghp c t th

Hm ca nhng cu ghp, th gi chc nng lin t, hu nh u c th c xc nh theo mt phng php khi qut. y l nhng hm ngn ng v chng c lp vi ng cnh. Chnh s suy lun MT, MT1, MT2, MV, HS l c s lgic cho nhng li ni c hm v cho cc hnh vi ngn ng gin tip nh th bi, khuyn can, cnh bo, e do, cm on, khng nh (x. [ND, 1990, 10])

Nu mt hnh vi ti li A dn ti mt hnh vi ti li khc l B th ta ni hnh vi A c HVNN gin tip l B, hay B l HVNN gin tip ca A. Theo ngha ny, nhng cu trn y ni ring v tt c nhng cu no c hm th hin mt hnh vi u l nhng cu c HVNN gin tip.

Trc ht, chng ta nhc li rng trong cu ghp Nu x th y, c th rt gn t nu. Do vy, nhiu cu ghp vng lin t nu nhng vn biu hin quan h lgic x ( y. Chng hn, C x th mi y. Vn c th vn dng nhng cng thc nu mc trn xc nh hm cho nhng cu loi ny.

Chng ta minh ho phng php xc nh hm ny qua mt s v d.

(1) Ti m ni di th ti lm con cho anh.

Bc 1: (1) ( (1b) Nu ti ni di th ti lm con cho anh.

Cu cho c cu trc nu x th y, tc l: x ( y.

y, x = ti ni di; y = ti lm con cho anh.

Bc 2: Trong thc t ti khng phi l con anh (v thng thng, ai cng c s din, khng mun lm con ci, ti t ngi khc). Ni khc i, y l mt iu sai. Tc l ta khng c y, hay l c ~ y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~y), ta c:

(x ( y) ( (~y)

Vy l hi hai tin ca php suy lun MT. Do suy ra kt ~ x = Ti khng ni di. y l hm ca cu (1).

Tip tc p dng thao tc 3 bc trn y xc nh hm ca cc cu (2) (4):

(2) Th ht ra th cn mt mi no.

Bc 1: (2) ( Nu th ht ra th cn mt mi no.

Cu cho c cu trc nu x th y, tc l: x ( y

y, x = th ht ra; y = cn mt mi no.

M y = cn mt mi no l mt cu cht vn. Cht vn bc b [ND, 1987, 291]. Vy y = (chng ta) khng cn mt mi no = chng ta s mt th din.

Bc 2: Trong thc t khng ai mun mt th din. Tc l khng mun y = ~mun y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~mun y), ta c: (x ( y) ( (~mun y).

Vy l hi hai tin ca php suy lun MT1. Do suy ra kt ng x / khng nn x. Tc l li khuyn khng nn th ht ra.

(3) Khng nghe li ta th ri s bit tay ta. (CCPSTV)

Bc 1: (3) ( Nu khng nghe li ta th ngi s bit tay ta.

Cu cho c cu trc nu x th y, tc l: x ( y.

y, x = khng nghe li ta; y = ngi s bit tay ta. D chp nhn rng, ngi s bit tay ta l mt li e do, i nh ta s lm ngi khn kh, iu ng Vy y = ngi s b khn kh, iu ng.

Bc 2: Trong thc t khng ai mun b khn kh, iu ng. Tc l ~mun y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~ mun y), ta c: (x ( y) ( (~ mun y).

Vy l hi hai tin ca php suy lun MT1. Do , suy ra kt ng x, tc l: ng khng nghe li ta.

Nu hiu mun y dn n khng th xy ra y bng mi cch, th bc 2 c ngha l khng th y. l tin th hai ca php suy lun MT2. Lc ny, kt s l khng th x, tc l khng th khng nghe li ta. Ni cch khc, hm ca cu l mt mnh lnh: phi nghe li ta.

Trong nhng bc trn, vic xc nh ng bn cht ca cu trc cu c nu (bc 1) c bit quan trng. Bc 2 l bc trong thc t khng nn, khng th nh vy, nh vy l sai lm cu ni i ti tin th hai ca cc php suy lun MT. lm r iu ny, chng ta xt thm v d:

(4) My m thi trt i hc th ng c trch.

