CIRCULATORY SYSTEM HAEMATOLOGY1. Plasma makes 55% of blood volume2. Each RBC contains 270,000,000 Hemoglobin molecules.3. Optimum amount of Hb in male is 16 gm / 100 ml and in female it is 13-14 gm /

100 ml.4. Haemocrit value - It is the percentage of blood sample volume made

up of RBC.5. Life span of RBC - 120 days.6. Life span of RBC in the transfused blood - 60 days.7. Life span of foetal RBC - 180 days.8. Bilurubin is the breakdown product of RBC.9. Time taken for completing Erythropoiesis is 72 hours10. White blood corpuscles

Neutrophils 70%Eosinophils 3 – 8%Basophils 0.5% large granules presentLymphocytes 20 – 30%Monocytes 1% Largest leucocyte

11. Life span of Platelets is 9 – 10 days.12. Blood plasma contains 500 proteins.13. Biological signature is the Antigens ( A and B ) present on the surface of RBC.14. Foetal hemopoiesis occurs in the blood islands of Yol sac, Liver, Speen and

Bone marrow.15. H Antigen is the precursor of A and B antigens.16. Thromboplatin is released from Platelets.

17. ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE – ESRRate of settlement of RBC High ESR indicates infections like TB.Normal ESR is 3-5 mm / Hr in male and 7-12mm / Hr in female.Wintrobe tube is used to measure ESR.ESR above 20mm / Hr. is an indication of infection.

18. ANTI COAGULANTSHeparin, Sodium oxalate, Sodium citrate, EDTA.

19. Von Willebrand disease is a bleeding disorder.

20. DISORDERS RELATED TO BLOOD CELLS

Polycythemia High RBC countAnemia Low RBC or Hb countMicrocytic anemia Due to lack of IronMegaloblatic anemia Due to lack of Folic acid and Pernicious anemia Due to lack of Cyanocobalamin – Vit. B12.Aplastic anemia Due to destruction of Bone marrow.Lecopenia Low WBC count due to deficiency of Folic acid.Leukemia High WBC count.Eosinophilia High Eosinophil count – above 12%.

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Septicemia Blood poisoning due to the toxins from microbes.

21. RED CELL INDICES It is the measure of the size and Hb content of RBC.22. TRANSFERRIN It is the plasma protein transporting Iron.23. TRANSCOBALAMIN It is the plasma protein that transports Vit.B12.24. HAPTOGLOBINS It is the transport substance of Hbptoducts

They protects cells from the destroyed RBC products.

25. CYANMETHOGLOBIN Stable derivative of Hb. It is used to test theHb. Concentration.

26. HIRUDIN Anticoagulant from the salivary glands of leech.27. HIRUDIN An artificial anticoagulant produced from plant

by genetic engineering.28. NATURAL ANTICOAGULANTS

Heparin From liverPlasmin From tissues.

29. ARTIFICIAL ANTICOAGULANTSUsed for preventing blood clotting during storage or during experiments.Sodium oxalate, Sodium citrate, Potassium citrate, Potassium oxalate,EDTA etc are used.

30. MENADIONEIt is the synthetic Vit. K used to prevent bleeding after the surgery. Heparin is used during the surgery to prevent blood clotting.

31. Chilling also prevent blood clotting in test tubes and blood bags.32. Life span of RBC is limited because of the absence of Nucleus.33. Hemoglobin makes about 95% of RBC.34. Eosinophil is the motile phagocytic cell.35. Eosinophils make about 3% of total WBC.36. Non granular or Mononucleic lecocytes are Lymphocytes and Monocytes.37. Lymphocytes contain non specific Azurophilic granules.38. Blood of Man and Primates is related due to the presence of Antigens and

Antibodies.39. Perflurocarbon is used to make artificial blood.40. Artificial blood has no antigens so it will not cause agglutination in the

recipients body.41. Myloma is the cancer of Plasma cells. Plasma cells are a kind of WBC found

in tissues.42. Haemorrhagic anemia is due to excessive bleeding.43. Hemolytic anemia is due to rupture of RBC.44. Nutritional anemia results from malnutrition.45. ABNORMAL RBCs.

Acanthocytes, Echinocytes ( Burr cells ), Codocytes ( Target cells ), Schizocytes ( Spur cells ), Stomocytes, Spherostomocytes.

46. ROULEAU FORMATIONIt is the abnormal arrangement of RBC. RBC arrange like coins in a stack.

47. Total blood volume is measured using radio active Chromium.48. ERYTHROPOETIN

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Hormone produced from the kidney that stimulate Erythropoiesis.49. Lipemia or excess fat leads to Greyish greesy plasma.50. Ghost cells are the remnants of RBC without Hb. It contains only the

membrane. RBC Ghosts are used to study the structure of Plasma membrane.51. Diapedesis is the squeezing of WBC through the blood capillaries. It is similar

to amoeboid movement.52. Null cells are the lymphocytes present in the Lymphoid organs. They have

cytotoxic properties. They do not have surface markers. Null cells are called as Natural Killer cells. They destroy infected and tumour cells.

