ibcompanion.comibcompanion.com/resources/Physics/Subject guide.pdf · IB mission statement The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young

Physics guideFirst assessment 2016

Physics guideFirst assessment 2016

4076

International Baccalaureate, Baccalauréat International and Bachillerato Internacional are registered trademarks of the International Baccalaureate Organization.

Published February 2014

Published on behalf of the International Baccalaureate Organization, a not-for-profit educational foundation of 15 Route des Morillons, 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva,

Switzerland by the

International Baccalaureate Organization (UK) LtdPeterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate

Cardiff, Wales CF23 8GLUnited Kingdom

Website: www.ibo.org

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2014

The International Baccalaureate Organization (known as the IB) offers four high-quality and challenging educational programmes for a worldwide community of schools, aiming to create a better, more peaceful world. This publication is one of a range of materials produced to support these programmes.

The IB may use a variety of sources in its work and checks information to verify accuracy and authenticity, particularly when using community-based knowledge sources such as Wikipedia. The IB respects the principles of intellectual property and makes strenuous efforts to identify and obtain permission before publication from rights holders of all copyright material used. The IB is grateful for permissions received for material used in this publication and will be pleased to correct any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the IB, or as expressly permitted by law or by the IB’s own rules and policy. See http://www.ibo.org/copyright.

IB merchandise and publications can be purchased through the IB store at http://store.ibo.org.

Email: [email protected]

Diploma ProgrammePhysics guide

IB mission statementThe International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.

Physics guide ixix

Contents

Introduction 1

Purpose of this document 1

The Diploma Programme 2

Nature of science 6

Nature of physics 12

Aims 17

Assessment objectives 18

Syllabus 19

Syllabus outline 19

Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics 20

Syllabus content 25

Assessment 130

Assessment in the Diploma Programme 130

Assessment outline—SL 132

Assessment outline—HL 133

External assessment 134

Internal assessment 136

Appendices 154

Glossary of command terms 154

Bibliography 157

Physics guide 11

Purpose of this document

Introduction

This publication is intended to guide the planning, teaching and assessment of the subject in schools. Subject teachers are the primary audience, although it is expected that teachers will use the guide to inform students and parents about the subject.

This guide can be found on the subject page of the online curriculum centre (OCC) at http://occ.ibo.org, a password-protected IB website designed to support IB teachers. It can also be purchased from the IB store at http://store.ibo.org.

Additional resourcesAdditional publications such as teacher support materials, subject reports, internal assessment guidance and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.

Teachers are encouraged to check the OCC for additional resources created or used by other teachers. Teachers can provide details of useful resources, for example: websites, books, videos, journals or teaching ideas.

AcknowledgmentThe IB wishes to thank the educators and associated schools for generously contributing time and resources to the production of this guide.

First assessment 2016

Physics guide22

Introduction

The Diploma Programme

The Diploma Programme is a rigorous pre-university course of study designed for students in the 16 to 19 age range. It is a broad-based two-year course that aims to encourage students to be knowledgeable and inquiring, but also caring and compassionate. There is a strong emphasis on encouraging students to develop intercultural understanding, open-mindedness, and the attitudes necessary for them to respect and evaluate a range of points of view.

The Diploma Programme modelThe course is presented as six academic areas enclosing a central core (see figure 1). It encourages the concurrent study of a broad range of academic areas. Students study: two modern languages (or a modern language and a classical language); a humanities or social science subject; an experimental science; mathematics; one of the creative arts. It is this comprehensive range of subjects that makes the Diploma Programme a demanding course of study designed to prepare students effectively for university entrance. In each of the academic areas students have flexibility in making their choices, which means they can choose subjects that particularly interest them and that they may wish to study further at university.

Figure 1Diploma Programme model


Physics guide 3

Choosing the right combinationStudents are required to choose one subject from each of the six academic areas, although they can, instead of an arts subject, choose two subjects from another area. Normally, three subjects (and not more than four) are taken at higher level (HL), and the others are taken at standard level (SL). The IB recommends 240 teaching hours for HL subjects and 150 hours for SL. Subjects at HL are studied in greater depth and breadth than at SL.

At both levels, many skills are developed, especially those of critical thinking and analysis. At the end of the course, students’ abilities are measured by means of external assessment. Many subjects contain some element of coursework assessed by teachers.

The core of the Diploma Programme ModelAll Diploma Programme students participate in the three course elements that make up the core of the model. Theory of knowledge (TOK) is a course that is fundamentally about critical thinking and inquiry into the process of knowing rather than about learning a specific body of knowledge. The TOK course examines the nature of knowledge and how we know what we claim to know. It does this by encouraging students to analyse knowledge claims and explore questions about the construction of knowledge. The task of TOK is to emphasize connections between areas of shared knowledge and link them to personal knowledge in such a way that an individual becomes more aware of his or her own perspectives and how they might differ from others.

Creativity, action, service (CAS) is at the heart of the Diploma Programme. The emphasis in CAS is on helping students to develop their own identities, in accordance with the ethical principles embodied in the IB mission statement and the IB learner profile. It involves students in a range of activities alongside their academic studies throughout the Diploma Programme. The three strands of CAS are Creativity (arts, and other experiences that involve creative thinking), Action (physical exertion contributing to a healthy lifestyle) and Service (an unpaid and voluntary exchange that has a learning benefit for the student). Possibly more than any other component in the Diploma Programme, CAS contributes to the IB’s mission to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

The extended essay, including the world studies extended essay, offers the opportunity for IB students to investigate a topic of special interest, in the form of a 4,000-word piece of independent research. The area of research undertaken is chosen from one of the students’ Diploma Programme subjects, or in the case of the interdisciplinary world studies essay, two subjects, and acquaints them with the independent research and writing skills expected at university. This leads to a major piece of formally presented, structured writing, in which ideas and findings are communicated in a reasoned and coherent manner, appropriate to the subject or subjects chosen. It is intended to promote high-level research and writing skills, intellectual discovery and creativity. As an authentic learning experience it provides students with an opportunity to engage in personal research on a topic of choice, under the guidance of a supervisor.

Approaches to teaching and approaches to learningApproaches to teaching and learning across the Diploma Programme refers to deliberate strategies, skills and attitudes which permeate the teaching and learning environment. These approaches and tools, intrinsically linked with the learner profile attributes, enhance student learning and assist student preparation for the Diploma Programme assessment and beyond. The aims of approaches to teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme are to:


Physics guide4

• empower teachers as teachers of learners as well as teachers of content

• empower teachers to create clearer strategies for facilitating learning experiences in which students are more meaningfully engaged in structured inquiry and greater critical and creative thinking

• promote both the aims of individual subjects (making them more than course aspirations) and linking previously isolated knowledge (concurrency of learning)

• encourage students to develop an explicit variety of skills that will equip them to continue to be actively engaged in learning after they leave school, and to help them not only obtain university admission through better grades but also prepare for success during tertiary education and beyond

• enhance further the coherence and relevance of the students’ Diploma Programme experience

• allow schools to identify the distinctive nature of an IB Diploma Programme education, with its blend of idealism and practicality.

The five approaches to learning (developing thinking skills, social skills, communication skills, self-management skills and research skills) along with the six approaches to teaching (teaching that is inquiry-based, conceptually focused, contextualized, collaborative, differentiated and informed by assessment) encompass the key values and principles that underpin IB pedagogy.

The IB mission statement and the IB learner profileThe Diploma Programme aims to develop in students the knowledge, skills and attitudes they will need to fulfill the aims of the IB, as expressed in the organization’s mission statement and the learner profile. Teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme represent the reality in daily practice of the organization’s educational philosophy.

Academic honestyAcademic honesty in the Diploma Programme is a set of values and behaviours informed by the attributes of the learner profile. In teaching, learning and assessment, academic honesty serves to promote personal integrity, engender respect for the integrity of others and their work, and ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate the knowledge and skills they acquire during their studies.

All coursework—including work submitted for assessment—is to be authentic, based on the student’s individual and original ideas with the ideas and work of others fully acknowledged. Assessment tasks that require teachers to provide guidance to students or that require students to work collaboratively must be completed in full compliance with the detailed guidelines provided by the IB for the relevant subjects.

For further information on academic honesty in the IB and the Diploma Programme, please consult the IB publications Academic honesty, The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice and General regulations: Diploma Programme. Specific information regarding academic honesty as it pertains to external and internal assessment components of this Diploma Programme subject can be found in this guide.

Acknowledging the ideas or work of another personCoordinators and teachers are reminded that candidates must acknowledge all sources used in work submitted for assessment. The following is intended as a clarification of this requirement.

Diploma Programme candidates submit work for assessment in a variety of media that may include audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or electronic sources. If a candidate uses the work or ideas of another person, the candidate must acknowledge the source using a standard style of


Physics guide 5

referencing in a consistent manner. A candidate’s failure to acknowledge a source will be investigated by the IB as a potential breach of regulations that may result in a penalty imposed by the IB final award committee.

The IB does not prescribe which style(s) of referencing or in-text citation should be used by candidates; this is left to the discretion of appropriate faculty/staff in the candidate’s school. The wide range of subjects, three response languages and the diversity of referencing styles make it impractical and restrictive to insist on particular styles. In practice, certain styles may prove most commonly used, but schools are free to choose a style that is appropriate for the subject concerned and the language in which candidates’ work is written. Regardless of the reference style adopted by the school for a given subject, it is expected that the minimum information given includes: name of author, date of publication, title of source, and page numbers as applicable.

Candidates are expected to use a standard style and use it consistently so that credit is given to all sources used, including sources that have been paraphrased or summarized. When writing, candidates must clearly distinguish between their words and those of others by the use of quotation marks (or other method, such as indentation) followed by an appropriate citation that denotes an entry in the bibliography. If an electronic source is cited, the date of access must be indicated. Candidates are not expected to show faultless expertise in referencing, but are expected to demonstrate that all sources have been acknowledged. Candidates must be advised that audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or in electronic sources that is not their own must also attribute the source. Again, an appropriate style of referencing/citation must be used.

Learning diversity and learning support requirementsSchools must ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with learning support requirements that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes.

Physics guide66

The Nature of science (NOS) is an overarching theme in the biology, chemistry and physics courses. This section, titled “Nature of science”, is in the biology, chemistry and physics guides to support teachers in their understanding of what is meant by the nature of science. The “Nature of science” section of the guide provides a comprehensive account of the nature of science in the 21st century. It will not be possible to cover in this document all the themes in detail in the three science courses, either for teaching or assessment.

It has a paragraph structure (1.1, 1.2, etc) to link the significant points made to the syllabus (landscape pages) references on the NOS. The NOS parts in the subject-specific sections of the guide are examples of a particular understanding. The NOS statement(s) above every sub-topic outline how one or more of the NOS themes can be exemplified through the understandings, applications and skills in that sub-topic. These are not a repeat of the NOS statements found below but an elaboration of them in a specific context. See the section on “Format of the syllabus”.

TechnologyAlthough this section is about the nature of science, the interpretation of the word technology is important, and the role of technology emerging from and contributing to science needs to be clarified. In today’s world, the words science and technology are often used interchangeably; however, historically this is not the case. Technology emerged before science, and materials were used to produce useful and decorative artefacts long before there was an understanding of why materials had different properties that could be used for different purposes. In the modern world the reverse is the case: an understanding of the underlying science is the basis for technological developments. These new technologies in their turn drive developments in science.

Despite their mutual dependence they are based on different values: science on evidence, rationality and the quest for deeper understanding; technology on the practical, the appropriate and the useful with an increasingly important emphasis on sustainability.

1. What is science and what is the scientific endeavour?

1.1. The underlying assumption of science is that the universe has an independent, external reality accessible to human senses and amenable to human reason.

1.2. Pure science aims to come to a common understanding of this external universe; applied science and engineering develop technologies that result in new processes and products. However, the boundaries between these fields are fuzzy.

1.3. Scientists use a wide variety of methodologies which, taken together, make up the process of science. There is no single “scientific method”. Scientists have used, and do use, different methods at different times to build up their knowledge and ideas, but they have a common understanding about what makes them all scientifically valid.

1.4. This is an exciting and challenging adventure involving much creativity and imagination as well as exacting and detailed thinking and application. Scientists also have to be ready for unplanned, surprising, accidental discoveries. The history of science shows this is a very common occurrence.

1.5. Many scientific discoveries have involved flashes of intuition and many have come from speculation or simple curiosity about particular phenomena.

Nature of science

Introduction

Nature of science

Physics guide 7

1.6. Scientists have a common terminology and a common reasoning process, which involves using deductive and inductive logic through analogies and generalizations. They share mathematics, the language of science, as a powerful tool. Indeed, some scientific explanations only exist in mathematical form.

1.7. Scientists must adopt a skeptical attitude to claims. This does not mean that they disbelieve everything, but rather that they suspend judgment until they have a good reason to believe a claim to be true or false. Such reasons are based on evidence and argument.

1.8. The importance of evidence is a fundamental common understanding. Evidence can be obtained by observation or experiment. It can be gathered by human senses, primarily sight, but much modern science is carried out using instrumentation and sensors that can gather information remotely and automatically in areas that are too small, or too far away, or otherwise beyond human sense perception. Improved instrumentation and new technology have often been the drivers for new discoveries. Observations followed by analysis and deduction led to the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe and to the theory of evolution by natural selection. In these cases, no controlled experiments were possible. Disciplines such as geology and astronomy rely strongly on collecting data in the field, but all disciplines use observation to collect evidence to some extent. Experimentation in a controlled environment, generally in laboratories, is the other way of obtaining evidence in the form of data, and there are many conventions and understandings as to how this is to be achieved.

1.9. This evidence is used to develop theories, generalize from data to form laws and propose hypotheses. These theories and hypotheses are used to make predictions that can be tested. In this way theories can be supported or opposed and can be modified or replaced by new theories.

1.10. Models, some simple, some very complex, based on theoretical understanding, are developed to explain processes that may not be observable. Computer-based mathematical models are used to make testable predictions, which can be especially useful when experimentation is not possible. Models tested against experiments or data from observations may prove inadequate, in which case they may be modified or replaced by new models.

1.11. The outcomes of experiments, the insights provided by modelling and observations of the natural world may be used as further evidence for a claim.