Bc 1: (4) ( (4b) Nu my thi trt i hc th my ng c trch.

D chp nhn rng, my ng c trch l mt li e do, i nh ta s thc hin mt iu z khng tt i vi my, lm my khn kh, nh n chng hn. Do vy:

(4) ( (4b) ( Nu my thi trt th ta s nh n.

Vy cu cho c cu trc nu x th y, tc l: x ( y. :

x = my thi trt i hc; y = ta s nh n.

Bc 2: Trong thc t khng ai mun b khn kh, khng ai mun b nh n. Tc l: ~ mun y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~ mun y), ta c: (x ( y) ( (~ mun y)

Theo lut MT1, s suy ra ng x, hay l my ng thi trt.

Cn nh bc 2, t khng ai mun b nh n dn ti quan nim khng th b nh n, tc l ~ th ( b) y. Lc ny, p dng lut suy din MT2, chng ta s suy ra hm my phi khng thi trt i hc. Tc l my phi thi u i hc..

(4b) Nu b hi c gio m khng phi vy th con ng c trch!

V u Nu b hi c gio m khng phi vy c rt gn thnh Nu khng phi vy, hay l Nu con ni di. Do vy (4b) ( Nu con ni di th ng c trch!. Ti y, d dng suy ra hm ca cu trn l con khng c ni di.

Theo cch lm trn, chng ta d dng suy ra hm ca mt cu.

Cu C th ny th c m i n my. (i tha, NC) c hm l mt li vn ng, t nhc nh: khng th nh th ny mi c. Cu Nu mnh l cu th mnh s ci c y. c hm l li khuyn cu nn ci c y.. Cu Nu c ta l ngi mu th my thnh hoa hu mt. c hm l mt li nh gi: C ta khng th l ngi mu c.

2.1.3.3. Vi lu

(1) Qu trnh ti hin hp l mt cu thnh cu trc nhn qu c tm quan trng c bit. C vy mi c th suy ra hm mt cch ng n. V d:

(5) Theo ch, em cng ghen v li nh th th chng cng chn em. M cng chn em th n cng c l do i vi b.

Cu trn l hi ca hai cu nhn qu sau: (Theo ch,) [Nu] em cng ghen v li nh th th chng cng chn em. [V, nu m] [chng em] cng chn em th n cng c l do i vi b.. Cu trc ca chui trn l: (x ( y) & (y ( z). y l hai tin ca php suy lun HS. Theo , suy ra kt (x ( z), tc l: Nu em cng ghen v li nh th th chng em cng c l do i vi b. Khng mt ph n bnh thng no mun chng mnh c b. Theo 3 bc trnh by v dng php suy lun MT, d dng suy ra hm ca (5) l Em ng ghen v li nh th.

2) S suy lun MV l c s lgic cho nhng li ni ly iu kin lm iu kin cn to hm . Phng php xc nh hm ca nhng cu trn vn theo 3 bc nu. Lu rng trong nhng trng hp ny, bc 2 s l trong thc t s khng xy ra x.

V d: Bao gi ht c, nc Nam mi ht ngi nh Ty (NC).

3) C nhng s (= khun) ngn ng to ra mt loi hm xc nh. V d:

(I) C A khng th bo?

y l li e do vi hm buc ngi nghe phi thc hin A.

(II) Phi A th mi B.

Cu trc trn cha t tnh thi phi nn cng l cu trc nhn qu v A biu hin iu kin cn. S ny lun c hm nu khng c A l khng c B.

(IIIA) A (m) khng x th cn ai x?

(IIIB) A (m) x th cn ai khng x?

(III) l nhng khun ngn ng ca cu nhn qu cha yu t phim nh.

Chng cng l nhng cu trc rt gn t nhng cu nu th. V d:

(7)a. N khng hiu th cn ai hiu?

(8)a. N hiu th cn ai khng hiu?