53. Hemostasis is the decrease in platelet count. It is characterized by Purpura ( haemorrhage under the skin and mucous membrane ) .

54. Antarctic fish is the only animal with White blood.55. Blood worm or Chironomous larva is the only insect with Red blood.56. Buffer of blood is NaHCO3 – Sodium carbonate.57. The ratio of RBC to WBC is 600:158. BLOOD GROUPS

Rh factor was discovered by Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940.If a man is Rh positive and mother is Rh negative, the first child will survive.The Rh factor will detect in the Foetal blood from the 10th week.Anti-A and Anti-B appear in the Foetal blood about 4-8 months after birth. Those present at the time of birth are that of the mother

HEART1. Lung fish has two auricles and one ventricle.2. Crocodile, Alligator and Gravialis have four chambered heart.3. Heart of fish is venous heart because it receives deoxygenated blood.4. Nereis and Amphioxus do not have heart.5. Heart of Prawn contains oxygenated blood.6. Average weight of human heart is – Male 300 g and Female 250 g.7. Excess Calcium increases heart rate.8. Papillary muscles are found in Mammalian heart.9. Keber’s organ or Pericardial gland is found in Freshwater Mussel. It

discharge excretory materials to the Pericardial cavity.10. Blue whale has the largest heart in the animal kingdom.11. Tread Mill Test or TMT is used to check the efficiency of Heart.12. CARDIAC INDEX is the minute volume per square meter of body surface

area. Its normal volume is 3.3 lit / min / sq.m.13. Heart is the busiest organ in the body.14. Atrioventricular groove or Coronary Sulcus and Interventricular groove are

present on the surface of Heart.15. Sinus Venosus is completely merged with Right auricle in Mammals.16. Right auricle receives Superior venacava, Inferior venacava and Coronory

sinus.17. Valve of Thebesius is present at the opening of Coronary sinus.18. Tricuspid valve is present between Right Auricle and Right Ventricle.

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19. Chordae tendinae are White fibrous threads extending from Bicuspid , Tricuspid valves and to the Papillary muscles of Ventricle.

20. Left ventricle is thicker than Right ventricle to push blood forcefully.21. Heart wall has 3 layers

Outer Epicardium MembraneousMiddle Myocardium MuscularInner Endocardium Membraneous

22. CARDIAC CYCLEAtrial systole 0.18 secondsAtrial diastole 0.08 secondsVentricular systole 0.3 secondsVentricular diastole 0.32 secondsJoint diastole – all chambersin diastole 0.4 seconds

23. Cardiac cycle is completed in 0.88 second.24. Lubb sound is produced when AV valve closes during the Ventricular Systole.

It is the first sound low pitched and long duration ( 0.15 seconds ). Its frequency is 25-45 Hz.

25. Dupp sound is produced when Semilunar valve closes at the start of relaxation of Ventricles. It is the second sound with high pitch and short duration ( 0.12 seconds ). Its frequency is 50 Hz.

26. Pulse Pressure is the difference between Systolic and Diastolic pressures. Its normal value is 40 mm.Hg.

27. Normal heart beat at rest is 70-72 /minute in man and 80 / minute in women and children.

28. Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped in to the Aorta per minute. It is 5 litres.

29. SA node is the first to originate heart beat. It determines the rate of Heart beat.

30. SA node has the highest rate of Autorhythemicity.31. AV node is the Pace Setter of Heart. It conducts impulse from SA node.32. Bradycardia is the slowing of heart rate – below 60 / min.33. Tachycardia is the increase in heart rate - above 72 / min.34. Heart rate is accelerated by Sympathetic system and Adrelalin.35. Mouse has the highest heart rate.36. Bicuspid valve is called Mitral valve. It is present between Left Auricle and

Left Ventricle.37. Origin of heart beat and conduction – SA node …… AV node ---- Bundle of

His …. Purkinje fibres …. Ventricle wall.38. Elephant has the largest heart.39. Pericardium has two layers. Outer Parietal ( Fibrous ) and inner Visceral

( Serous ).

40. CARDIAC MUSCLESmaller in diameter – 15 micronsFormed of individual muscle cells. Intercalated discs present between the cardiac muscle cells conduct impulses.Contains Large number of Mitochondria.Do not fatigue because it is incapable of Oxygen debt.

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41. Fossa ovalis is the depression present in the inter auricular septum. It is the remnant of the embryonic Foramen Ovale.

42. Moderator band is the thick muscle bundle extending between the inter ventricular septum and ventricular wall.

43. Left ventricle is three times thicker than Right ventricle.44. Eustachian valve is present at the opening of Inferior venacava.45. Thesbian valve is present at the opening of Coronary sinus. 46. The cusps of Bicuspid and Tricuspid valves are formed by the folding of

Endocardium.47. When heart valves break down in older persons and inactive persons, blood

pool in the vein of legs leading to Vericose vein.48. Mechanical heart valves are made up of plastic or metal. Regular use of

Anticoagulants is necessary to prevent blood clotting if the mechanical valve is transplanted.