1.12. The growth in computing power has made modelling much more powerful. Models, usually mathematical, are now used to derive new understandings when no experiments are possible (and sometimes when they are). This dynamic modelling of complex situations involving large amounts of data, a large number of variables and complex and lengthy calculations is only possible as a result of increased computing power. Modelling of the Earth’s climate, for example, is used to predict or make a range of projections of future climatic conditions. A range of different models has been developed in this field and results from different models have been compared to see which models are most accurate. Models can sometimes be tested by using data from the past and used to see if they can predict the present situation. If a model passes this test, we gain confidence in its accuracy.

1.13. Both the ideas and the processes of science can only occur in a human context. Science is carried out by a community of people from a wide variety of backgrounds and traditions, and this has clearly influenced the way science has proceeded at different times. It is important to understand, however, that to do science is to be involved in a community of inquiry with certain common principles, methodologies, understandings and processes.

2. The understanding of science2.1. Theories, laws and hypotheses are concepts used by scientists. Though these concepts are connected,

there is no progression from one to the other. These words have a special meaning in science and it is important to distinguish these from their everyday use.

2.2. Theories are themselves integrated, comprehensive models of how the universe, or parts of it, work. A theory can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses. Predictions can be made from the theories and these can be tested in experiments or by careful observations. Examples are the germ theory of disease or atomic theory.

2.3. Theories generally accommodate the assumptions and premises of other theories, creating a consistent understanding across a range of phenomena and disciplines. Occasionally, however, a new theory will radically change how essential concepts are understood or framed, impacting other theories and causing what is sometimes called a “paradigm shift” in science. One of the most famous paradigm shifts in science occurred when our idea of time changed from an absolute frame of reference to an observer-dependent frame of reference within Einstein’s theory of relativity. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection also changed our understanding of life on Earth.

Nature of science

Physics guide8

2.4. Laws are descriptive, normative statements derived from observations of regular patterns of behaviour. They are generally mathematical in form and can be used to calculate outcomes and to make predictions. Like theories and hypotheses, laws cannot be proven. Scientific laws may have exceptions and may be modified or rejected based on new evidence. Laws do not necessarily explain a phenomenon. For example, Newton’s law of universal gravitation tells us that the force between two masses is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and allows us to calculate the force between masses at any distance apart, but it does not explain why masses attract each other. Also, note that the term law has been used in different ways in science, and whether a particular idea is called a law may be partly a result of the discipline and time period at which it was developed.

2.5. Scientists sometimes form hypotheses—explanatory statements about the world that could be true or false, and which often suggest a causal relationship or a correlation between factors. Hypotheses can be tested by both experiments and observations of the natural world and can be supported or opposed.

2.6. To be scientific, an idea (for example, a theory or hypothesis) must focus on the natural world and natural explanations and must be testable. Scientists strive to develop hypotheses and theories that are compatible with accepted principles and that simplify and unify existing ideas.

2.7. The principle of Occam’s razor is used as a guide to developing a theory. The theory should be as simple as possible while maximizing explanatory power.

2.8. The ideas of correlation and cause are very important in science. A correlation is a statistical link or association between one variable and another. A correlation can be positive or negative and a correlation coefficient can be calculated that will have a value between +1, 0 and −1. A strong correlation (positive or negative) between one factor and another suggests some sort of causal relationship between the two factors but more evidence is usually required before scientists accept the idea of a causal relationship. To establish a causal relationship, ie one factor causing another, scientists need to have a plausible scientific mechanism linking the factors. This strengthens the case that one causes the other, for example smoking and lung cancer. This mechanism can be tested in experiments.

2.9. The ideal situation is to investigate the relationship between one factor and another while controlling all other factors in an experimental setting; however, this is often impossible and scientists, especially in biology and medicine, use sampling, cohort studies and case control studies to strengthen their understanding of causation when experiments (such as double-blind tests and clinical trials) are not possible. Epidemiology in the field of medicine involves the statistical analysis of data to discover possible correlations when little established scientific knowledge is available or the circumstances are too difficult to control entirely. Here, as in other fields, mathematical analysis of probability also plays a role.

3. The objectivity of science3.1. Data is the lifeblood of scientists and may be qualitative or quantitative. It can be obtained purely from

observations or from specifically designed experiments, remotely using electronic sensors or by direct measurement. The best data for making accurate and precise descriptions and predictions is often quantitative and amenable to mathematical analysis. Scientists analyse data and look for patterns, trends and discrepancies, attempting to discover relationships and establish causal links. This is not always possible, so identifying and classifying observations and artefacts (eg types of galaxies or fossils) is still an important aspect of scientific work.

3.2. Taking repeated measurements and large numbers of readings can improve reliability in data collection. Data can be presented in a variety of formats such as linear and logarithmic graphs that can be analysed for, say, direct or inverse proportion or for power relationships.

3.3. Scientists need to be aware of random errors and systematic errors, and use techniques such as error bars and lines of best fit on graphs to portray the data as realistically and honestly as possible. There is a need to consider whether outlying data points should be discarded or not.

3.4. Scientists need to understand the difference between errors and uncertainties, accuracy and precision, and need to understand and use the mathematical ideas of average, mean, mode, median, etc. Statistical methods such as standard deviation and chi-squared tests are often used. It is important to be able to assess how accurate a result is. A key part of the training and skill of scientists is in being able to decide which technique is appropriate in different circumstances.

3.5. It is also very important for scientists to be aware of the cognitive biases that may impact experimental design and interpretation. The confirmation bias, for example, is a well-documented cognitive bias that urges us to find reasons to reject data that is unexpected or does not conform to our expectations or desires, and to perhaps too readily accept data that agrees with these expectations or desires. The processes and methodologies of science are largely designed to account for these biases. However, care must always be taken to avoid succumbing to them.

Nature of science

Physics guide 9

3.6. Although scientists cannot ever be certain that a result or finding is correct, we know that some scientific results are very close to certainty. Scientists often speak of “levels of confidence” when discussing outcomes. The discovery of the existence of a Higgs boson is such an example of a “level of confidence”. This particle may never be directly observable, but to establish its “existence” particle physicists had to pass the self-imposed definition of what can be regarded as a discovery—the 5-sigma “level of certainty”—or about a 0.00003% chance that the effect is not real based on experimental evidence.

3.7. In recent decades, the growth in computing power, sensor technology and networks has allowed scientists to collect large amounts of data. Streams of data are downloaded continuously from many sources such as remote sensing satellites and space probes and large amounts of data are generated in gene sequencing machines. Experiments in CERN’s Large Hadron Collider regularly produce 23 petabytes of data per second, which is equivalent to 13.3 years of high definition TV content per second.

3.8. Research involves analysing large amounts of this data, stored in databases, looking for patterns and unique events. This has to be done using software that is generally written by the scientists involved. The data and the software may not be published with the scientific results but would be made generally available to other researchers.

4. The human face of science4.1. Science is highly collaborative and the scientific community is composed of people working in science,

engineering and technology. It is common to work in teams from many disciplines so that different areas of expertise and specializations can contribute to a common goal that is beyond one scientific field. It is also the case that how a problem is framed in the paradigm of one discipline might limit possible solutions, so framing problems using a variety of perspectives, in which new solutions are possible, can be extremely useful.

4.2. Teamwork of this sort takes place with the common understanding that science should be open-minded and independent of religion, culture, politics, nationality, age and gender. Science involves the free global interchange of information and ideas. Of course, individual scientists are human and may have biases and prejudices, but the institutions, practices and methodologies of science help keep the scientific endeavour as a whole unbiased.

4.3. As well as collaborating on the exchange of results, scientists work on a daily basis in collaborative groups on a small and large scale within and between disciplines, laboratories, organizations and countries, facilitated even more by virtual communication. Examples of large-scale collaboration include:

– The Manhattan project, the aim of which was to build and test an atomic bomb. It eventually employed more than 130,000 people and resulted in the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in secret, culminating in the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

– The Human Genome Project (HGP), which was an international scientific research project set up to map the human genome. The $3-billion project beginning in 1990 produced a draft of the genome in 2000. The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the internet.

– The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), organized under the auspices of the United Nations, is officially composed of about 2,500 scientists. They produce reports summarizing the work of many more scientists from all around the world.

– CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, an international organization set up in 1954, is the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. The laboratory, situated in Geneva, employs about 2,400 people and shares results with 10,000 scientists and engineers covering over 100 nationalities from 600 or more universities and research facilities.

All the above examples are controversial to some degree and have aroused emotions among scientists and the public.

4.4. Scientists spend a considerable amount of time reading the published results of other scientists. They publish their own results in scientific journals after a process called peer review. This is when the work of a scientist or, more usually, a team of scientists is anonymously and independently reviewed by several scientists working in the same field who decide if the research methodologies are sound and if the work represents a new contribution to knowledge in that field. They also attend conferences

Nature of science

Physics guide10

to make presentations and display posters of their work. Publication of peer-reviewed journals on the internet has increased the efficiency with which the scientific literature can be searched and accessed. There are a large number of national and international organizations for scientists working in specialized areas within subjects.

4.5. Scientists often work in areas, or produce findings, that have significant ethical and political implications. These areas include cloning, genetic engineering of food and organisms, stem cell and reproductive technologies, nuclear power, weapons development (nuclear, chemical and biological), transplantation of tissue and organs and in areas that involve testing on animals (see IB animal experimentation policy). There are also questions involving intellectual property rights and the free exchange of information that may impact significantly on a society. Science is undertaken in universities, commercial companies, government organizations, defence agencies and international organizations. Questions of patents and intellectual property rights arise when work is done in a protected environment.

4.6. The integrity and honest representation of data is paramount in science—results should not be fixed or manipulated or doctored. To help ensure academic honesty and guard against plagiarism, all sources are quoted and appropriate acknowledgment made of help or support. Peer review and the scrutiny and skepticism of the scientific community also help achieve these goals.

4.7. All science has to be funded and the source of the funding is crucial in decisions regarding the type of research to be conducted. Funding from governments and charitable foundations is sometimes for pure research with no obvious direct benefit to anyone, whereas funding from private companies is often for applied research to produce a particular product or technology. Political and economic factors often determine the nature and extent of the funding. Scientists often have to spend time applying for research grants and have to make a case for what they want to research.

4.8. Science has been used to solve many problems and improve humankind’s lot, but it has also been used in morally questionable ways and in ways that inadvertently caused problems. Advances in sanitation, clean water supplies and hygiene led to significant decreases in death rates but without compensating decreases in birth rates, this led to huge population increases with all the problems of resources, energy and food supplies that entails. Ethical discussions, risk–benefit analyses, risk assessment and the precautionary principle are all parts of the scientific way of addressing the common good.

5. Scientific literacy and the public understanding of science

5.1. An understanding of the nature of science is vital when society needs to make decisions involving scientific findings and issues. How does the public judge? It may not be possible to make judgments based on the public’s direct understanding of a science, but important questions can be asked about whether scientific processes were followed and scientists have a role in answering such questions.

5.2. As experts in their particular fields, scientists are well placed to explain to the public their issues and findings. Outside their specializations, they may be no more qualified than ordinary citizens to advise others on scientific issues, although their understanding of the processes of science can help them to make personal decisions and to educate the public as to whether claims are scientifically credible.

5.3. As well as comprising knowledge of how scientists work and think, scientific literacy involves being aware of faulty reasoning. There are many cognitive biases/fallacies of reasoning to which people are susceptible (including scientists) and these need to be corrected whenever possible. Examples of these are the confirmation bias, hasty generalizations, post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause), the straw man fallacy, redefinition (moving the goal posts), the appeal to tradition, false authority and the accumulation of anecdotes being regarded as evidence.

5.4. When such biases and fallacies are not properly managed or corrected, or when the processes and checks and balances of science are ignored or misapplied, the result is pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is the term applied to those beliefs and practices that claim to be scientific but do not meet or follow the standards of proper scientific methodologies, ie they lack supporting evidence or a theoretical framework, are not always testable and hence falsifiable, are expressed in a non-rigorous or unclear manner and often fail to be supported by scientific testing.

5.5. Another key issue is the use of appropriate terminology. Words that scientists agree on as being scientific terms will often have a different meaning in everyday life and scientific discourse with the public needs to take this into account. For example, a theory in everyday use means a hunch or speculation, but in science an accepted theory is a scientific idea that has produced predictions that have been thoroughly tested in many different ways. An aerosol is just a spray can to the general public, but in science it is a suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas.

Nature of science

Physics guide 11

5.6. Whatever the field of science—whether it is in pure research, applied research or in engineering new technology—there is boundless scope for creative and imaginative thinking. Science has achieved a great deal but there are many, many unanswered questions to challenge future scientists.

The flow chart below is part of an interactive flow chart showing the scientific process of inquiry in practice. The interactive version can be found at “How science works: The flowchart.” Understanding Science. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 1 February 2013 <http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/scienceflowchart>.

Figure 2

Pathways to scientific discovery

Physics guide1212

Nature of physics

Introduction

“Physics is a tortured assembly of contrary qualities: of scepticism and rationality, of freedom and revolution, of passion and aesthetics, and of soaring imagination and trained common sense.”

Leon M Lederman (Nobel Prize for Physics, 1988)

Physics is the most fundamental of the experimental sciences, as it seeks to explain the universe itself from the very smallest particles—currently accepted as quarks, which may be truly fundamental—to the vast distances between galaxies.

Classical physics, built upon the great pillars of Newtonian mechanics, electromagnetism and thermodynamics, went a long way in deepening our understanding of the universe. From Newtonian mechanics came the idea of predictability in which the universe is deterministic and knowable. This led to Laplace’s boast that by knowing the initial conditions—the position and velocity of every particle in the universe—he could, in principle, predict the future with absolute certainty. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism described the behaviour of electric charge and unified light and electricity, while thermodynamics described the relation between energy transferred due to temperature difference and work and described how all natural processes increase disorder in the universe.

However, experimental discoveries dating from the end of the 19th century eventually led to the demise of the classical picture of the universe as being knowable and predictable. Newtonian mechanics failed when applied to the atom and has been superseded by quantum mechanics and general relativity. Maxwell’s theory could not explain the interaction of radiation with matter and was replaced by quantum electrodynamics (QED). More recently, developments in chaos theory, in which it is now realized that small changes in the initial conditions of a system can lead to completely unpredictable outcomes, have led to a fundamental rethinking in thermodynamics.