(7)a ( (7)b. Nu n khng hiu th cn ai hiu?

(8)a ( (8)b. Nu n hiu th cn ai khng hiu?

Hai cu trn y l m h:

a) Chng l nhng cu hi thc s.

b) Chng l nhng cu bc b.

Cch hiu theo ngha (b) ca chng c hnh thnh theo phng php cht vn bc b. Vi cu (7b) l: cn ai (ngoi n) hiu? Cht vn ph nh. M ph nh yu t phim nh l ph nh tt c. Vy mi ngi u khng hiu. Th l cu (7b), cng l (7a), c hiu nh sau: Nu n khng hiu th mi ngi u cng khng hiu. T y suy ra hm : N l ngi xp cao nht trong thang hiu (mt vn no ).

Hon ton tng t, cu (8a) c hiu nh sau: Nu n hiu th mi ngi cng u hiu. T y suy ra hm : N l ngi xp thp nht trong thang hiu (mt vn no ).

Khi qut: Hm ca (IIIA), (IIIB) c hnh thnh theo phng php cht vn yu t phim nh bc b. V bc b yu t phim nh l bc b tuyt i. Chng ta c hai s hm sau:

Cu (IIIA) A (m) khng x th cn ai x? (hoc A (m) khng x th cn B no x?) l li khng nh A c thuc tnh x vi hm :

(IIIA) A rt x / A l x nht

Cu (IIIB) A (m) x th cn ai khng x? hoc A (m) x th cn B no khng x? l li khng nh A khng c thuc tnh x vi hm :

(IIIB) A rt khng x / A l khng x nht

Gi l s hm v nhng hm ny c lp vi i A v v t x. Trong hai cu (III), thay A bng mt i tng c th bt k (ngi, vt, vt) v x bng mt thc t bt k tng thch vi A, th s c hm tng ng nh miu t trong s hm (III).

V d:

Nu A = Minh, x = gii th cu (IIIA) c hm Minh rt gii, cn cu (IIIB) c hm Minh rt khng gii = Minh rt km.

Nu A = Hiu, x = kiu ngo th cu (IIIA) c hm Hiu rt kiu ngo, cn cu (IIIB) c hm Hiu rt khng kiu ngo = Hiu rt khim tn.

Nu A = cuc hi tho ny, x = n tng th cu (IIIA) c hm cuc hi tho ny rt n tng, cn cu (IIIB) c hm cuc hi tho ny rt khng n tng (( rt chn / rt lm cm).

Nu A = vng ny, x = tiu iu x xc th cu (IIIA) c hm vng ny rt tiu iu x xc, cn cu (IIIB) c hm vng ny khng h tiu iu x xc.

Lu : C nhng t ng lm cho cu trc trn, ngoi hm nu cn c th hiu theo mt hm khc na. Chng hn, vi x = bit th A bit th cn ai khng bit? cn c th c hm A l ngi khng kn o, hay l chuyn.

(4) Trong phng php xc nh hm trn y, bc th hai c th c nu r ngay trong ng cnh ca cu. V d:

(9) Ly anh em bit n g (/Lc sn th cht, lc si th gi) (Ca dao)

Bc 1: Ly anh em bit n g ( Nu em ly anh th em bit n g?

Nh vy, cu (9) c cu trc nu x th y, tc l: x ( y. x = em ly anh; y = em bit n g?

Bc 2: Cht vn bc b, vy y = em bit n g? ( em khng bit n g ( em khng c g n. iu ny c gii thch ngay trong cu tip theo: Lc sn th cht, lc si th gi.. M ai cng phi n sng, nn em khng th khng n = ~ c th y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~c th y), ta c: (x ( y) ( (~ c th y).

Theo lut suy din MT2, s suy ra khng th x, tc l em khng th ly anh. l hm ca cu trn.