49. Bio-prosthetic valve is artificial valve taken from animals like Pig.50. Semi lunar valves are present at the opening of Arteries in the heart.51. Stenosis is the condition in which the heart valve narrows and open

incompletely.52. Mycardium is supported by White Fibrous tissue. It forms the cardiac

skeleton.53. AV node can act as Pace maker in diseased heart but rate of impulse

formation is low – 40-50- / min.54. FRANK – STARLING LAW

States that the more the heart muscle is stretched, the greater will be the quantity of blood pumped in to the aorta.

55. Cardiomegaly is the enlargement of Heart.56. Nervous regulation of heart beat

Sympathetic Aceelerate heart beatParasympathetic through Vagus nerve - reduces heart rate.by producing Acetylcholine.

57. Hormonal regulation of heart beat.Thyroxine Increases heart beat.Epinephrine Increases heart rate in emergencyNor Epinephrine Increases heart rate in normal situations

58. Pulse rate increases when there is excitement.59. Acetylcholine hyper polarize the SA node and slows down impulse

formation. It leads to Bradycardia or slow heart beat.60. Heart rate is related to the size of animal and metabolism. Small animals have

high metabolism and hence high heart rate. Larger animals have low metabolic rate and hence low heart rate. Eg. Heart rate of Rat- 300 times / min. Elephant – 25 times / min.

61. Tachycardia is produced byIncrease in BP in Vena cavaHigh blood CO2 contentDecrease in O2 and low pHHigh body temperature

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Decrease of Thyroxine and Increase in AdrelalinStimulation of pain receptors

62. Bradycardia is produced byIncrease in BP in AortaLow CO2 content in bloodHigh O2 content and High pHDecrease in core body temperatureIncrease in Thyroxine and Decrease in Adranalin

63. ISOMETRIC PHASE First phase of cardiac cycle when all valves are closed and atria and

ventricles are relaxed.63. ECG

Waller in 1887 recorded first ECG. Einthoven is considered as the Father of ElectrocardiographyECG is represented by 5 waves – PQRST.P De polarisation of Atria. Actvation of SA nodeQRS De polarization of VentriclesPQ Atrial contractionQR Spread of excitation from SA node to AV nodeRS Spread of excitation from AV node to Purkinje systemT Repolarisation of Ventricles

R It has the largest Amplitude.

64. MAREY’S LAWShows the inversion relationship between rate of heart

beat and Blood pressure.

65. CARDIAC OUTPUT Stroke volume X Heart rate. 70 ml X 72 / min = 5040 ml/min

That is 5L per minute.CIRCULATION

1. William Harvey described circulation in animals.2. Angiology is the study of blood vessels.3. Double circulation is present in Lung fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles and Man.

4. PORTAL SYSTEMHepatic portal vein is formed of Gastric, Intestinal and Splenic veins. Hepatic portal system starts from the alimentary canal and opens into Post caval vein after receiving blood from liver and then to heart. It is present in all vertebrates. Posterior mesenteric, Anterior mesenteric, Duodenal and Lineogastric join

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to form the hepatic portal vein in vertebrates. Functions – 1. removal of nutrients. 2. Deamination of extra amino acids and conversion of ammonia to urea. 3. Detoxification of chemicals 4. Transfer of liver products to the blood.Renal portal system.Starts from the posterior part of the body and opens into the Kidney. It is well developed in Fishes and Amphibians. Reduced in Reptiles and Birds. Absent in Mammals.Hypophysial portal systemHypophysial vein collects blood from the Hypothalamus to the Anterior lobe of Pituitary. It is the Minor Portal system present in Higher vertebrates.

5. Systemic circulation is called Greater circulation.6. Pulmonary circulation is called Lesser circulation.7. Lowest level of Glucose is present in Hepatic Portal Vein.8. Highest level of Amino acids is present in Hepatic Portal Vein.9. Highest level of Urea is present in Hepatic vein .10. Lowest level of Urea is present in Renal Portal Vein.11. Vasa Vasorum is the blood vessel supplying blood to the blood vessels.12. Double circulation is present in Lung fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and in

Man where Arteriovenous heart is present.13. Trunchus Arteriosus divides into Systemic and Pulmonary arches in

Mammals.14. Pulmonary artery is the only artery carrying deoxygenated blood.15. SPLEEN

It is the Grave yard of RBC. It filters dead RBC. Spleen is the largest lymph gland. Spleen is formed of Red pulp ( Reticular tissue rich in RBC ) having small patches of White pulp ( Lymphatic nodules ). Spleen is surrounded by a White fibrous capsule. Functions of Spleen1. Filteration of dead RBC and Storage of RBC.2. Formation of Agranulocytes.3. Production of Antibodies.4. Storage of Iron.5. In embryo Spleen produces RBC.6. Disposal of foreigh bodies by Macrophages.