While chaos theory shows that Laplace’s boast is hollow, quantum mechanics and QED show that the initial conditions that Laplace required are impossible to establish. Nothing is certain and everything is decided by probability. But there is still much that is unknown and there will undoubtedly be further paradigm shifts as our understanding deepens.

Despite the exciting and extraordinary development of ideas throughout the history of physics, certain aspects have remained unchanged. Observations remain essential to the very core of physics, sometimes requiring a leap of imagination to decide what to look for. Models are developed to try to understand observations, and these themselves can become theories that attempt to explain the observations. Theories are not always directly derived from observations but often need to be created. These acts of creation can be compared to those in great art, literature and music, but differ in one aspect that is unique to science: the predictions of these theories or ideas must be tested by careful experimentation. Without these tests, a theory cannot be quantified. A general or concise statement about how nature behaves, if found to be experimentally valid over a wide range of observed phenomena, is called a law or a principle.

The scientific processes carried out by the most eminent scientists in the past are the same ones followed by working physicists today and, crucially, are also accessible to students in schools. Early in the development of science, physicists were both theoreticians and experimenters (natural philosophers). The body of scientific knowledge has grown in size and complexity, and the tools and skills of theoretical and experimental physicists have become so specialized that it is difficult (if not impossible) to be highly proficient in both

Nature of physics

Physics guide 13

areas. While students should be aware of this, they should also know that the free and rapid interplay of theoretical ideas and experimental results in the public scientific literature maintains the crucial links between these fields.

At the school level both theory and experiments should be undertaken by all students. They should complement one another naturally, as they do in the wider scientific community. The Diploma Programme physics course allows students to develop traditional practical skills and techniques and increase their abilities in the use of mathematics, which is the language of physics. It also allows students to develop interpersonal and digital communication skills which are essential in modern scientific endeavour and are important life-enhancing, transferable skills in their own right.

Alongside the growth in our understanding of the natural world, perhaps the more obvious and relevant result of physics to most of our students is our ability to change the world. This is the technological side of physics, in which physical principles have been applied to construct and alter the material world to suit our needs, and have had a profound influence on the daily lives of all human beings. This raises the issue of the impact of physics on society, the moral and ethical dilemmas, and the social, economic and environmental implications of the work of physicists. These concerns have become more prominent as our power over the environment has grown, particularly among young people, for whom the importance of the responsibility of physicists for their own actions is self-evident.

Physics is therefore, above all, a human activity, and students need to be aware of the context in which physicists work. Illuminating its historical development places the knowledge and the process of physics in a context of dynamic change, in contrast to the static context in which physics has sometimes been presented. This can give students insights into the human side of physics: the individuals; their personalities, times and social milieux; their challenges, disappointments and triumphs.

The Diploma Programme physics course includes the essential principles of the subject but also, through selection of an option, allows teachers some flexibility to tailor the course to meet the needs of their students. The course is available at both SL and HL, and therefore accommodates students who wish to study physics as their major subject in higher education and those who do not.

Teaching approachThere are a variety of approaches to the teaching of physics. By its very nature, physics lends itself to an experimental approach, and it is expected that this will be reflected throughout the course. The order in which the syllabus is arranged is not the order in which it should be taught, and it is up to individual teachers to decide on an arrangement that suits their circumstances. Sections of the option material may be taught within the core or the additional higher level (AHL) material if desired, or the option material can be taught as a separate unit.

Science and the international dimensionScience itself is an international endeavour—the exchange of information and ideas across national boundaries has been essential to the progress of science. This exchange is not a new phenomenon but it has accelerated in recent times with the development of information and communication technologies. Indeed, the idea that science is a Western invention is a myth—many of the foundations of modern-day science were laid many centuries ago by Arabic, Indian and Chinese civilizations, among others. Teachers are encouraged to emphasize this contribution in their teaching of various topics, perhaps through the use of timeline websites. The scientific method in its widest sense, with its emphasis on peer review, open-mindedness and freedom of thought, transcends politics, religion, gender and nationality. Where appropriate within certain topics, the syllabus details sections in the group 4 guides contain links illustrating the international aspects of science.

Nature of physics

Physics guide14

On an organizational level, many international bodies now exist to promote science. United Nations bodies such as UNESCO, UNEP and WMO, where science plays a prominent part, are well known, but in addition there are hundreds of international bodies representing every branch of science. The facilities for large-scale research in, for example, particle physics and the Human Genome Project are expensive, and only joint ventures involving funding from many countries allow this to take place. The data from such research is shared by scientists worldwide. Group 4 teachers and students are encouraged to access the extensive websites and databases of these international scientific organizations to enhance their appreciation of the international dimension.

Increasingly there is a recognition that many scientific problems are international in nature and this has led to a global approach to research in many areas. The reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are a prime example of this. On a practical level, the group 4 project (which all science students must undertake) mirrors the work of real scientists by encouraging collaboration between schools across the regions.

The power of scientific knowledge to transform societies is unparalleled. It has the potential to produce great universal benefits, or to reinforce inequalities and cause harm to people and the environment. In line with the IB mission statement, group 4 students need to be aware of the moral responsibility of scientists to ensure that scientific knowledge and data are available to all countries on an equitable basis and that they have the scientific capacity to use this for developing sustainable societies.

Students’ attention should be drawn to sections of the syllabus with links to international-mindedness. Examples of issues relating to international-mindedness are given within sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers could also use resources found on the Global Engage website (http://globalengage. ibo.org).

Distinction between SL and HLGroup 4 students at standard level (SL) and higher level (HL) undertake a common core syllabus, a common internal assessment (IA) scheme and have some overlapping elements in the option studied. They are presented with a syllabus that encourages the development of certain skills, attributes and attitudes, as described in the “Assessment objectives” section of the guide.

While the skills and activities of group 4 science subjects are common to students at both SL and HL, students at HL are required to study some topics in greater depth, in the additional higher level (AHL) material and in the common options. The distinction between SL and HL is one of breadth and depth.

Prior learningPast experience shows that students will be able to study a group 4 science subject at SL successfully with no background in, or previous knowledge of, science. Their approach to learning, characterized by the IB learner profile attributes, will be significant here.

However, for most students considering the study of a group 4 subject at HL, while there is no intention to restrict access to group 4 subjects, some previous exposure to formal science education would be necessary. Specific topic details are not specified but students who have undertaken the IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) or studied an equivalent national science qualification or a school-based science course would be well prepared for an HL subject.

Links to the Middle Years ProgrammeStudents who have undertaken the MYP science, design and mathematics courses will be well prepared for group 4 subjects. The alignment between MYP science and Diploma Programme group 4 courses allows for a smooth transition for students between programmes. The concurrent planning of the new group 4 courses and MYP: Next Chapter (both launched in 2014) has helped develop a closer alignment.

Nature of physics

Physics guide 15

Scientific inquiry is central to teaching and learning science in the MYP. It enables students to develop a way of thinking and a set of skills and processes that, while allowing them to acquire and use knowledge, equip them with the capabilities to tackle, with confidence, the internal assessment component of group 4 subjects. The vision of MYP sciences is to contribute to the development of students as 21st-century learners. A holistic sciences programme allows students to develop and utilize a mixture of cognitive abilities, social skills, personal motivation, conceptual knowledge and problem-solving competencies within an inquiry-based learning environment (Rhoton 2010). Inquiry aims to support students’ understanding by providing them with opportunities to independently and collaboratively investigate relevant issues through both research and experimentation. This forms a firm base of scientific understanding with deep conceptual roots for students entering group 4 courses.

In the MYP, teachers make decisions about student achievement using their professional judgment, guided by criteria that are public, precise and known in advance, ensuring that assessment is transparent. The IB describes this approach as “criterion-related”—a philosophy of assessment that is neither “norm-referenced” (where students must be compared to each other and to an expected distribution of achievement) nor “criterion-referenced” (where students must master all strands of specific criteria at lower achievement levels before they can be considered to have achieved the next level). It is important to emphasize that the single most important aim of MYP assessment (consistent with the PYP and DP) is to support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Assessments are based upon evaluating course aims and objectives and, therefore, effective teaching to the course requirements also ensures effective teaching for formal assessment requirements. Students need to understand what the assessment expectations, standards and practices are and these should all be introduced early and naturally in teaching, as well as in class and homework activities. Experience with criterion-related assessment greatly assists students entering group 4 courses with understanding internal assessment requirements.

MYP science is a concept-driven curriculum, aimed at helping the learner construct meaning through improved critical thinking and the transfer of knowledge. At the top level are key concepts which are broad, organizing, powerful ideas that have relevance within the science course but also transcend it, having relevance in other subject groups. These key concepts facilitate both disciplinary and interdisciplinary learning as well as making connections with other subjects. While the key concepts provide breadth, the related concepts in MYP science add depth to the programme. The related concept can be considered to be the big idea of the unit which brings focus and depth and leads students towards the conceptual understanding.

Across the MYP there are 16 key concepts with the three highlighted below the focus for MYP science.

The key concepts across the MYP curriculum

Aesthetics Change Communication Communities

Connections Creativity Culture Development

Form Global interactions Identity Logic

Perspective Relationships Systems Time, place and space

MYP students may in addition undertake an optional onscreen concept-based assessment as further preparation for Diploma Programme science courses.

Nature of physics

Physics guide16

Science and theory of knowledgeThe theory of knowledge (TOK) course (first assessment 2015) engages students in reflection on the nature of knowledge and on how we know what we claim to know. The course identifies eight ways of knowing: reason, emotion, language, sense perception, intuition, imagination, faith and memory. Students explore these means of producing knowledge within the context of various areas of knowledge: the natural sciences, the social sciences, the arts, ethics, history, mathematics, religious knowledge systems and indigenous knowledge systems. The course also requires students to make comparisons between the different areas of knowledge, reflecting on how knowledge is arrived at in the various disciplines, what the disciplines have in common, and the differences between them.

TOK lessons can support students in their study of science, just as the study of science can support students in their TOK course. TOK provides a space for students to engage in stimulating wider discussions about questions such as what it means for a discipline to be a science, or whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of scientific knowledge. It also provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the methodologies of science, and how these compare to the methodologies of other areas of knowledge. It is now widely accepted that there is no one scientific method, in the strict Popperian sense. Instead, the sciences utilize a variety of approaches in order to produce explanations for the behaviour of the natural world. The different scientific disciplines share a common focus on utilizing inductive and deductive reasoning, on the importance of evidence, and so on. Students are encouraged to compare and contrast these methods with the methods found in, for example, the arts or in history.

In this way there are rich opportunities for students to make links between their science and TOK courses. One way in which science teachers can help students to make these links to TOK is by drawing students’ attention to knowledge questions that arise from their subject content. Knowledge questions are open-ended questions about knowledge such as:

• How do we distinguish science from pseudoscience?

• When performing experiments, what is the relationship between a scientist’s expectation and their perception?

• How does scientific knowledge progress?

• What is the role of imagination and intuition in the sciences?

• What are the similarities and differences in methods in the natural sciences and the human sciences?

Examples of relevant knowledge questions are provided throughout this guide within the sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers can also find suggestions of interesting knowledge questions for discussion in the “Areas of knowledge” and “Knowledge frameworks” sections of the TOK guide. Students should be encouraged to raise and discuss such knowledge questions in both their science and TOK classes.

Physics guide 1717

Aims

Group 4 aimsThrough studying biology, chemistry or physics, students should become aware of how scientists work and communicate with each other. While the scientific method may take on a wide variety of forms, it is the emphasis on a practical approach through experimental work that characterizes these subjects.

The aims enable students, through the overarching theme of the Nature of science, to:

1. appreciate scientific study and creativity within a global context through stimulating and challenging opportunities

2. acquire a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology

3. apply and use a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology

4. develop an ability to analyse, evaluate and synthesize scientific information

5. develop a critical awareness of the need for, and the value of, effective collaboration and communication during scientific activities

6. develop experimental and investigative scientific skills including the use of current technologies

7. develop and apply 21st-century communication skills in the study of science

8. become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology

9. develop an appreciation of the possibilities and limitations of science and technology

10. develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge.

Introduction

Physics guide1818

Introduction

The assessment objectives for biology, chemistry and physics reflect those parts of the aims that will be formally assessed either internally or externally. These assessments will centre upon the nature of science. It is the intention of these courses that students are able to fullfill the following assessment objectives:

1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:

a. facts, concepts and terminology

b. methodologies and techniques

c. communicating scientific information.

2. Apply:

a. facts, concepts and terminology


c. methods of communicating scientific information.

3. Formulate, analyse and evaluate:

a. hypotheses, research questions and predictions


c. primary and secondary data

d. scientific explanations.

4. Demonstrate the appropriate research, experimental, and personal skills necessary to carry out insightful and ethical investigations.

Assessment objectives

Physics guide 1919

Syllabus outline

Syllabus

Syllabus component

Recommendedteaching hours

SL HL

Core1. Measurements and uncertainties

2. Mechanics

3. Thermal physics

4. Waves

5. Electricity and magnetism

6. Circular motion and gravitation

7. Atomic, nuclear and particle physics

8. Energy production

95

5

22

11

15

15

5

14

8

Additional higher level (AHL)9. Wave phenomena

10. Fields

11. Electromagnetic induction

12. Quantum and nuclear physics

60

17

11

16

16

OptionA. Relativity

B. Engineering physics

C. Imaging

D. Astrophysics

15

15

15

15

15

25

25

25

25

25

Practical scheme of workPractical activities

Individual investigation (internal assessment – IA)

Group 4 project

40

20

10

10

60

40

10

10

Total teaching hours 150 240

The recommended teaching time is 240 hours to complete HL courses and 150 hours to complete SL courses as stated in the document General regulations: Diploma Programme for students and their legal guardians (page 4, article 8.2).

Physics guide2020

Syllabus

Format of the syllabusThe format of the syllabus section of the group 4 guides is the same for each subject. This new structure gives prominence and focus to the teaching and learning aspects.

Topics or optionsTopics are numbered and options are indicated by a letter. For example, “Topic 8: Energy production”, or “Option D: Astrophysics”.

Sub-topicsSub-topics are numbered as follows, “6.1 – Circular motion”. Further information and guidance about possible teaching times are contained in the teacher support material.