(5) Ngoi nhng s suy lun MT, MT1, MT2, MV, HS, hm cn c th c xc nh theo s suy lun MP, tin lin quan n nhng l l i thng khc. Chng hn, hm v li khuyn thng lin quan n l l nn lm ging nhng ngi khc. V d: R th r tht nhng gi l ti th ti chng mua u. (MCX). V sau ca cu ny c cu trc x ( y (gi l ti th ti khng mua). Li khuyn thng da trn l l anh nn lm nh ti. Tc l: anh ( ti = x. Theo s MP, suy ra hm ca cu trn l li khuyn anh cng chng nn mua.

2.1.3.4. T th trong mt cu trc khc

2.1.3.4.1. Hin tng chp cu trc trong chui cu nhn qu

Trong [ND, 1976] chng ti nu hin tng c gi l s k d lgic. l nhng cu c cu trc nu A th B, nh:

(1) Nu anh kht th trong t lnh c nc y.

(2) Nu anh thch chi bng bn th c vt v bng y.

Nhng cu trn y khng phn nh trc tip quan h nhn qu. Tht vy, kht khng phi l iu kin ca trong t lnh c nc, thch chi bng bn khng phi l iu kin ca c vt v bng y. Hn na, nu l cu trc nhn qu th mnh thun nu A th B phi tng ng vi mnh phn o nu khng B th khng A. Nhng r rng (1) khng tng ng vi Nu trong t lnh khng c nc th anh khng kht. V (2) cng khng tng ng vi Nu khng c vt v bng th anh khng thch chi bng bn.

Bn cht ca hin tng ny l nhng cu (1) v (2) phn nh hin tng rt gn phn kt qu trong mt chui hai cu trc nhn qu, phn kt qu trong cu th nht li trng vi phn kt qu trong cu th hai khi nhng quan h nhn qu ny l hin nhin:

Nu kht th ung nc v nu trong t lnh c nc th ung nc (y) ( Nu kht th trong t lnh c nc [y].

Tng t: Nu anh thch chi bng bn th anh c th chi bng bn. V c vt v bng nn anh c th chi bng bn. ( (2)

2.1.3.4.2. T "th" trong cu trc phc hp m v u l mt du hiu nghch nhn qu d, du, du, ngay c: D A th vn/cng B, Ngay c A th cng /vn B Nhng cu trc ny lun lun da trn l thng Nu A th khng B. C th coi nhng l thng ny l hm ca loi cu trn. V d: H lm chng ti hiu rng, ngay c trn nhng cnh ng hoang liu nht th chng ti vn b rng buc bng hng vn lut l. (CBT). L thng cu trn: Trn nhng cnh ng hoang liu nht th ngi ta khng b lut l no rng buc.

2.1.3.5. Hm trong nhng cu ghp c t th

Theo phng php trnh by mc trn, chng ta d dng xc nh c nhng hm ngn ng - nhng hnh vi ngn ng gin tip (HVGT) trong nhng cu c cu trc [Nu] A th B di y. Khi dng cc quy tc MT suy ra hm th hm u l s ph nh tin A, khi dng cc quy tc MP, HS, MV suy ra hm th hm u l s ph nh kt B. S ph nh ny c th hin trc tip qua cc t khng, chng, ch hoc th hin di dng tnh thi ng, ch, khng nn, khng th Nh vy, ch cn xc nh ng tin A hoc kt B v em ph nh n l s c hm gc ca cu. T hm gc suy ra hm thch hp trong ng cnh.

V d 1: Ly ng b, chng con c bit ci v tin ca ng mt ngang mi dc th no th chng con c cht mt i cha ba i con! (MCV).

Tin ca cu ny l chng con c bit ci v tin ca ng mt ngang mi dc th no. Ph nh n ta c hm gc: chng con khng c bit ci v tin ca ng mt ngang mi dc th no. Ly v tin tt bit v tin. Khng bit v tin suy ra (hm l) khng ly v tin.

V d 2: H m bt gp anh th s git anh. (Rm v Giulit).

Tin ca cu trn l H bt gp anh. Thng thng, khng ai mun b git. Suy ra hm gc l tin b ph nh di dng tnh thi Anh ng h bt gp. Ng cnh khin cu c hm l li khuyn Anh nn v i.