16. FOETAL CIRCULATION

3 major vascular shunts are present in foetus. These are Ductus venosus, Foramen ovale and Ductus arteriosus. If the shunts persists after birth, mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood occurs in the heart leading to Blue Baby.

17. Coronary artery is the smallest artery.18. Coronary veins collect blood from the wall of heart and opens into Right

Atrium.

19. Important ArteriesPulmonary To lungsCoronary To Heart

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Subclavian ForelimbsCarotid Head and BrainPhrenic DiaphragmHepatic LiverLienogastric Stomach and SpleenRenal KidneyIliac Hind limbs

20. Important VeinsJugular From HeadAzygousLingual From TongueFemoral and Sciatic From Hind limbsHepatic From liverHepatic portal From digestive systemVesicular Urinary bladderCaudal Tail

21. Haemolytic Disease of Newborn – HDNIt is due to maternal Alloimmunisation ( immunity from mothers body ) related to ABO and Rh incompatibility. Foetal blood produces IgM antibodies. This causes HDN leading to Erythroblastosis foetalis. In the subsequent pregnancies IgG are produced . They are the only antibodies that crosses placenta.

22. RhoGAM is the Vaccine used to prevent Erythroblastosis foetalis.23. JARVIK-7 is the artificial Heart developed by Robert k. Jarvik in 1980. 24. ABIOCOR is device functions like heart.25. First Heart transplant Christian Bernard in Dec. 21, 1967 at Cape

town S. Africa. 26. India’s first Heart transplant Dr. P.Venugopal of AIIMS New Delhi on Aug.3, 1994.26. First successful implant of Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator ( ICD ) –

Dr. K.K. Talwar of AIIMS on 17 April 1995.

IMMUNE SYSTEM

1. Non specific immune system Natural defense mechanisms. Skin, Interferon, Lysozymes2. Specific or Acquired immunity Mechanism to recognize and destroy pathogens. Done by

T cells and B cells.3. Natural barriers Anatomical barrier Skin

Physiological barrier Lysozyme, Interferon, HighTemperature, Acidty.

Phagocytic barrier MacrophagesInflamatory barrier Complement system

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4. First line defense system Destroys pathogens before activating the immune system.

Natural barriers like Skin.5. INTERFERONS

Glycoproteins released by cells infected with Virus. They are alsoproduced from WBC. Interferon makes near by cell immune to viral infections.

6. MACROPHAGESModified Monocytes that ingest microbes by phagocytosis.

7. INFLAMATIONManifestation of infection in a localized area. Symptoms include redness, pain, swelling etc. Inflamatort response is produced by Histamines and Prostaglandins produced by the injured cells and damaged Mast cells. These chemicals causes leakage of vascular fluid and influx of macrophages to the infected area.

8. KILLER CELLSThese are WBC that kill the virus infected or tumour cells by making Perforin-lined pores in the plasma membrane. These pores permit water to enter the cells. The cells swells and bursts.

9. COMPLEMENT SYSTEMA group of 30 proteins in the blood. Protect the body from disease germs. The action of complement system causes formation of trans membrane pores in the microbes leading to their lysis. Some complement proteins form a coating over the microbe, so that they can be killed by phagocytes.

10. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITYAcquired immunity . It is the capacity of the body to recognize pathogens selectively and destroy them. It is an adaptive character of vertebrates.Important features of Adaptive immunity are1. Specificity 2. Diversity 3. Discrimination of self and non self molecules4. MemoryCells involved in acquired immunity are Lymphocytes like T cells like T- helper cells, T- cyto toxic cells B cells and Antigen presenting cells.

11. T cells Produced in the bone marrow and mature in the Thymus. Produce Cell mediated

response.12 B cells Produced in the bone marrow and mature in the bone marrow. Produce

Antibody mediated response.13. HUMORAL IMMUNITY

Antibody mediated response by B cells. B cells produce antibodies that circulate through blood and destroy pathogens.

14. ACTIVE IMMUNITYResponse in the body by the invasion of a foreign antigen.

15. PASSIVE IMMUNITYArtificial immunity produced by introducing antibodies or serum into the body.

16. THYMUS

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It is the site of maturation of T cells that give cell mediated immunity. When thymus is removed, T cells cannot mature.

17. T-HELPER CELLSActivate the B cells

18. T- CYTOTOXIC CELLSDestroy antigens.

19. ANTIBODYImmunoglobulins produced in the blood by B lymphocytes. They are Glycoproteins specific to antigens. Each antibody has 4 polypeptide chains. 2 long Heavy chains 2 short Light chains. The heavy and light

chains are connected by Di sulphide bonds to form a Y shaped structure. Both heavy and Light chains have Constant and Variable regions. Antigens bind to the variable region. The amino acid sequence of the variable region is different in various antibodies. This variation produces numerous types of antibodies to react with enormous number of antigens.