Each sub-topic begins with an essential idea. The essential idea is an enduring interpretation that is considered part of the public understanding of science. This is followed by a section on the “Nature of science”. This gives specific examples in context illustrating some aspects of the nature of science. These are linked directly to specific references in the “Nature of science” section of the guide to support teachers in their understanding of the general theme to be addressed.

Under the overarching “Nature of science” theme there are two columns. The first column lists “Understandings”, which are the main general ideas to be taught. There follows an “Applications and skills” section that outlines the specific applications and skills to be developed from the understandings. A “Guidance” section gives information about the limits and constraints and the depth of treatment required for teachers and examiners. The contents of the “Nature of science” section above the two columns and contents of the first column are all legitimate items for assessment. In addition, some assessment of international-mindedness in science, from the content of the second column, will be assessed as in the previous course.

The second column gives suggestion to teachers about relevant references to international-mindedness. It also gives examples of TOK knowledge questions (see Theory of knowledge guide published 2013) that can be used to focus students’ thoughts on the preparation of the TOK prescribed essay title. The links section may link the sub-topic to other parts of the subject syllabus, to other Diploma Programme subject guides or to real-world applications. Finally, the “Aims” section refers to how specific group 4 aims are being addressed in the sub-topic.

Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics


Physics guide 21

Format of the guideTopic 1: <Title>

Essential idea: This lists the essential idea for each sub-topic.

1.1 Sub-topic

Nature of science: Relates the sub-topic to the overarching theme of NOS.

Understandings:

• This section will provide specifics of the content requirements for each sub-topic.

Applications and skills:

• The content of this section gives details of how students are to apply the understandings. For example, these applications could involve demonstrating mathematical calculations or practical skills.

Guidance:

• This section will provide specifics and give constraints to the requirements for the understandings and applications and skills.

Data booklet reference:

• This section will include links to specific sections in the data booklet.

International-mindedness:

• Ideas that teachers can easily integrate into the delivery of their lessons.

Theory of knowledge:

• Examples of TOK knowledge questions.

Utilization:

• Links to other topics within the Physics guide, to a variety of real-world applications and to other Diploma Programme courses.

Aims:

• Links to the group 4 subject aims.

Group 4 experimental skillsI hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.

Confucius

Integral to the experience of students in any of the group 4 courses is their experience in the classroom laboratory or in the field. Practical activities allow students to interact directly with natural phenomena and secondary data sources. These experiences provide the students with the opportunity to design investigations, collect data, develop manipulative skills, analyse results, collaborate with peers and evaluate and communicate their findings. Experiments can be used to introduce a topic, investigate a phenomenon or allow students to consider and examine questions and curiosities.


Physics guide22

By providing students with the opportunity for hands-on experimentation, they are carrying out some of the same processes that scientists undertake. Experimentation allows students to experience the nature of scientific thought and investigation. All scientific theories and laws begin with observations.

It is important that students are involved in an inquiry-based practical programme that allows for the development of scientific inquiry. It is not enough for students just to be able to follow directions and to simply replicate a given experimental procedure; they must be provided with the opportunities for genuine inquiry. Developing scientific inquiry skills will give students the ability to construct an explanation based on reliable evidence and logical reasoning. Once developed, these higher order thinking skills will enable students to be lifelong learners and scientifically literate.

A school’s practical scheme of work should allow students to experience the full breadth and depth of the course including the option. This practical scheme of work must also prepare students to undertake the independent investigation that is required for the internal assessment. The development of students’ manipulative skills should involve them being able to follow instructions accurately and demonstrate the safe, competent and methodical use of a range of techniques and equipment.

The “Applications and skills” section of the syllabus lists specific lab skills, techniques and experiments that students must experience at some point during their study of the group 4 course. Other recommended lab skills, techniques and experiments are listed in the “Aims” section of the syllabus outline.

Aim 6 of the group 4 subjects directly relates to the development of experimental and investigative skills.

Mathematical requirementsAll Diploma Programme physics students should be able to:

• perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

• carry out calculations involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals

• carry out manipulations with trigonometric functions

• carry out manipulations with logarithmic and exponential functions (HL only)

• use standard notation (for example, 3.6 × 106)

• use direct and inverse proportion

• solve simple algebraic equations

• solve linear simultaneous equations

• plot graphs (with suitable scales and axes) including two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships

• interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients, intercepts and areas

• draw lines (either curves or linear) of best fit on a scatter plot graph

• on a best-fit linear graph, construct linear lines of maximum and minimum gradients with relative accuracy (by eye) taking into account all uncertainty bars

• interpret data presented in various forms (for example, bar charts, histograms and pie charts)

• represent arithmetic mean using x-bar notation (for example, x)

• express uncertainties to one or two significant figures, with justification.


Physics guide 23

Data bookletThe data booklet must be viewed as an integral part of the physics programme and should be used throughout the delivery of the course and not just reserved for use during the external assessments. The data booklet contains useful equations, constants, data, structural formulae and tables of information. Explicit links have been provided in the “Syllabus outline” section of the subject guide that provide direct references to information in the data booklet which will allow students to become familiar with its use and contents. It is suggested that the data booklet be used for all in-class study and school-based assessments.

For both SL and HL external assessments, clean copies of the data booklet must be made available to both SL and HL candidates for all papers.

Use of information communication technologyThe use of information communication technology (ICT) is encouraged throughout all aspects of the course in relation to both the practical programme and day-to-day classroom activities. Teachers should make use of the ICT pages of the teacher support materials (TSM).

Planning your courseThe syllabus as provided in the subject guide is not intended to be a teaching order. Instead it provides detail of what must be covered by the end of the course. A school should develop a scheme of work that best works for its students. For example, the scheme of work could be developed to match available resources, to take into account student prior learning and experience, or in conjunction with other local requirements.

HL teachers may choose to teach the core and AHL topics at the same time or teach them in a spiral fashion, by teaching the core topics in year one of the course and revisiting the core topics through the delivery of the AHL topics in year two of the course. The option topic could be taught as a stand-alone topic or could be integrated into the teaching of the core and/or AHL topics.

However the course is planned, adequate time must be provided for examination revision. Time must also be given for students to reflect on their learning experience and their growth as learners.


Physics guide24

The IB learner profileThe physics course contributes to the development of the IB learner profile. By following the course, students will have addressed the attributes of the IB learner profile. For example, the requirements of the internal assessment provide opportunities for students to develop every aspect of the profile. For each attribute of the learner profile, a number of references from the group 4 courses are given below.

Learner profile attribute

Biology, chemistry and physics

Inquirers Aims 2 and 6

Practical work and internal assessment

Knowledgeable Aims 1 and 10, international-mindedness links


Thinkers Aims 3 and 4, theory of knowledge links


Communicators Aims 5 and 7, external assessment

Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project

Principled Aims 8 and 9

Practical work and internal assessment, ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, Animal experimentation policy), academic honesty

Open-minded Aims 8 and 9, international-mindedness links


Caring Aims 8 and 9

Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project, ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, Animal experimentation policy)

Risk-takers Aims 1 and 6


Balanced Aims 8 and 10

Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project and field work

Reflective Aims 5 and 9

Practical work and internal assessment analysis, and group 4 project

Physics guide 2525

Syllabus

Recommended teaching hours

Core 95 hours

Topic 1: Measurements and uncertainties 5

1.1 – Measurements in physics

1.2 – Uncertainties and errors

1.3 – Vectors and scalars

Topic 2: Mechanics 22

2.1 – Motion

2.2 – Forces

2.3 – Work, energy and power

2.4 – Momentum and impulse

Topic 3: Thermal physics 11

3.1 – Thermal concepts

3.2 – Modelling a gas

Topic 4: Waves 15

4.1 – Oscillations

4.2 – Travelling waves

4.3 – Wave characteristics

4.4 – Wave behaviour

4.5 – Standing waves

Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism 15

5.1 – Electric fields

5.2 – Heating effect of electric currents

5.3 – Electric cells

5.4 – Magnetic effects of electric currents

Syllabus content

Syllabus content

Physics guide26

Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation 5

6.1 – Circular motion

6.2 – Newton’s law of gravitation

Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics 14

7.1 – Discrete energy and radioactivity

7.2 – Nuclear reactions

7.3 – The structure of matter

Topic 8: Energy production 8

8.1 – Energy sources

8.2 – Thermal energy transfer

Additional higher level (AHL) 60 hours

Topic 9: Wave phenomena 17

9.1 – Simple harmonic motion

9.2 – Single-slit diffraction

9.3 – Interference

9.4 – Resolution

9.5 – Doppler effect

Topic 10: Fields 11

10.1 – Describing fields

10.2 – Fields at work

Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction 16

11.1 – Electromagnetic induction

11.2 – Power generation and transmission

11.3 – Capacitance

Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics 16

12.1 – The interaction of matter with radiation

12.2 – Nuclear physics

Syllabus content

Physics guide 27

Options 15 hours (SL)/25 hours (HL)A: Relativity

Core topicsA.1 – The beginnings of relativity

A.2 – Lorentz transformations

A.3 – Spacetime diagrams

Additional higher level topicsA.4 – Relativistic mechanics (HL only)

A.5 – General relativity (HL only)

B: Engineering physics

Core topicsB.1 – Rigid bodies and rotational dynamics

B.2 – Thermodynamics

Additional higher level topicsB.3 – Fluids and fluid dynamics (HL only)

B.4 – Forced vibrations and resonance (HL only)

Option C: Imaging

Core topicsC.1 – Introduction to imaging

C.2 – Imaging instrumentation

C.3 – Fibre optics

Additional higher level topicsC.4 – Medical imaging (HL only)

Option D: Astrophysics

Core topicsD.1 – Stellar quantities

D.2 – Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution

D.3 – Cosmology

Additional higher level topicsD.4 – Stellar processes (HL only)

D.5 – Further cosmology (HL only)

Physics guide28

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

ince

194

8, th

e Sy

stèm

e In

tern

atio

nal d

’Uni

tés

(SI)

has

been

use

d as

the

pref

erre

d la

ngua

ge o

f sci

ence

and

tech

nolo

gy a

cros

s th

e gl

obe

and

refle

cts

curr

ent

best

mea

sure

men

t pra

ctic

e.

1.1

– M

easu

rem

ents

in p

hysi

cs

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Com

mon

term

inol

ogy:

Sin

ce th

e 18

th c

entu

ry, s

cien

tists

hav

e so

ught

to e

stab

lish

com

mon

sys

tem

s of

mea

sure

men

ts to

faci

litat

e in

tern

atio

nal c

olla

bora

tion

acro

ss s

cien

ce

disc

iplin

es a

nd e

nsur

e re

plic

atio

n an

d co

mpa

rabi

lity

of e

xper

imen

tal f

indi

ngs.

(1.6

)

Impr

ovem

ent i

n in

stru

men

tatio

n: A

n im

prov

emen

t in

appa

ratu

s an

d in

stru

men

tatio

n, s

uch

as u

sing

the

tran

sitio

n of

ces

ium

-133

ato

ms

for a

tom

ic c

lock

s, h

as le

d to

mor

e re

fined

def

initi

ons

of s

tand

ard

units

. (1.

8)

Cert

aint

y: A

lthou

gh s

cien

tists

are

per

ceiv

ed a

s w

orki

ng to

war

ds fi

ndin

g “e

xact

” ans

wer

s, th

e un

avoi

dabl

e un

cert

aint

y in

any

mea

sure

men

t alw

ays

exis

ts. (

3.6)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Fu

ndam

enta

l and

der

ived

SI u

nits

•Sc

ient

ific

nota

tion

and

met

ric m

ultip

liers

•Si

gnifi

cant

figu

res

•O

rder

s of

mag

nitu

de

•Es

timat

ion

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Sc

ient

ific

colla

bora

tion

is a

ble

to b

e tr

uly

glob

al w

ithou

t the

rest

rictio

ns

of n

atio

nal b

orde

rs o

r lan

guag

e du

e to

the

agre

ed s

tand

ards

for d

ata

repr

esen

tatio

n

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•W

hat h

as in

fluen

ced

the

com

mon

lang

uage

use

d in

sci

ence

? To

wha

t ext

ent

does

hav

ing

a co

mm

on s

tand

ard

appr

oach

to m

easu

rem

ent f

acili

tate

the

shar

ing

of k

now

ledg

e in

phy

sics

?

Topi

c 1:

Mea

sure

men

t and

unc

erta

intie

s 5

hour

s

Core

Topic 1: Measurement and uncertainties

Physics guide 29

1.1

– M

easu

rem

ents

in p

hysi

cs

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•U

sing

SI u

nits

in th

e co

rrec

t for

mat

for a

ll re

quire

d m

easu

rem

ents

, fin

al a

nsw

ers

to c

alcu

latio

ns a

nd p

rese

ntat

ion

of ra

w a

nd p

roce

ssed

dat

a

•U

sing

sci

entif

ic n

otat

ion

and

met

ric m

ultip

liers

•Q

uotin

g an

d co

mpa

ring

ratio

s, v

alue

s and

app

roxi

mat

ions

to th

e ne

ares

t ord

er

of m

agni

tude

•Es

timat

ing

quan

titie

s to

an

appr

opria

te n

umbe

r of s

igni

fican

t fig

ures

Gui

danc

e:

•SI

uni

t usa

ge a

nd in

form

atio

n ca

n be

foun

d at

the

web

site

of B

urea

u In

tern

atio

nal d

es P

oids

et M

esur

es

•St

uden

ts w

ill n

ot n

eed

to k

now

the

defin

ition

of S

I uni

ts e

xcep

t whe

re

expl

icitl

y st

ated

in th

e re

leva

nt to

pics

in th

is g

uide

•Ca

ndel

a is

not

a re

quire

d SI

uni

t for

this

cou

rse

•G

uida

nce

on a

ny u

se o

f non

-SI u

nits

suc

h as

eV,

MeV

c-2

, ly

and

pc w

ill b

e pr

ovid

ed in

the

rele

vant

topi

cs in

this

gui

de

•Fu

rthe

r gui

danc

e on

how

sci

entif

ic n

otat

ion

and

sign

ifica

nt fi

gure

s ar

e us

ed in

ex

amin

atio

ns c

an b

e fo

und

in th

e Te

ache

r sup

port

mat

eria

l

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•M

etric

(SI)

mul

tiplie

rs c

an b

e fo

und

on p

age

5 of

the

phys

ics

data

boo

klet

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

is to

pic

is a

ble

to b

e in

tegr

ated

into

any

topi

c ta

ught

at t

he s

tart

of t

he

cour

se a

nd is

impo

rtan

t to

all t

opic

s

•St

uden

ts s

tudy

ing

mor

e th

an o

ne g

roup

4 s

ubje

ct w

ill b

e ab

le to

use

thes

e sk

ills

acro

ss a

ll su

bjec

ts

•Se

e M

athe

mat

ical

stud

ies S

L su

b-to

pics

1.2

–1.4

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

and

3: t

his

is a

n es

sent

ial a

rea

of k

now

ledg

e th

at a

llow

s sc

ient

ists

to

colla

bora

te a

cros

s th

e gl

obe

•A

im 4

and

5: a

com

mon

app

roac

h to

exp

ress

ing

resu

lts o

f ana

lysi

s,

eval

uatio

n an

d sy

nthe

sis

of s

cien

tific

info

rmat

ion

enab

les

grea

ter s

harin

g an

d co

llabo

ratio

n


Physics guide30

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

cien

tists

aim

tow

ards

des

igni

ng e

xper

imen

ts th

at c

an g

ive

a “t

rue

valu

e” fr

om th

eir m

easu

rem

ents

, but

due

to th

e lim

ited

prec

isio

n in

mea

surin

g de

vice

s,

they

oft

en q

uote

thei

r res

ults

with

som

e fo

rm o

f unc

erta

inty

.