Mt s hm (HVGT) nh:

HVGT l li th, li cam kt:

Ti m ly ca b th ti khng phi l ngi; Anh m yu ai khc ngoi em th anh khng cn l thng n ng

HVGT l li khuyn:

Nu ngi khng ra tranh c th cn ai na? (GT); Lm th th bi gio trt tru vo mt tao ?

HVGT l li cm on, e do:

Con m ly n th ng bao gi v nh ny na; Ai nui cng sn th coi ! [ng cnh cho bit: = mt ngi b bn cht] (RXN)

HVGT l li nhn nh, nh gi:

C y m thng anh th tri sa xung t; Nu v chng n hnh phc th tun trc n khng phi n nh mnh tm; Khng phi con lm v th n t v ?

HVGT l li khng nh:

Nh chu m khng n th n nh ai! (Li Bc H, TT Xun Mu T, tr.3) Nhng nu khng phi l hoa bi, th cn th hoa no m n l cng thm? (PTTN); Nhng chng tin vo ba th cn bit lm g na (CBT)

HVGT l li cnh bo:

Lm vy [th] anh s b ngi t 10 nm y.; Anh lm th my hng th b m!

HVGT l li ngh, yu cu:

Nu cu khng gip mnh chuyn ny th ng coi mnh l bn na.;Ai cng ly c m yu m khng i th ngi ta bng cho ch xem ? (NCH)

HVGT l li t chi:

[B lo thnh cu, thnh thong xin c ln thm chu. Bo Ph Th p:] B mun chi vi n th em ngay n v nh, tm cm cho n n, b chu chi vi nhau vi ba thng cho tht chn i, ri hy bo n ln. (NC)

2.1.3.6. Cu ghp vng t "th"

2.1.3.6.1. Cu trc o. Nu A th B tng ng vi B nu A.

Cht lng s khng m bo nu i hc t c m mt cch tu tin; iu g s xy ra nu anh ta tr thnh gim c tng cng ty ny?

2.1.3.6.2. Nhng cu trc o vng t th ny vn c th hnh thnh hm . Phng php xc nh hm ny vn c thc hin theo 3 bc nu. V d: (Gio dc, k c gio dc i hc l mt trong nhng cng c m bo cho s bnh ng v s cng bng cho mi cng dn trong mt x hi, []) Ai bo m c quyn cho h nu khng phi l nh nc? (SGTT, 21/01/08)

Bc 1: Cu trn y tng ng vi Nu khng phi l nh nc th ai bo m c quyn cho h? nn c cu trc x ( y, vi x = khng phi l nh nc; y = ai bo m c quyn cho h?

Bc 2: ai bo m c quyn cho h? l cu cht vn nn to ra hm bc b: Khng ai bo m c quyn cho h. Tc l c ~y.

Bc 3: Kt hp kt qu ca hai bc trn, ta c hai tin ca php suy lun MT: x ( y ( (~ y).

Vy suy ra: ~x, tc l phi l nh nc (bo m quyn li cho h)

2.1.3.6.3. Qun ng

Th bo hiu mt kt qu. Th ra n lc cng, lo cng c th lm liu nh ai ht. (NC); Th y mua c nm xu. (NC)

Mt trng hp c bit: c th vng c hai lin t trong cu trc nhn qu. Lc , chng tr thnh qun ng.

V d: Bit cht lin; Hiu cht lin, Ni cht lin Dng y ca nhng cu ny l Nu bit th cht lin; Nu hiu th cht lin, Nu ni th cht lin Vn theo phng php 3 bc trnh by, chng ta suy ra ngay c hm ca nhng qun ng trn: Khng th bit c; Khng th hiu c; Khng th ni c.

2.2. T th lin kt hai lt li

2.2.1. Cu trc nu A th B xut hin lt li th hai trong cp thoi

Lt li th nht lm thnh ng cnh cho lt li th hai. Theo phng php trnh by, chng ta d dng xc nh c hm ca lt li th hai thch hp vi ng cnh. V d:

(1) - Con phi n to son. B m cho php ch ?