20. IMMUNIGLOBULINSSecreted by B cells. There are 5 types of immunoglobulins.IgA protection from Inhaled antigensIgD Activate B cellsIgE Allergic responseIgG Stimulate Phagocytes. Activate Complement system.

Only Antibody crosses placenta and gives Foetal immunity.IgM Activate B cells. First formed

21. Antigen destructionFree antibodies destroy antigens by 3 mechanisms.1. Agglutination Binding to antigens2. Oposonisation Coating over bacteria3. Neutralization Neutralize the toxins of bacteria. Eg. Tetanus toxin

22. CLONAL SELECTIONThe receptors present on the T and B cells interact with antigens. The cells activate and divide to form a clone of cells. The clone also produce other cells like T- cyto toxic cells.Significance 1. Produce large number of B and T cells.

2. Produces effector cells like antibody secreting B cells and T cytotoxic cells.3. Some T cells become Memory cells.

23. IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORYWhen an antigen enters, large number of T cells multiply to form a clone. Some T cells remain as Memory cells. When the same antigen enters second time, the Memory cells divide rapidly and give immunity.

24. Primary Immune ResponseDevelop when an antigen enters the body leading to the multiplication of T cells.

25. Secondary Immune ResponseResult of the multiplication of Memory cells.

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26. DPT vaccine requires a Booster dose to activate the Memory cells to give longer immunity.

27. PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANSSites in which Lymphocytes proliferate and mature. Thymus ( T cells ) Bone marrow ( B cells ).

28. SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANSSites in which Lymphocytes differentiate into specific lymphocytes for an antigenLymphnodes, Spleen, Tonsils.

29. First Vaccine is the Rabies Vaccine produced by Jenner in 1796.30. Antigenic Polypeptides are artificially produced Vaccines through Genetic

Engineering.31. Artificial Vaccines Antigenic polypeptide, Hepatitis B vaccine from

transgenic Yeast.32. MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX – MHC

A group of genes present in the 6th chromosome of Mouse. Determine the compatibility of donor and recepient tissues during transplantation.

33. HUMAN LECOCYTE ANTIGENS – HLA SystemGenes present in the 6th chromosome of Man. They determine the tissue compatibility. The group of HLA genes is called Haplotype. An individual receives one Haplotype from father and the second from the mother.

Diseases associated with HLA system1. Reiter’s syndrome 2. Addison’s disease 3. Thyrotoxicosis4. Coeliac disease 5. Insulin dependent diabetes6. Haemochromatosis 7. Psoriasis

34. Identical twins only have same HLA haplotypes.35. TISSUE TYPING

Matching of HLA proteins before tissue transplantation.

36. ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCKSudden and violent allergic reaction in response to an allergen. It is a fatal condition. Egs. Bee bite, Drugs like Penicillin.

37. AUTOIMMUNE DISEASESBody consider own cells as foreign and destroy them.

1. Insulin dependent Diabetes2. Multiple Sclerosis - degeneration of Myelin sheath in

nerves.3. Rheumatoid Arthritis- degeneration of joints.

Organ specific autoimmune diseases1. Primary Myxedema 2. Thyrotoxicosis 3. Pernicious anemia4. Addison’s disease 5. Good Pasteu’s syndrome6. Myasistheniagravis 7. Chronic active hepatitis

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Genes DP-DQ-DR-----C2-Bf-C4-B---------------------C-A

Gene products Class 2 HLA Complement components Class 1 HLA

Non organ specific autoimmune diseases1. Rheumatoid arthritis2. Dermatomysitis 3. Systemic

sclerosis.

38. IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASESCaused by Mutations, Infections, Malnutrition Egs. AIDS

39. SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SCIDGenetic defects. Low circulating Thymocytes. Fatal condition.Egs. Adenosine deaminase deficiency ( ADA ), AIDS

40. HIV INFECTIONHIV infects T lymphocytes. DNA produced by the virus from its RNA is inserted to the human chromosome. The inserted DNA replicate along with host DNA. The viral DNA then transcribes m RNA for viral protein and its own RNA. Genetic RNA thus formed will be packaged into the protein to form new virus.

41. Since HIV infects Lymphocytes, the disease cannot be cured because any drug that destroy Lymphocytes will permanently destroy the immune system.

42. AIDS is not contagious because the virus multiply only in Lymphocytes and are introduced only through blood , saliva and semen.

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Humoral immuno deficiencies

1. X linked Hypogammaglobinaemia 2. DiGeoge syndrome

Combined immunodeficiencies1. Nezelof’s syndrome 2. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome

Phagocyte deficiencies1. Chediak- Higashi syndrome 2. Job’s syndrome

Immune benefits of Human MilkIt contains1. B cell macrophages Produce antibodies2. Neurtophil T cells Act as phagocytes3. IgA antibodies destroy antigens in the baby’s digestive tract.4. Bifidus factor promote the growth of Lactobacillus bifidus . It is a

harmless bacteria prevents the growth of other bacteria5. Fibronectin increases anti microbial activity of macrophages.6. Interferon – IFN gamma enhances anti microbial activity of immune cells.7. Lactoferrin Reduces the availability of Iron for bacteria

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS FROM CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Wall of artery has 3 layers1. Tunica interna Innermost layer made up of Squamous epithelium. It

forms the Endothelium or Intima.