1.2

– U

ncer

tain

ties

and

err

ors

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Unc

erta

intie

s: “A

ll sc

ient

ific

know

ledg

e is

unc

erta

in…

if y

ou h

ave

mad

e up

you

r min

d al

read

y, y

ou m

ight

not

sol

ve it

. Whe

n th

e sc

ient

ist t

ells

you

he

does

not

kno

w th

e an

swer

, he

is a

n ig

nora

nt m

an. W

hen

he te

lls y

ou h

e ha

s a

hunc

h ab

out h

ow it

is g

oing

to w

ork,

he

is u

ncer

tain

abo

ut it

. Whe

n he

is p

rett

y su

re o

f how

it is

goi

ng to

wor

k,

and

he te

lls y

ou, ‘

This

is th

e w

ay it

’s go

ing

to w

ork,

I’ll

bet,’

he

still

is in

som

e do

ubt.

And

it is

of p

aram

ount

impo

rtan

ce, i

n or

der t

o m

ake

prog

ress

, tha

t we

reco

gniz

e th

is

igno

ranc

e an

d th

is d

oubt

. Bec

ause

we

have

the

doub

t, w

e th

en p

ropo

se lo

okin

g in

new

dire

ctio

ns fo

r new

idea

s.” (3

.4)

Feyn

man

, Ric

hard

P. 1

998.

The

Mea

ning

of I

t All:

Tho

ught

s of a

Citi

zen-

Scie

ntist

. Rea

ding

, Mas

sach

uset

ts, U

SA. P

erse

us. P

13.

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ra

ndom

and

sys

tem

atic

err

ors

•A

bsol

ute,

frac

tiona

l and

per

cent

age

unce

rtai

ntie

s

•Er

ror b

ars

•U

ncer

tain

ty o

f gra

dien

t and

inte

rcep

ts

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ex

plai

ning

how

rand

om a

nd s

yste

mat

ic e

rror

s ca

n be

iden

tifie

d an

d re

duce

d

•Co

llect

ing

data

that

incl

ude

abso

lute

and

/or f

ract

iona

l unc

erta

intie

s an

d st

atin

g th

ese

as a

n un

cert

aint

y ra

nge

(exp

ress

ed a

s: be

st e

stim

ate

± un

cert

aint

y ra

nge)

•Pr

opag

atin

g un

cert

aint

ies

thro

ugh

calc

ulat

ions

invo

lvin

g ad

ditio

n,

subt

ract

ion,

mul

tiplic

atio

n, d

ivis

ion

and

rais

ing

to a

pow

er

•D

eter

min

ing

the

unce

rtai

nty

in g

radi

ents

and

inte

rcep

ts

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•“O

ne a

im o

f the

phy

sica

l sci

ence

s ha

s be

en to

giv

e an

exa

ct p

ictu

re o

f the

m

ater

ial w

orld

. One

ach

ieve

men

t of p

hysi

cs in

the

twen

tieth

cen

tury

has

bee

n to

pro

ve th

at th

is a

im is

una

ttai

nabl

e.” –

Jaco

b Br

onow

ski.

Can

scie

ntis

ts e

ver

be tr

uly

cert

ain

of th

eir d

isco

verie

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•St

uden

ts s

tudy

ing

mor

e th

an o

ne g

roup

4 s

ubje

ct w

ill b

e ab

le to

use

thes

e sk

ills

acro

ss a

ll su

bjec

ts


Physics guide 31

1.2

– U

ncer

tain

ties

and

err

ors

Gui

danc

e:

•A

naly

sis

of u

ncer

tain

ties

will

not

be

expe

cted

for t

rigon

omet

ric o

r log

arith

mic

fu

nctio

ns in

exa

min

atio

ns

•Fu

rthe

r gui

danc

e on

how

unc

erta

intie

s, e

rror

bar

s an

d lin

es o

f bes

t fit

are

used

in

exa

min

atio

ns c

an b

e fo

und

in th

e Te

ache

r sup

port

mat

eria

l

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•If

ya

b=

±

then

y

ab

∆=

∆+

∆

•If

yab c

=

then

y y

a ab b

c c∆

=∆

+∆

+∆

•If

yan

=

then

y y

na a

∆=

∆

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: it i

s im

port

ant t

hat s

tude

nts

see

scie

ntifi

c er

rors

and

unc

erta

intie

s no

t on

ly a

s th

e ra

nge

of p

ossi

ble

answ

ers

but a

s an

inte

gral

par

t of t

he s

cien

tific

pr

oces

s

•A

im 9

: the

pro

cess

of u

sing

unc

erta

intie

s in

cla

ssic

al p

hysi

cs c

an b

e co

mpa

red

to th

e vi

ew o

f unc

erta

intie

s in

mod

ern

(and

par

ticul

arly

qua

ntum

) phy

sics


Physics guide32

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

ome

quan

titie

s hav

e di

rect

ion

and

mag

nitu

de, o

ther

s hav

e m

agni

tude

onl

y, a

nd th

is u

nder

stan

ding

is th

e ke

y to

cor

rect

man

ipul

atio

n of

qua

ntiti

es. T

his s

ub-

topi

c w

ill h

ave

broa

d ap

plic

atio

ns a

cros

s m

ultip

le fi

elds

with

in p

hysi

cs a

nd o

ther

sci

ence

s.

1.3

– Ve

ctor

s an

d sc

alar

s

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Mod

els:

Firs

t men

tione

d ex

plic

itly

in a

sci

entif

ic p

aper

in 1

846,

sca

lars

and

vec

tors

refle

cted

the

wor

k of

sci

entis

ts a

nd m

athe

mat

icia

ns a

cros

s th

e gl

obe

for o

ver 3

00 y

ears

on

repr

esen

ting

mea

sure

men

ts in

thre

e-di

men

sion

al s

pace

. (1.

10)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ve

ctor

and

sca

lar q

uant

ities

•Co

mbi

natio

n an

d re

solu

tion

of v

ecto

rs

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g ve

ctor

pro

blem

s gr

aphi

cally

and

alg

ebra

ical

ly

Gui

danc

e:

•Re

solu

tion

of v

ecto

rs w

ill b

e lim

ited

to tw

o pe

rpen

dicu

lar d

irect

ions

•Pr

oble

ms

will

be

limite

d to

add

ition

and

sub

trac

tion

of v

ecto

rs a

nd th

e m

ultip

licat

ion

and

divi

sion

of v

ecto

rs b

y sc

alar

s

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Ve

ctor

not

atio

n fo

rms

the

basi

s of

map

ping

acr

oss

the

glob

e

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•W

hat i

s th

e na

ture

of c

erta

inty

and

pro

of in

mat

hem

atic

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•N

avig

atio

n an

d su

rvey

ing

(see

Geo

grap

hy S

L/H

L sy

llabu

s: G

eogr

aphi

c sk

ills)

•Fo

rce

and

field

str

engt

h (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ics 2

.2, 5

.1, 6

.1 a

nd 1

0.1)

•Ve

ctor

s (s

ee M

athe

mat

ics H

L su

b-to

pic

4.1;

Mat

hem

atic

s SL

sub

-top

ic 4

.1)


Physics guide 33

1.3

– Ve

ctor

s an

d sc

alar

s

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

AV

AH

θ

A

•A

Aco

sH

θ=

•A

Asi

nv

θ=

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

and

3: t

his

is a

fund

amen

tal a

spec

t of s

cien

tific

lang

uage

that

allo

ws

for

spat

ial r

epre

sent

atio

n an

d m

anip

ulat

ion

of a

bstr

act c

once

pts

Core

Physics guide34

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: M

otio

n m

ay b

e de

scrib

ed a

nd a

naly

sed

by th

e us

e of

gra

phs

and

equa

tions

.

2.1

– M

otio

n

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Obs

erva

tions

: The

idea

s of

mot

ion

are

fund

amen

tal t

o m

any

area

s of

phy

sics

, pro

vidi

ng a

link

to th

e co

nsid

erat

ion

of fo

rces

and

thei

r im

plic

atio

n. T

he k

inem

atic

equ

atio

ns

for u

nifo

rm a

ccel

erat

ion

wer

e de

velo

ped

thro

ugh

care

ful o

bser

vatio

ns o

f the

nat

ural

wor

ld. (

1.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•D

ista

nce

and

disp

lace

men

t

•Sp

eed

and

velo

city

•A

ccel

erat

ion

•G

raph

s de

scrib

ing

mot

ion

•Eq

uatio

ns o

f mot

ion

for u

nifo

rm a

ccel

erat

ion

•Pr

ojec

tile

mot

ion

•Fl

uid

resi

stan

ce a

nd te

rmin

al s

peed

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

eter

min

ing

inst

anta

neou

s an

d av

erag

e va

lues

for v

eloc

ity, s

peed

and

ac

cele

ratio

n

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

usin

g eq

uatio

ns o

f mot

ion

for u

nifo

rm a

ccel

erat

ion

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

mot

ion

grap

hs

•D

eter

min

ing

the

acce

lera

tion

of fr

ee-f

all e

xper

imen

tally

•A

naly

sing

pro

ject

ile m

otio

n, in

clud

ing

the

reso

lutio

n of

ver

tical

and

hor

izon

tal

com

pone

nts

of a

ccel

erat

ion,

vel

ocity

and

dis

plac

emen

t

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g th

e ef

fect

of f

luid

resi

stan

ce o

n fa

lling

obj

ects

or

proj

ectil

es, i

nclu

ding

reac

hing

term

inal

spe

ed

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•In

tern

atio

nal c

oope

ratio

n is

nee

ded

for t

rack

ing

ship

ping

, lan

d-ba

sed

tran

spor

t, ai

rcra

ft a

nd o

bjec

ts in

spa

ce

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e in

depe

nden

ce o

f hor

izon

tal a

nd v

ertic

al m

otio

n in

pro

ject

ile m

otio

n se

ems

to b

e co

unte

r-in

tuiti

ve. H

ow d

o sc

ient

ists

wor

k ar

ound

thei

r int

uitio

ns?

How

do

scie

ntis

ts m

ake

use

of th

eir i

ntui

tions

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•D

ivin

g, p

arac

hutin

g an

d si

mila

r act

iviti

es w

here

flui

d re

sist

ance

aff

ects

mot

ion

•Th

e ac

cura

te u

se o

f bal

listic

s re

quire

s ca

refu

l ana

lysi

s

•Bi

omec

hani

cs (s

ee S

port

s, ex

erci

se a

nd h

ealth

scie

nce

SL su

b-to

pic

4.3)

•Q

uadr

atic

func

tions

(see

Mat

hem

atic

s HL

sub-

topi

c 2.

6; M

athe

mat

ics S

L

sub-

topi

c 2.

4; M

athe

mat

ical

stud

ies S

L su

b-to

pic

6.3)

•Th

e ki

nem

atic

equ

atio

ns a

re tr

eate

d in

cal

culu

s fo

rm in

Mat

hem

atic

s HL

su

b-to

pic

6.6

and

Mat

hem

atic

s SL

sub-

topi

c 6.

6

Topi

c 2:

Mec

hani

cs

22 h

ours

Core

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide 35

2.1

– M

otio

n

Gui

danc

e:

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns w

ill b

e re

stric

ted

to th

ose

negl

ectin

g ai

r res

ista

nce

•Pr

ojec

tile

mot

ion

will

onl

y in

volv

e pr

oble

ms

usin

g a

cons

tant

val

ue o

f g c

lose

to

the

surf

ace

of th

e Ea

rth

•Th

e eq

uatio

n of

the

path

of a

pro

ject

ile w

ill n

ot b

e re

quire

d

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•v

uat

=+

•s

utat

1 22

=+

•v

uas2

22

=+

•s

vu

t2

()

=+

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: muc

h of

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f cla

ssic

al p

hysi

cs h

as b

een

built

on

the

adva

nces

in k

inem

atic

s

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

, inc

ludi

ng u

se o

f dat

a lo

ggin

g, c

ould

incl

ude

(but

are

no

t lim

ited

to):

dete

rmin

atio

n of

g, e

stim

atin

g sp

eed

usin

g tr

avel

tim

etab

les,

an

alys

ing

proj

ectil

e m

otio

n, a

nd in

vest

igat

ing

mot

ion

thro

ugh

a flu

id

•A

im 7

: tec

hnol

ogy

has

allo

wed

for m

ore

accu

rate

and

pre

cise

mea

sure

men

ts

of m

otio

n, in

clud

ing

vide

o an

alys

is o

f rea

l-life

pro

ject

iles

and

mod

ellin

g/si

mul

atio

ns o

f ter

min

al v

eloc

ity

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide36

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: C

lass

ical

phy

sics

requ

ires

a fo

rce

to c

hang

e a

stat

e of

mot

ion,

as

sugg

este

d by

New

ton

in h

is la

ws

of m

otio

n.