Khng cho th con nh chc? (PVTV, tp 10) (( cho php min cng)

(2) - Con gi ng hiu trng th no?

- Nu cu nhn thy n chc cu chy mt dp thi. (( con gi ng hiu trng rt xu)

(3) - Ch ny xe c khng?

- Mun np tin pht th y. (( ch ny khng xe c)

2.2.2. Nhng hm ng dng

C hng lot cch th hin hm qua nhng cu biu hin quan h nhn qu. Chng lin quan ti l l x ( y. Nu ch ra l l mt cch thuyt phc th chng ta chng minh c HVGT . Trong mt cp thoi, t lt li th nht, ngi ni lt li th hai a ra pht ngn kiu nu A th B to ra hm hnh thnh nhng HVGT nh chp nhn, bc b, t chi, thanh minh, gii thch, ng tnh, ch bai, ni lng l

Mt s v d:

2.2.2.1. Hnh vi bc b

(1) ng ny i Hi Phng phi khng?

(1b) ng mun sang Trung Quc th i ng ny.

Bc 1: (1b) ( Nu ng mun sang Trung Quc th ng i ng ny.

Cu tr li c cu trc x ( y, x = ng mun sang Trung Quc,

y = ng i ng ny.

Bc 2: Ngi hi mun i Hi Phng ( Ngi hi khng mun sang Trung Quc ( ~ x

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~ x),

ta c: (x ( y) ( (~ x)

Theo lut suy lun MV, suy ra hm gc khng (nn) y, tc l ng khng (nn) i ng ny. Suy ra ng ny khng i Hi Phng.

(2) A: Gim c khng ng u.

B: Nu gim c khng ng th cn bo mnh np l lch lm g?

Bc 1: cn bo mnh np l lch lm g? l mt cu cht vn. N to ra hm bc b. Do vy, (2B) ( Nu gim c khng ng th gim c khng bo mnh np l lch. Cu ny c cu trc x ( y, x = gim c khng ng , y = Gim c khng bo mnh np l lch.

Bc 2: Trong thc t, gim c bo mnh np l lch. (iu ny l Tin gi nh ca cu cht vn cn bo mnh np l lch lm g). Vy ta c ~y.

Bc 3: Kt hp nhng iu ta c t bc 1 (x ( y) v bc 2 (~y),

ta c: (x ( y) ( (~ y)

Vy theo suy lun MT s suy ra ~x. Tc l li p ca B c hm v l mt HVGT bc b li ca A: gim c ng .

Khi qut: Cu tr li ca B theo phng thc cht vn kt lun y bc b tin x ca quan h ko theo x ( y. M Khng/Chng x th l g? l mt cu nhn qu nu khng l x th l g?.

Nh vy: Cu trc cht vn theo s Khng/Chng x th l g kia? lun lun c hm l s khng nh x.

2.2.2.2. Hnh vi bc b khng nh

(3) A1: Nh cu b th qu nh.

B: Do i, cu c a, ch l ci lu che ma che nng thi.

A2: i, nu y l ci lu th nh th no mi gi l bit th kia ch?

2.2.2.3. Hnh vi gii thch

(4a) Sao anh li ra nng ni ny?

(4b) Nu khng c ci thng cht tit y th ti u c th ny. (( Ti ci thng cht tit y.)

2.2.2.4. Hnh vi khuyn

(5) Nu l con th con s khng gi tin vo ngn hng.

C s ca li khuyn ny da trn l l v c nhn: Nu ti lm nh vy th ngi i thoi cng nn lm nh vy. Tc l: G(x) ( G(y), m G(x). Vy theo lut suy lun MP, suy ra hm G(y): B/M khng nn gi tin vo ngn hng.

C nhng hm lin quan ti php tuyn. Nhng thc cht ch l nhng hm do php ko theo gy ra. V cng thc (x ( y) = ((~x) ( y) cho php ta chuyn mt phn on tuyn thnh mt phn on