2. Tunica media Middle layer made up of Smooth muscles and Elastic fibres.

3. Tunica externa Outermost layer made up of Collagen and Elastic fibres.2. Blood is termed as the “ Seat of Soul “.3. Plasma forms 55% of blood volume.4. pH of blood is around 7.4 - slightly alkaline.

5. Albumins and Globulins retain water in the blood by osmotic effects.6. When plasma proteins decrease in the blood, water leakes into tissue spaces

leading to edema.7. Plasma proteins maintains the pH of blood.8. Diameter of Human RBC is 7.2 microns and thickness 2 microns near the rim

and 1 micron near the center.9. Haemocytometer is used to take RBC count.10. Normal Hb content is 15g / 100 ml blood.11. Hg content is measured by using Haemoglobinometer.12. About 2 – 10 million RBC are destroyed and replaced per second.13. Each RBC can carry 1120 million O2 molecules during 120 days.

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PLASMA PROTEINS

1. Serum albumin 4.5 / 100ml. Keeps the osmotic pressure of blood2. Serum Globulins 2.79 / 100 ml. Forms antibodies.3. Fibrinogen 0.3 g Helps in blood clotting.

1. Normal blood glucose 80 – 120 mg / 100 ml.2. Normal blood urea 34 mg / 100 ml3. Normal bilurubin 0.2 – 1.2 mg / 100 ml4. Creatine 1 mg / 100 ml.

14. Size of WBC varies from 8 – 15 microns.15. DLC is the differential leucocyte count.16. Thrombocytopenia is the low platelet count.

17. Sinus venosus is an Accessory chamber.18. Sinus venosus is the Pace Maker of Amphibian heart.19. Human heart is 12 cm long and 9 cm wide.20. Normal heart rate of newborn baby is 140 / minute.21. Pulse can be felt in the Radial and Carotid arteries.22. Stephen Hales demonstrated BP in 1733.

18. Heart receives branches from the 10th cranial nerve – Vagus.19. Vagus nerve inhibits heart and Sympathetic nerve stimulates.20. Human heart is a “ Double Pump “.21. Coronary artery starts from the base of Aorta.22. Atheroma is the deposition of cholesterol in the arteries.23. PDGP – Platelet Derived Growth Factor is produced from platelets and causes

Plaques.

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LEUCOCYTES1. Neutrophils Stain violet . Size 9-12 microns. Soldiers of the body.2. Basophil Also called Cyanophils. S shaped nucleus. Stain blue with

methylene Blue.

3. Eosinophil Bi lobed nucleus. Stained red. 4. Lymphocyte Smallest WBC. Large nucleus. Produce antibodies. 5. Monocyte Largest WBC. Horse shoe shaped nucleus. Act as Phagocytes.BLOOD CLOTTING

1. Prothrombin is present in the blood plasma.2. Platelets release Thromboplastin. It activates Prothrombinase.3. Prothrobinase hydrolyse Prothrombin to Thrombin.4. Thrombin converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin. ( soluble to insoluble protein )5. Calcium ions are necessary for the conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin.

ANTITHROBIN It is a natural anticoagulant present in the blood that prevent accidental clotting inside the blood vessels.PLASMIN It is an inactive proteolytic enzyme that become active in the Uterus.

SA NODEIt is the “Heart of Heart “ because contraction originate from it. It has P cells (pace maker cells )and T cells ( Transitional cells ). P cells initiate impulse and T cells transmit

P-wave of ECG Upward wave. Depolarisation of Auricle.QRS Triangular wave. Ventricular depolarization.T wave Smallest wave. Ventricular repolarisation.

24. Vector cardiography is the used to get 3 D impression of the electrical activities of heart.

25. Artificial pacemaker uses Lithium cell to power it. It has long life.26. Lymph is the “ Middle man “ of the body. It act as the link between blood and

tissues.27. Pyrogens are compounds produced by WBC that causes fever.28. Pyrogen formation is inhibited by drugs like Paracetamol and Aspirin.29. Hay Fever is an allergic disease.30. IgG is the most abundant Antibody.

31. GALT Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissues. Payer’s patches , Appendix etc.

Similar to Bursa.31. B cells are produced 2000 molecules per second.32. Innate immunity is the inborn immunity.33. Attenuated vaccine is the weakened pathogens used for vaccination.34. Edward Jenner developed vaccine but named by Louis Pasteur.35. Global immunization programme was launched by WHO in 1974 for 6

diseases. Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Tb, Measels.36. Universal Immunisation Programme was started in India in 1985.37. Antiserum is prepared from horse serum . Eg. Anti Tetanus Serum – ATS.38. Metalnikoff in 1900 reported Autoimmune response in Pigs.39. Donath and Landsteiner in 1904 reported Autoimmune diseases.40. Haemostasis is the arrest of bleeding. Blood clotting mechanism.41. Cardioscope is used to observe the inner side of heart.42. Hemophobia is the aversion to blood.43. Hemostat is the instrument to stop bleeding.44. Viscosity of blood is 4.5 – 5.5 of that of water.