2.2

– Fo

rces

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Usi

ng m

athe

mat

ics:

Isaa

c N

ewto

n pr

ovid

ed th

e ba

sis

for m

uch

of o

ur u

nder

stan

ding

of f

orce

s an

d m

otio

n by

form

aliz

ing

the

prev

ious

wor

k of

sci

entis

ts th

roug

h th

e ap

plic

atio

n of

mat

hem

atic

s by

inve

ntin

g ca

lcul

us to

ass

ist w

ith th

is. (

2.4)

Intu

ition

: The

tale

of t

he fa

lling

app

le d

escr

ibes

sim

ply

one

of th

e m

any

flash

es o

f int

uitio

n th

at w

ent i

nto

the

publ

icat

ion

of P

hilo

soph

iæ N

atur

alis

Prin

cipi

a M

athe

mat

ica

in

1687

. (1.

5)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•O

bjec

ts a

s po

int p

artic

les

•Fr

ee-b

ody

diag

ram

s

•Tr

ansl

atio

nal e

quili

briu

m

•N

ewto

n’s

law

s of

mot

ion

•So

lid fr

ictio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Re

pres

entin

g fo

rces

as

vect

ors

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

free

-bod

y di

agra

ms

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e co

nseq

uenc

es o

f New

ton’

s fir

st la

w fo

r tra

nsla

tiona

l eq

uilib

rium

•U

sing

New

ton’

s se

cond

law

qua

ntita

tivel

y an

d qu

alita

tivel

y

•Id

entif

ying

forc

e pa

irs in

the

cont

ext o

f New

ton’

s th

ird la

w

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g fo

rces

and

det

erm

inin

g re

sulta

nt fo

rce

•D

escr

ibin

g so

lid fr

ictio

n (s

tatic

and

dyn

amic

) by

coef

ficie

nts

of fr

ictio

n

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Cl

assi

cal p

hysi

cs b

elie

ved

that

the

who

le o

f the

futu

re o

f the

uni

vers

e co

uld

be p

redi

cted

from

kno

wle

dge

of th

e pr

esen

t sta

te. T

o w

hat e

xten

t can

kn

owle

dge

of th

e pr

esen

t giv

e us

kno

wle

dge

of th

e fu

ture

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•M

otio

n of

cha

rged

par

ticle

s in

fiel

ds (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ics 5

.4, 6

.1, 11

.1, 1

2.2)

•A

pplic

atio

n of

fric

tion

in c

ircul

ar m

otio

n (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 6

.1)

•Co

nstr

uctio

n (c

onsi

derin

g an

cien

t and

mod

ern

appr

oach

es to

saf

ety,

lo

ngev

ity a

nd c

onsi

dera

tion

of lo

cal w

eath

er a

nd g

eolo

gica

l inf

luen

ces)

•Bi

omec

hani

cs (s

ee S

port

s, ex

erci

se a

nd h

ealth

scie

nce

SL su

b-to

pic

4.3)

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide 37

2.2

– Fo

rces

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d la

bel f

orce

s us

ing

com

mon

ly a

ccep

ted

nam

es o

r sym

bols

(for

ex

ampl

e: w

eigh

t or f

orce

of g

ravi

ty o

r mg)

•Fr

ee-b

ody

diag

ram

s sh

ould

sho

w s

cale

d ve

ctor

leng

ths

actin

g fr

om th

e po

int

of a

pplic

atio

n

•Ex

ampl

es a

nd q

uest

ions

will

be

limite

d to

con

stan

t mas

s

•m

g sh

ould

be

iden

tifie

d as

wei

ght

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns re

latin

g to

the

dete

rmin

atio

n of

resu

ltant

forc

es w

ill b

e re

stric

ted

to o

ne- a

nd tw

o-di

men

sion

al s

ituat

ions

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•F

ma

=

•F

Rf

sµ≤

•F

Rf

dµ≤

Aim

s:

•A

ims

2 an

d 3:

New

ton’

s w

ork

is o

ften

des

crib

ed b

y th

e qu

ote

from

a le

tter

he

wro

te to

his

riva

l, Ro

bert

Hoo

ke, 1

1 ye

ars

befo

re th

e pu

blic

atio

n of

Phi

loso

phiæ

N

atur

alis

Prin

cipi

a M

athe

mat

ica,

whi

ch s

tate

s: “W

hat D

esca

rtes

did

was

a g

ood

step

. You

hav

e ad

ded

muc

h se

vera

l way

s, an

d es

peci

ally

in ta

king

the

colo

urs o

f th

in p

late

s int

o ph

iloso

phic

al co

nsid

erat

ion.

If I h

ave

seen

a li

ttle

furt

her i

t is b

y st

andi

ng o

n th

e sh

ould

ers o

f Gia

nts.”

It s

houl

d be

rem

embe

red

that

this

quo

te is

al

so in

spire

d, th

is ti

me

by w

riter

s w

ho h

ad b

een

usin

g ve

rsio

ns o

f it f

or a

t lea

st

500

year

s be

fore

New

ton’

s tim

e.

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ve

rific

atio

n of

N

ewto

n’s

seco

nd la

w; i

nves

tigat

ing

forc

es in

equ

ilibr

ium

; det

erm

inat

ion

of th

e ef

fect

s of

fric

tion

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide38

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he fu

ndam

enta

l con

cept

of e

nerg

y la

ys th

e ba

sis

upon

whi

ch m

uch

of s

cien

ce is

bui

lt.

2.3

– W

ork,

ene

rgy

and

pow

er

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Theo

ries:

Man

y ph

enom

ena

can

be fu

ndam

enta

lly u

nder

stoo

d th

roug

h ap

plic

atio

n of

the

theo

ry o

f con

serv

atio

n of

ene

rgy.

Ove

r tim

e, s

cien

tists

hav

e ut

ilize

d th

is th

eory

bo

th to

exp

lain

nat

ural

phe

nom

ena

and,

mor

e im

port

antly

, to

pred

ict t

he o

utco

me

of p

revi

ousl

y un

know

n in

tera

ctio

ns. T

he c

once

pt o

f ene

rgy

has

evol

ved

as a

resu

lt of

re

cogn

ition

of t

he re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n m

ass

and

ener

gy. (

2.2)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ki

netic

ene

rgy

•G

ravi

tatio

nal p

oten

tial e

nerg

y

•El

astic

pot

entia

l ene

rgy

•W

ork

done

as

ener

gy tr

ansf

er

•Po

wer

as

rate

of e

nerg

y tr

ansf

er

•Pr

inci

ple

of c

onse

rvat

ion

of e

nerg

y

•Ef

ficie

ncy

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

iscu

ssin

g th

e co

nser

vatio

n of

tota

l ene

rgy

with

in e

nerg

y tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

forc

e–di

stan

ce g

raph

s

•D

eter

min

ing

wor

k do

ne in

clud

ing

case

s w

here

a re

sist

ive

forc

e ac

ts

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g po

wer

•Q

uant

itativ

ely

desc

ribin

g ef

ficie

ncy

in e

nerg

y tr

ansf

ers

Gui

danc

e:

•Ca

ses

whe

re th

e lin

e of

act

ion

of th

e fo

rce

and

the

disp

lace

men

t are

not

pa

ralle

l sho

uld

be c

onsi

dere

d

•Ex

ampl

es s

houl

d in

clud

e fo

rce–

dist

ance

gra

phs

for v

aria

ble

forc

es

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•To

wha

t ext

ent i

s sc

ient

ific

know

ledg

e ba

sed

on fu

ndam

enta

l con

cept

s su

ch

as e

nerg

y? W

hat h

appe

ns to

sci

entif

ic k

now

ledg

e w

hen

our u

nder

stan

ding

of

such

fund

amen

tal c

once

pts

chan

ges

or e

volv

es?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•En

ergy

is a

lso

cove

red

in o

ther

gro

up 4

sub

ject

s (fo

r exa

mpl

e, s

ee: B

iolo

gy

topi

cs 2

, 4 a

nd 8

; Che

mist

ry to

pics

5, 1

5, a

nd C

; Spo

rts,

exer

cise

and

hea

lth

scie

nce

topi

cs 3

, A.2

, C.3

and

D.3

; Env

ironm

enta

l sys

tem

s and

soci

etie

s top

ics

1,

2, a

nd 3

)

•En

ergy

con

vers

ions

are

ess

entia

l for

ele

ctric

al e

nerg

y ge

nera

tion

(see

Phy

sics

topi

c 5

and

sub-

topi

c 8.

1)

•En

ergy

cha

nges

occ

urrin

g in

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion

(see

Phy

sics s

ub-t

opic

s 4.

1 an

d 9.

1)

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide 39

2.3

– W

ork,

ene

rgy

and

pow

er

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•W

Fsco

sθ=

•E

mv

1 2K

2=

•=

∆E

kx

1 2P

2

•E

mg

hP

∆=

∆

•Fv

pow

er=

•Ef

ficie

ncy

=us

eful

wor

kou

tto

talw

ork

in=

usef

ulpo

wer

out

tota

lpow

erin

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): re

latio

nshi

p of

ki

netic

and

gra

vita

tiona

l pot

entia

l ene

rgy

for a

falli

ng m

ass;

pow

er a

nd

effic

ienc

y of

mec

hani

cal o

bjec

ts; c

ompa

rison

of d

iffer

ent s

ituat

ions

invo

lvin

g el

astic

pot

entia

l ene

rgy

•A

im 8

: by

linki

ng th

is s

ub-t

opic

with

topi

c 8,

stu

dent

s sh

ould

be

awar

e of

th

e im

port

ance

of e

ffic

ienc

y an

d its

impa

ct o

f con

serv

ing

the

fuel

use

d fo

r en

ergy

pro

duct

ion

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide40

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: C

onse

rvat

ion

of m

omen

tum

is a

n ex

ampl

e of

a la

w th

at is

nev

er v

iola

ted.

2.4

– M

omen

tum

and

impu

lse

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

The

conc

ept o

f mom

entu

m a

nd th

e pr

inci

ple

of m

omen

tum

con

serv

atio

n ca

n be

use

d to

ana

lyse

and

pre

dict

the

outc

ome

of a

wid

e ra

nge

of p

hysi

cal i

nter

actio

ns, f

rom

m

acro

scop

ic m

otio

n to

mic

rosc

opic

col

lisio

ns. (

1.9)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•N

ewto

n’s

seco

nd la

w e

xpre

ssed

in te

rms

of ra

te o

f cha

nge

of m

omen

tum

•Im

puls

e an

d fo

rce–

time

grap

hs

•Co

nser

vatio

n of

line

ar m

omen

tum

•El

astic

col

lisio

ns, i

nela

stic

col

lisio

ns a

nd e

xplo

sion

s

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ap

plyi

ng c

onse

rvat

ion

of m

omen

tum

in si

mpl

e iso

late

d sy

stem

s inc

ludi

ng (b

ut

not l

imite

d to

) col

lisio

ns, e

xplo

sions

, or w

ater

jets

•U

sing

New

ton’

s se

cond

law

qua

ntita

tivel

y an

d qu

alita

tivel

y in

cas

es w

here

m

ass

is n

ot c

onst

ant

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

forc

e–tim

e gr

aphs

•D

eter

min

ing

impu

lse

in v

ario

us c

onte

xts

incl

udin

g (b

ut n

ot li

mite

d to

) car

sa

fety

and

spo

rts

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

and

quan

titat

ivel

y co

mpa

ring

situ

atio

ns in

volv

ing

elas

tic

colli

sion

s, in

elas

tic c

ollis

ions

and

exp

losi

ons

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Au

tom

obile

pas

sive

saf

ety

stan

dard

s ha

ve b

een

adop

ted

acro

ss th

e gl

obe

base

d on

rese

arch

con

duct

ed in

man

y co

untr

ies

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•D

o co

nser

vatio

n la

ws

rest

rict o

r ena

ble

furt

her d

evel

opm

ent i

n ph

ysic

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Je

t eng

ines

and

rock

ets

Mar

tial

art

s

•Pa

rtic

le th

eory

and

col

lisio

ns (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 3

.1)

Topic 2: Mechanics

Physics guide 41

2.4

– M

omen

tum

and

impu

lse

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

aw

are

that

F =

ma

is e

quiv

alen

t of

Fp t

=∆ ∆

onl

y w

hen

mas

s

is c

onst

ant

•So

lvin

g si

mul

tane

ous

equa

tions

invo

lvin

g co

nser

vatio

n of

mom

entu

m a

nd

ener

gy in

col

lisio

ns w

ill n

ot b

e re

quire

d

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns re

latin

g to

col

lisio

ns a

nd e

xplo

sion

s w

ill b

e re

stric

ted

to o

ne-

dim

ensi

onal

situ

atio

ns

•A

com

paris

on b

etw

een

ener

gy in

volv

ed in

inel

astic

col

lisio

ns (i

n w

hich

kin

etic

en

ergy

is n

ot c

onse

rved

) and

the

cons

erva

tion

of (t

otal

) ene

rgy

shou

ld b

e m

ade

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•p

mv

=

•F

p t=

∆ ∆

• E

p m2K

2

=

•F

tp

Impu

lse

=∆

=∆

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: con

serv

atio

n la

ws

in s

cien

ce d

isci

plin

es h

ave

play

ed a

maj

or ro

le in

ou

tlini

ng th

e lim

its w

ithin

whi

ch s

cien

tific

theo

ries

are

deve

lope

d

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): an

alys

is o

f co

llisi

ons

with

resp

ect t

o en

ergy

tran

sfer

; im

puls

e in

vest

igat

ions

to

dete

rmin

e ve

loci

ty, f

orce

, tim

e, o

r mas

s; de

term

inat

ion

of a

mou

nt o

f tr

ansf

orm

ed e

nerg

y in

inel

astic

col

lisio

ns

•A

im 7

: tec

hnol

ogy

has

allo

wed

for m

ore

accu

rate

and

pre

cise

mea

sure

men

ts

of fo

rce

and

mom

entu

m, i

nclu

ding

vid

eo a

naly

sis

of re

al-li

fe c

ollis

ions

and

m

odel

ling/

sim

ulat

ions

of m

olec

ular

col

lisio

ns

Physics guide42

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

herm

al p

hysi

cs d

eftly

dem

onst

rate

s th

e lin

ks b

etw

een

the

mac

rosc

opic

mea

sure

men

ts e

ssen

tial t

o m

any

scie

ntifi

c m

odel

s w

ith th

e m

icro

scop

ic p

rope

rtie

s th

at u

nder

lie th

ese

mod

els.