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Killer T cells Cytolytic cells. Directly attack antigens. Release Cytokines or

Lymphokines.Helper T cells Help other T cells. Help B cells to produce antibodies.

Suppressor T cells Suppress T and Killer cells. It reduces Immune Tolerance

( Attaching own cells )

RESPIRATION

1. Anaerobic respiration is found in Roundworms, Liver fluke, Tapeworm etc.

2. Mammalian RBC respire Anaerobically because of the absence of Mitochondria.

3. Skeletal muscle respire anaerobically when it contracts vigorously.4. In Frog about 2 / 3 of oxygen uptake takes place through the skin during

summer.5. Tracheal respiration is seen in Insects and Myriapods.6. Cockraoch has 10 pairs of Spiracles.7. Two vocal cords are present in the Larynx of man.8. Cricoid and Thyroid cartilages support the wall of Trachea.9. Larynx is supported by Thyroid cartilage.10. Alveolus has 0.1mm diameter and 0.5 mm thickness.11. Alveoli are lined with Simple squmous epithelium.12. Mediastenum is the space between the lungs in which heart is located.13. Parietal pleura is the outer lining of lungs and Visceral pleura inner lining.14. Normal breathing rate of man is 12-14 / min.

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Tidal volume 500 mlInspiratory Reserve Volume – IRV 3000 mlExpiratory Reserve volume – ERV 1000 mlVital capacity – Sum of IRV and ERV 3.5-4.5 LResidual volume 1500 mlTotal lung capacity Sum of Vital capacity and Residual volume.

15. Hering Breur receptors are stretch receptors present in the lungs.16. Pneumotaxic or Pontine center is present is present in the Pons of the brain.17. Pontine center keeps the timing of respiration.18. Chemoreceptors present in the Pharynx and Larynx inhibits the respiratory

centers.Eg. Inhaling of Hydrogen sulphide.

19. Partial pressure of O2 in the inspired air is 158 mm Hg and that of CO2 is 0.3 mm Hg.

20. Oxygen tension in the blood capillary is 40 mm Hg and that of CO2 is 46 mm Hg.

GAS TRANSPORT

21. 3% Oxygen is transported through plasma.22. 97% Oxygen is transported as Oxyhaemoglobin.23. 1 g Haemoglobin takes 1.34 ml O224. 100ml Hemoglobin can carry 20.44 ml Oxygen.25. 90% saturation of Hb takesplace even at a PO2 of 60 mm Hg.26. Oxygen – Hemoglobin curve shows the relation between PO2 and Hb

saturation.27. Carbon dioxide transport

5% as Carbonic acid10% as Carbaminohemoglobin ( HbNH COOH )85% as Bicarbonates

28. Chloride shift or Hamberger phenomenon occurs from the plasma into the RBC.

29. Every 100 ml blood releases 3.7 ml CO2 in the lungs.30. Eupnea is the normal breathing.

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BLOOD PIGMENTSPigment Metal partOxygenated Deoxygenated DistributionHaemoglobin Iron Red Red Vertebrates, Annelids(plasma )Haemocyanin Copper Blue Colourless Arthropods, MolluscsHaemerythrin Iron Red Colourless AnnelidsChlorocruorin Copper Green Green AnnelidsVanadium Vanadium Green Green Tunicates

Ascidia

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS1. Asphyxia Failure of O2 delivery to tissues due to Chocking, Drowning etc.2. Dyspnoea Difficulty to breath3. Hypoxia Also called Anoxia. O2 deficiency at tissue level4. Arterial hypoxia Deficiency of O2 in the air5. Anemic hypoxia Deficiency of O2 due to low Hb content6. Stagnant hypoxia Due to inadequate blood flow7. Histoxic hypoxia Tissue can not utilize O2 due to Cyanide poisoning8. Tachypnea Rapid breathing9. Cyanosis Accumulation of Oxyhemoglobin in the blood10. Hypercapnea Excess CO2 in the blood11. Hypocapnea Low CO2 in the blood

31. Affinity of Hb towards CO2 is 250 times greater than that of O232. Oxygen with 6% CO2 is used to treat Carbon monoxide poisoning33. CO2 stimulate the respiratory center of the brain34. Moutain sickness develop when PO2 level falls in the high altitude35. Heart rate, RBC count, etc increase during Moutain sickness36. Book gills are the respiratory organs of Limulus or King Crab37. Book lungs are present in Scorpion and Spider38. Kiss of Life is the Artificial breathing39. Respiratory Quotient is the ratio of volume of CO2 evolved and O2 consumed

for a given period of respiration40. Yawning is an indication of sleep. It is due to the accumulation of CO2 in the

lungs and change in the pH of blood.EXCREATION1. Ornithine cycle is also called Kreb’s – Hensleit cycle. It occurs in the liver.