3.1

– Th

erm

al c

once

pts

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Evid

ence

thro

ugh

expe

rimen

tatio

n: S

cien

tists

from

the

17th

and

18t

h ce

ntur

ies

wer

e w

orki

ng w

ithou

t the

kno

wle

dge

of a

tom

ic s

truc

ture

and

som

etim

es d

evel

oped

th

eorie

s th

at w

ere

late

r fou

nd to

be

inco

rrec

t, su

ch a

s ph

logi

ston

and

per

petu

al m

otio

n ca

pabi

litie

s. O

ur c

urre

nt u

nder

stan

ding

relie

s on

sta

tistic

al m

echa

nics

pro

vidi

ng a

ba

sis

for o

ur u

se a

nd u

nder

stan

ding

of e

nerg

y tr

ansf

er in

sci

ence

. (1.

8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•M

olec

ular

theo

ry o

f sol

ids,

liqu

ids

and

gase

s

•Te

mpe

ratu

re a

nd a

bsol

ute

tem

pera

ture

•In

tern

al e

nerg

y

•Sp

ecifi

c he

at c

apac

ity

•Ph

ase

chan

ge

•Sp

ecifi

c la

tent

hea

t

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g te

mpe

ratu

re c

hang

e in

term

s of

inte

rnal

ene

rgy

•U

sing

Kel

vin

and

Cels

ius

tem

pera

ture

sca

les

and

conv

ertin

g be

twee

n th

em

•A

pply

ing

the

calo

rimet

ric te

chni

ques

of s

peci

fic h

eat c

apac

ity o

r spe

cific

la

tent

hea

t exp

erim

enta

lly

•D

escr

ibin

g ph

ase

chan

ge in

term

s of

mol

ecul

ar b

ehav

iour

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

phas

e ch

ange

gra

phs

•Ca

lcul

atin

g en

ergy

cha

nges

invo

lvin

g sp

ecifi

c he

at c

apac

ity a

nd s

peci

fic la

tent

he

at o

f fus

ion

and

vapo

rizat

ion

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e to

pic

of th

erm

al p

hysi

cs is

a g

ood

exam

ple

of th

e us

e of

inte

rnat

iona

l sy

stem

s of

mea

sure

men

t tha

t allo

w s

cien

tists

to c

olla

bora

te e

ffec

tivel

y

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•O

bser

vatio

n th

roug

h se

nse

perc

eptio

n pl

ays

a ke

y ro

le in

mak

ing

mea

sure

men

ts. D

oes

sens

e pe

rcep

tion

play

diff

eren

t rol

es in

diff

eren

t are

as

of k

now

ledg

e?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Pr

essu

re g

auge

s, b

arom

eter

s an

d m

anom

eter

s ar

e a

good

way

to p

rese

nt

aspe

cts

of th

is s

ub-t

opic

•H

ighe

r lev

el s

tude

nts,

esp

ecia

lly th

ose

stud

ying

opt

ion

B, c

an b

e sh

own

links

to

ther

mod

ynam

ics

(see

Phy

sics t

opic

9 a

nd o

ptio

n su

b-to

pic

B.4)

•Pa

rtic

ulat

e na

ture

of m

atte

r (se

e Ch

emist

ry su

b-to

pic

1.3)

and

mea

surin

g en

ergy

ch

ange

s (se

e Ch

emist

ry su

b-to

pic

5.1)

•W

ater

(see

Bio

logy

sub

-top

ic 2

.2)

Topi

c 3:

The

rmal

phy

sics

11

hou

rs

Core

Topic 3: Thermal physics

Physics guide 43

3.1

– Th

erm

al c

once

pts

Gui

danc

e:

•In

tern

al e

nerg

y is

take

n to

be

the

tota

l int

erm

olec

ular

pot

entia

l ene

rgy

+ th

e to

tal r

ando

m k

inet

ic e

nerg

y of

the

mol

ecul

es

•Ph

ase

chan

ge g

raph

s m

ay h

ave

axes

of t

empe

ratu

re v

ersu

s tim

e or

te

mpe

ratu

re v

ersu

s en

ergy

•Th

e ef

fect

s of

coo

ling

shou

ld b

e un

ders

tood

qua

litat

ivel

y bu

t coo

ling

corr

ectio

n ca

lcul

atio

ns a

re n

ot re

quire

d

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•Q

mc

T=

∆

•Q

mL

=

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

ther

mal

con

cept

s is

a fu

ndam

enta

l asp

ect o

f m

any

area

s of

sci

ence

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): tr

ansf

er o

f ene

rgy

due

to te

mpe

ratu

re d

iffer

ence

; cal

orim

etric

inve

stig

atio

ns; e

nerg

y in

volv

ed in

ph

ase

chan

ges


Physics guide44

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he p

rope

rtie

s of

idea

l gas

es a

llow

sci

entis

ts to

mak

e pr

edic

tions

of t

he b

ehav

iour

of r

eal g

ases

.

3.2

– M

odel

ling

a ga

s

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Colla

bora

tion:

Sci

entis

ts in

the

19th

cen

tury

mad

e va

luab

le p

rogr

ess

on th

e m

oder

n th

eorie

s th

at fo

rm th

e ba

sis

of th

erm

odyn

amic

s, m

akin

g im

port

ant l

inks

with

oth

er

scie

nces

, esp

ecia

lly c

hem

istr

y. T

he s

cien

tific

met

hod

was

in e

vide

nce

with

con

tras

ting

but c

ompl

emen

tary

sta

tem

ents

of s

ome

law

s de

rived

by

diff

eren

t sci

entis

ts.

Empi

rical

and

theo

retic

al th

inki

ng b

oth

have

thei

r pla

ce in

sci

ence

and

this

is e

vide

nt in

the

com

paris

on b

etw

een

the

unat

tain

able

idea

l gas

and

real

gas

es. (

4.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Pr

essu

re

•Eq

uatio

n of

sta

te fo

r an

idea

l gas

•Ki

netic

mod

el o

f an

idea

l gas

•M

ole,

mol

ar m

ass

and

the

Avog

adro

con

stan

t

•D

iffer

ence

s be

twee

n re

al a

nd id

eal g

ases

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

usin

g th

e eq

uatio

n of

sta

te fo

r an

idea

l gas

and

gas

law

s

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

chan

ges

of s

tate

of a

n id

eal g

as o

n pr

essu

re–

volu

me,

pre

ssur

e–te

mpe

ratu

re a

nd v

olum

e–te

mpe

ratu

re d

iagr

ams

•In

vest

igat

ing

at le

ast o

ne g

as la

w e

xper

imen

tally

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

aw

are

of th

e as

sum

ptio

ns th

at u

nder

pin

the

mol

ecul

ar

kine

tic th

eory

of i

deal

gas

es

•G

as la

ws

are

limite

d to

con

stan

t vol

ume,

con

stan

t tem

pera

ture

, con

stan

t pr

essu

re a

nd th

e id

eal g

as la

w

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d un

ders

tand

that

a re

al g

as a

ppro

xim

ates

to a

n id

eal g

as a

t co

nditi

ons

of lo

w p

ress

ure,

mod

erat

e te

mpe

ratu

re a

nd lo

w d

ensi

ty

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•W

hen

does

mod

ellin

g of

“ide

al” s

ituat

ions

bec

ome

“goo

d en

ough

” to

coun

t as

know

ledg

e?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Tr

ansp

ort o

f gas

es in

liqu

id fo

rm o

r at h

igh

pres

sure

s/de

nsiti

es is

com

mon

pr

actic

e ac

ross

the

glob

e. B

ehav

iour

of r

eal g

ases

und

er e

xtre

me

cond

ition

s ne

eds

to b

e ca

refu

lly c

onsi

dere

d in

thes

e si

tuat

ions

.

•Co

nsid

erat

ion

of th

erm

odyn

amic

pro

cess

es is

ess

entia

l to

man

y ar

eas

of

chem

istr

y (s

ee C

hem

istry

sub

-top

ic 1

.3)

•Re

spira

tion

proc

esse

s (s

ee B

iolo

gy s

ub-t

opic

D.6

)

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: thi

s is

a g

ood

topi

c to

mak

e co

mpa

rison

s be

twee

n em

piric

al a

nd

theo

retic

al th

inki

ng in

sci

ence

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ve

rific

atio

n of

gas

la

ws;

calc

ulat

ion

of th

e Av

ogad

ro c

onst

ant;

virt

ual i

nves

tigat

ion

of g

as la

w

para

met

ers

not p

ossi

ble

with

in a

sch

ool l

abor

ator

y se

ttin

g


Physics guide 45

3.2

– M

odel

ling

a ga

s

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•p

F A=

• n

N NA

=

•pV

nRT

=

• E

kT

R NT

3 23 2

KB

A

==

Physics guide46

Esse

nti

al id

ea: A

stu

dy

of o

scill

atio

ns u

nder

pin

s m

any

area

s of

phy

sics

wit

h si

mp

le h

arm

onic

mot

ion

(shm

), a

fund

amen

tal o

scill

atio

n th

at a

pp

ears

in v

ario

us

natu

ral p

heno

men

a.

4.1

– O

scill

atio

ns

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Mod

els:

Osc

illat

ions

pla

y a

grea

t par

t in

our l

ives

, fro

m th

e tid

es to

the

mot

ion

of th

e sw

ingi

ng p

endu

lum

that

onc

e go

vern

ed o

ur p

erce

ptio

n of

tim

e. G

ener

al p

rinci

ples

go

vern

this

are

a of

phy

sics

, fro

m w

ater

wav

es in

the

deep

oce

an o

r the

osc

illat

ions

of a

car

sus

pens

ion

syst

em. T

his

intr

oduc

tion

to th

e to

pic

rem

inds

us

that

not

all

osci

llatio

ns a

re is

ochr

onou

s. H

owev

er, t

he s

impl

e ha

rmon

ic o

scill

ator

is o

f gre

at im

port

ance

to p

hysi

cist

s be

caus

e al

l per

iodi

c os

cilla

tions

can

be

desc

ribed

thro

ugh

the

mat

hem

atic

s of

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion.

(1.1

0)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic o

scill

atio

ns

•Ti

me

perio

d, fr

eque

ncy,

am

plitu

de, d

ispl

acem

ent a

nd p

hase

diff

eren

ce

•Co

nditi

ons

for s

impl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g th

e en

ergy

cha

nges

taki

ng p

lace

dur

ing

one

cycl

e of

an

osc

illat

ion

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

grap

hs o

f sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion

exam

ples

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•O

scill

atio

ns a

re u

sed

to d

efin

e th

e tim

e sy

stem

s on

whi

ch n

atio

ns a

gree

so

that

the

wor

ld c

an b

e ke

pt in

syn

chro

niza

tion.

Thi

s im

pact

s m

ost a

reas

of o

ur

lives

incl

udin

g th

e pr

ovis

ion

of e

lect

ricity

, tra

vel a

nd lo

catio

n-de

term

inin

g de

vice

s an

d al

l mic

roel

ectr

onic

s.

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e ha

rmon

ic o

scill

ator

is a

par

adig

m fo

r mod

ellin

g w

here

a s

impl

e eq

uatio

n is

use

d to

des

crib

e a

com

plex

phe

nom

enon

. How

do

scie

ntis

ts k

now

whe

n a

sim

ple

mod

el is

not

det

aile

d en

ough

for t

heir

requ

irem

ents

?

Topi

c 4:

Wav

es

15 h

ours

Core

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide 47

4.1

– O

scill

atio

ns

Gui

danc

e:

•G

raph

s de

scrib

ing

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion

shou

ld in

clud

e di

spla

cem

ent–

time,

vel

ocity

–tim

e, a

ccel

erat

ion–

time

and

acce

lera

tion–

disp

lace

men

t

•St

uden

ts a

re e

xpec

ted

to u

nder

stan

d th

e si

gnifi

canc

e of

the

nega

tive

sign

in

the

rela

tions

hip:

ax

∝−

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•T

f1=

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Is

ochr

onou

s os

cilla

tions

can

be

used

to m

easu

re ti

me

•M

any

syst

ems

can

appr

oxim

ate

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion:

mas

s on

a s

prin

g,

fluid

in U

-tub

e, m

odel

s of

iceb

ergs

osc

illat

ing

vert

ical

ly in

the

ocea

n, a

nd

mot

ion

of a

sph

ere

rolli

ng in

a c

onca

ve m

irror

•Si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n is

freq

uent

ly fo

und

in th

e co

ntex

t of m

echa

nics

(see

Ph

ysic

s top

ic 2

)

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): m

ass

on a

spr

ing;

si

mpl

e pe

ndul

um; m

otio

n on

a c

urve

d ai

r tra

ck

•A

im 7

: IT

skill

s ca

n be

use

d to

mod

el th

e si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n de

finin

g eq

uatio

n; th

is g

ives

val

uabl

e in

sigh

t int

o th

e m

eani

ng o

f the

equ

atio

n its

elf

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide48

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

here

are

man

y fo

rms

of w

aves

ava

ilabl

e to

be

stud

ied.

A c

omm

on c

hara

cter

istic

of a

ll tr

avel

ling

wav

es is

that

they

car

ry e

nerg

y, b

ut g

ener

ally

the

med

ium

th

roug

h w

hich

they

trav

el w

ill n

ot b

e pe

rman

ently

dis

turb

ed.

4.2

– Tr

avel

ling

wav

es

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Patt

erns

, tre

nds

and

disc

repa

ncie

s: Sc

ient

ists

hav

e di

scov

ered

com

mon

feat

ures

of w

ave

mot

ion

thro

ugh

care

ful o

bser

vatio

ns o

f the

nat

ural

wor

ld, l

ooki

ng fo

r pat

tern

s,

tren

ds a

nd d

iscr

epan

cies

and

ask

ing

furt

her q

uest

ions

bas

ed o

n th

ese

findi

ngs.