Ammonia combine with CO2 to form Urea and Water

2. Tunica fibrosa is the outer covering of Kidney3. Bladder and Ureter are lined with Transitional epithelium.4. Cystitis is the inflammation of Urinary bladder.

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MODE OF EXCRETION IN ANIMALS

1. Ammonotelism Excretion of Ammonia in the form of Ammonium hydroxide

Egs. Aquatic invertebrates, Bony fishes, Aquatic AmphibiansTadpoles

2. Ureotelism Excretion of UreaEgs. Mammals, Frog, Cartilage fishes, Alligator, Turtle

3. Ureotelism Excretion of Uric acidEgs. Birds, Insects, Land snails, Land crustaceans

EXCRETORY ORGANS OF ANIMALS1. Flame cells or Protonephridia Platyhelminthes. Planaria, Fasciola, Tapeworm2. Rennette cells Round worm3. Nephridia Neries, Earthworm4. Nephridia, Kidney Mollusca5. Organ of Bojanus Freshwater mussel6. Green glands Prawn7. Malpighian tubules Insects8. Nephrocytes and Fatbodies Acessory excretory organs of Cockroach9. Solenocytes Amphioxus

5. PCT is located in the Cortex, Henle’s loop in the Medulla and DCT in the Cortex.

6. Duct of Bellini is the collecting duct that opens into the Pelvis.7. Vasa recta is the blood vessels surrounding the Loop of Henle.8. Glomerular filtrate is Protein free and cell free.

9. Glomerular filtration rate or GFR is 125 ml / mt. That is 180 L per day.

10. Creatine and Sulphates are not absorbed.11. PCT absorbs Glucose, Amino acids,Vit.C, Na, K, Ca, Water

Descending loop absorbs 5% waterAscending limb is impermeable to waterDCT actively absorbs Na and Cl.

12. Augmentation is the tubular secretion. It an active process requires ATP. K,H,NH3,Sulphur compounds, Uric acid, Creatinine, Penicillin etc ate eliminated.

13. Urinary bladder can store 500 ml urine. 14. Micturition is the passing of urine.15. 1 to 1.8 L urine is excreted per day.

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Glomerular blood pressure 55 mm HgFiltrate pressure 15 mm HgOsmotic pressure of plasma proteins 30 mm HgNet Filtration pressure 55 – ( 15 + 30 ) = 55 – 45 = 10 mm Hg

High threshold substances Actively absorbed in the PCT. Egs. Glucose, Amino acids, Vitamins, K,Na, Ca

Low threshold substances Less absorption. PCT allow to passEgs. Urea, Uric acis, Ammonia, Creatine,

Ketone bodies

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF URINE1. Specific gravity 1.001 – 1.0402. pH 63. Urochrome Yellow pigment formed from Bilurubin. Urobile4. Dissolved substances Urea, Ammonia, Hippuric acid, Creatinine, Uric acid,

NaCl.5. Inorganic salts Chloride, Phosphates, Sulphates of K,Ca,Mg.6. Other substances Vit.C, Oxalic acid, Phenolic substances.ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE – DISEASES1. Aneuria Absence of urine formation.2. Bright disease Inflamation of kidney3. Urethritis Inflamation of urethra4. Nephrolithiasis Kidney stone5. Polyurea Excess urine formation6. Haematurea Blood in the urine7. Indicanuria Potassium in the urine8. Albuminurea Protein in the urine9. Glycosuriia Sugar in the urine

16. Cystectomy is the surgical removal of Kidney.17. Pyelolithotomy is the removal of stone from Pelvis.18. Crystals of Calcium and Oxalate form Kidney stones.19. In the Descending limb of Heles loop, urine is Hypertonic.20. In the DCT, urine is Hypotonic.21. Aldosterone from Adrenal cortex increases re absorption of Na and

elimination of K.22. Juxtaglomerular apparatus ( JGA ) operates Multi-Hormonal system called

RAAS.23. When BP in the afferent arteriole decreases, JGA secretes Renin. Renin convert

plasma protein Angiotensin to a peptide hormone Angiotensin II. It increases BP by constricting glomerular arterioles. NaCl and Water absorption occurs in the PCT. This produces Aldosterone. It re absorbs Na and K in the DCT.

24. ANTI NATRIURETIC FACTOR ANFIt is a peptide hormone from the Atria of Heart. It opposes the action of RAAS. It is secreted when BP increases. ANF inhibits re absorption of Water and NaCl by inhibiting Aldosterone.

25. ADH, RAAS, ANF act as a Feed Back system.26. Cellophane membrane is used in Hemodialisis.27. Dialysing fluid is Isotonic to blood.28. Cyclosporin is an Immunosuppressive drug used after Kidney transplantation

to prevent Kidney rejection.

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