(3.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Tr

avel

ling

wav

es

•W

avel

engt

h, fr

eque

ncy,

per

iod

and

wav

e sp

eed

•Tr

ansv

erse

and

long

itudi

nal w

aves

•Th

e na

ture

of e

lect

rom

agne

tic w

aves

•Th

e na

ture

of s

ound

wav

es

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ex

plai

ning

the

mot

ion

of p

artic

les

of a

med

ium

whe

n a

wav

e pa

sses

thro

ugh

it fo

r bot

h tr

ansv

erse

and

long

itudi

nal c

ases

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

disp

lace

men

t–di

stan

ce g

raph

s an

d di

spla

cem

ent–

time

grap

hs fo

r tra

nsve

rse

and

long

itudi

nal w

aves

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g w

ave

spee

d, fr

eque

ncy

and

wav

elen

gth

•In

vest

igat

ing

the

spee

d of

sou

nd e

xper

imen

tally

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

der

ive

λ=

cf

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

aw

are

of th

e or

der o

f mag

nitu

de o

f the

wav

elen

gths

of

radi

o, m

icro

wav

e, in

fra-

red,

vis

ible

, ultr

avio

let,

X-ra

y an

d ga

mm

a ra

ys

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•λ

=c

f

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•El

ectr

omag

netic

wav

es a

re u

sed

exte

nsiv

ely

for n

atio

nal a

nd in

tern

atio

nal

com

mun

icat

ion

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Sc

ient

ists

oft

en tr

ansf

er th

eir p

erce

ptio

n of

tang

ible

and

vis

ible

con

cept

s to

ex

plai

n si

mila

r non

-vis

ible

con

cept

s, s

uch

as in

wav

e th

eory

. How

do

scie

ntis

ts

expl

ain

conc

epts

that

hav

e no

tang

ible

or v

isib

le q

ualit

y?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Co

mm

unic

atio

n us

ing

both

sou

nd (l

ocal

ly) a

nd e

lect

rom

agne

tic w

aves

(nea

r an

d fa

r) in

volv

e w

ave

theo

ry

•Em

issi

on s

pect

ra a

re a

naly

sed

by c

ompa

rison

to th

e el

ectr

omag

netic

wav

e sp

ectr

um (s

ee C

hem

istry

topi

c 2

and

Phys

ics s

ub-t

opic

12.

1)

•Si

ght (

see

Biol

ogy

sub-

topi

c A.

2)

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: the

re is

a c

omm

on b

ody

of k

now

ledg

e an

d te

chni

ques

invo

lved

in

wav

e th

eory

that

is a

pplic

able

acr

oss

man

y ar

eas

of p

hysi

cs

•A

im 4

: the

re a

re o

ppor

tuni

ties

for t

he a

naly

sis

of d

ata

to a

rriv

e at

som

e of

the

mod

els

in th

is s

ectio

n fr

om fi

rst p

rinci

ples

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): sp

eed

of w

aves

in

diff

eren

t med

ia; d

etec

tion

of e

lect

rom

agne

tic w

aves

from

var

ious

sou

rces

; us

e of

ech

o m

etho

ds (o

r sim

ilar)

for d

eter

min

ing

wav

e sp

eed,

wav

elen

gth,

di

stan

ce, o

r med

ium

ela

stic

ity a

nd/o

r den

sity

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide 49

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: A

ll w

aves

can

be

desc

ribed

by

the

sam

e se

ts o

f mat

hem

atic

al id

eas.

Det

aile

d kn

owle

dge

of o

ne a

rea

lead

s to

the

poss

ibili

ty o

f pre

dict

ion

in a

noth

er.

4.3

– W

ave

char

acte

rist

ics

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Imag

inat

ion:

It is

spe

cula

ted

that

pol

ariz

atio

n ha

d be

en u

tiliz

ed b

y th

e Vi

king

s th

roug

h th

eir u

se o

f Ice

land

Spa

r ove

r 130

0 ye

ars

ago

for n

avig

atio

n (p

rior t

o th

e in

trod

uctio

n of

the

mag

netic

com

pass

). Sc

ient

ists

acr

oss

Euro

pe in

the

17th

–19t

h ce

ntur

ies

cont

inue

d to

con

trib

ute

to w

ave

theo

ry b

y bu

ildin

g on

the

theo

ries

and

mod

els

prop

osed

as

our u

nder

stan

ding

dev

elop

ed. (

1.4)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•W

avef

ront

s an

d ra

ys

•A

mpl

itude

and

inte

nsity

•Su

perp

ositi

on

•Po

lariz

atio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

diag

ram

s in

volv

ing

wav

efro

nts

and

rays

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g am

plitu

de, i

nten

sity

and

the

inve

rse

squa

re la

w

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

the

supe

rpos

ition

of p

ulse

s an

d w

aves

•D

escr

ibin

g m

etho

ds o

f pol

ariz

atio

n

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

diag

ram

s ill

ustr

atin

g po

lariz

ed, r

efle

cted

and

tr

ansm

itted

bea

ms

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g M

alus

’s la

w

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

cal

cula

te th

e re

sulta

nt o

f tw

o w

aves

or p

ulse

s bo

th g

raph

ical

ly a

nd a

lgeb

raic

ally

•M

etho

ds o

f pol

ariz

atio

n w

ill b

e re

stric

ted

to th

e us

e of

pol

ariz

ing

filte

rs a

nd

refle

ctio

n fr

om a

non

-met

allic

pla

ne s

urfa

ce

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•I

A2∝

•I

x2

∝−

•I

Ico

s0

2θ

=

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•W

avef

ront

s an

d ra

ys a

re v

isua

lizat

ions

that

hel

p ou

r und

erst

andi

ng o

f re

ality

, cha

ract

eris

tic o

f mod

ellin

g in

the

phys

ical

sci

ence

s. H

ow d

oes

the

met

hodo

logy

use

d in

the

natu

ral s

cien

ces

diff

er fr

om th

e m

etho

dolo

gy u

sed

in th

e hu

man

sci

ence

s?

•H

ow m

uch

deta

il do

es a

mod

el n

eed

to c

onta

in to

acc

urat

ely

repr

esen

t re

ality

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

num

ber o

f mod

ern

tech

nolo

gies

, suc

h as

LCD

dis

play

s, re

ly o

n po

lariz

atio

n fo

r the

ir op

erat

ion

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: the

se u

nive

rsal

beh

avio

urs

of w

aves

are

app

lied

in la

ter s

ectio

ns o

f the

co

urse

in m

ore

adva

nced

topi

cs, a

llow

ing

stud

ents

to g

ener

aliz

e th

e va

rious

ty

pes

of w

aves

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ob

serv

atio

n of

po

lariz

atio

n un

der d

iffer

ent c

ondi

tions

, inc

ludi

ng th

e us

e of

mic

row

aves

; su

perp

ositi

on o

f wav

es; r

epre

sent

atio

n of

wav

e ty

pes

usin

g ph

ysic

al m

odel

s (e

g sl

inky

dem

onst

ratio

ns)

•A

im 7

: use

of c

ompu

ter m

odel

ling

enab

les

stud

ents

to o

bser

ve w

ave

mot

ion

in th

ree

dim

ensi

ons

as w

ell a

s be

ing

able

to m

ore

accu

rate

ly a

djus

t wav

e ch

arac

teris

tics

in s

uper

posi

tion

dem

onst

ratio

ns

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide50

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: W

aves

inte

ract

with

med

ia a

nd e

ach

othe

r in

a nu

mbe

r of w

ays

that

can

be

unex

pect

ed a

nd u

sefu

l.

4.4

– W

ave

beha

viou

r

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Com

petin

g th

eorie

s: Th

e co

nflic

ting

wor

k of

Huy

gens

and

New

ton

on th

eir t

heor

ies

of li

ght a

nd th

e re

late

d de

bate

bet

wee

n Fr

esne

l, A

rago

and

Poi

sson

are

de

mon

stra

tions

of t

wo

theo

ries

that

wer

e va

lid y

et fl

awed

and

inco

mpl

ete.

Thi

s is

an

hist

oric

al e

xam

ple

of th

e pr

ogre

ss o

f sci

ence

that

led

to th

e ac

cept

ance

of t

he d

ualit

y of

the

natu

re o

f lig

ht. (

1.9)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Re

flect

ion

and

refr

actio

n

•Sn

ell’s

law

, crit

ical

ang

le a

nd to

tal i

nter

nal r

efle

ctio

n

•D

iffra

ctio

n th

roug

h a

sing

le-s

lit a

nd a

roun

d ob

ject

s

•In

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rns

•D

oubl

e-sl

it in

terf

eren

ce

•Pa

th d

iffer

ence

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

inci

dent

, ref

lect

ed a

nd tr

ansm

itted

wav

es a

t bo

unda

ries

betw

een

med

ia

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g re

flect

ion

at a

pla

ne in

terf

ace

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g Sn

ell’s

law

, crit

ical

ang

le a

nd to

tal i

nter

nal

refle

ctio

n

•D

eter

min

ing

refr

activ

e in

dex

expe

rimen

tally

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g th

e di

ffra

ctio

n pa

tter

n fo

rmed

whe

n pl

ane

wav

es a

re

inci

dent

nor

mal

ly o

n a

sing

le-s

lit

•Q

uant

itativ

ely

desc

ribin

g do

uble

-slit

inte

rfer

ence

inte

nsity

pat

tern

s

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Ch

arac

teris

tic w

ave

beha

viou

r has

bee

n us

ed in

man

y cu

lture

s th

roug

hout

hu

man

his

tory

, oft

en ty

ing

clos

ely

to m

yths

and

lege

nds

that

form

ed th

e ba

sis

for e

arly

sci

entif

ic s

tudi

es

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•H

uyge

ns a

nd N

ewto

n pr

opos

ed tw

o co

mpe

ting

theo

ries

of th

e be

havi

our

of li

ght.

How

doe

s th

e sc

ient

ific

com

mun

ity d

ecid

e be

twee

n co

mpe

ting

theo

ries?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

sat

ellit

e fo

otpr

int o

n Ea

rth

is g

over

ned

by th

e di

ffra

ctio

n at

the

dish

on

the

sate

llite

•A

pplic

atio

ns o

f the

refr

actio

n an

d re

flect

ion

of li

ght r

ange

from

the

sim

ple

plan

e m

irror

thro

ugh

the

med

ical

end

osco

pe a

nd b

eyon

d. M

any

of th

ese

appl

icat

ions

hav

e en

able

d us

to im

prov

e an

d ex

tend

our

sen

se o

f vis

ion

•Th

e si

mpl

e id

ea o

f the

can

cella

tion

of tw

o co

here

nt li

ght r

ays

refle

ctin

g fr

om

two

surf

aces

lead

s to

dat

a st

orag

e in

com

pact

dis

cs a

nd th

eir s

ucce

ssor

s

•Th

e ph

ysic

al e

xpla

natio

n of

the

rain

bow

invo

lves

refr

actio

n an

d to

tal i

nter

nal

refle

ctio

n. T

he b

right

and

dar

k ba

nds

insi

de th

e ra

inbo

w, s

uper

num

erar

ies,

ca

n be

exp

lain

ed o

nly

by th

e w

ave

natu

re o

f lig

ht a

nd d

iffra

ctio

n

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide 51

4.4

– W

ave

beha

viou

r

Gui

danc

e:

•Q

uant

itativ

e de

scrip

tions

of r

efra

ctiv

e in

dex

are

limite

d to

ligh

t ray

s pa

ssin

g be

twee

n tw

o or

mor

e tr

ansp

aren

t med

ia. I

f mor

e th

an tw

o m

edia

, onl

y pa

ralle

l int

erfa

ces

will

be

cons

ider

ed

•St

uden

ts w

ill n

ot b

e ex

pect

ed to

der

ive

the

doub

le-s

lit e

quat

ion

•St

uden

ts sh

ould

hav

e th

e op

port

unity

to o

bser

ve d

iffra

ctio

n an

d in

terf

eren

ce

patt

erns

aris

ing

from

mor

e th

an o

ne ty

pe o

f wav

e

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•n n

v vsi

n sin

1 2

2 1

2 1

θ θ=

=

•s

D dλ=

•Co

nstr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce: p

ath

diff

eren

ce =

nλ

•D

estr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce: p

ath

diff

eren

ce =

n

1 2λ

+

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: the

his

toric

al a

spec

ts o

f thi

s to

pic

are

still

rele

vant

sci

ence

and

pro

vide

va

luab

le in

sigh

t int

o th

e w

ork

of e

arlie

r sci

entis

ts

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): de

term

inat

ion

of

refr

activ

e in

dex

and

appl

icat

ion

of S

nell’

s la

w; d

eter

min

ing

cond

ition

s un

der

whi

ch to

tal i

nter

nal r

efle

ctio

n m

ay o

ccur

; exa

min

atio

n of

diff

ract

ion

patt

erns

th

roug

h ap

ertu

res

and

arou

nd o

bsta

cles

; inv

estig

atio

n of

the

doub

le-s

lit

expe

rimen

t

•A

im 8

: the

incr

easi

ng u

se o

f dig

ital d

ata

and

its s

tora

ge d

ensi

ty h

as

impl

icat

ions

on

indi

vidu

al p

rivac

y th

roug

h th

e pe

rman

ence

of a

dig

ital

foot

prin

t

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide52

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: W

hen

trav

ellin

g w

aves

mee

t the

y ca

n su

perp

ose

to fo

rm s

tand

ing

wav

es in

whi

ch e

nerg

y m

ay n

ot b

e tr

ansf

erre

d.

4.5

– St

andi

ng w

aves

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Com

mon

reas

onin

g pr

oces

s: Fr

om th

e tim

e of

Pyt

hago

ras

onw

ards

the

conn

ectio

ns b

etw

een

the

form

atio

n of

sta

ndin

g w

aves

on

strin

gs a

nd in

pip

es h

ave

been

mod

elle

d m

athe

mat

ical

ly a

nd li

nked

to th

e ob

serv

atio

ns o

f the

osc

illat

ing

syst

ems.

In th

e ca

se o

f sou

nd in

air

and

light

, the

sys

tem

can

be

visu

aliz

ed in

ord

er to

reco

gniz

e th

e un

derly

ing

proc

esse

s oc

curr

ing

in th

e st

andi

ng w

aves

. (1.

6)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e na

ture

of s

tand

ing

wav

es

•Bo

unda

ry c

ondi

tions

•N

odes

and

ant

inod

es

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e na

ture

and

form

atio

n of

sta

ndin

g w

aves

in te

rms

of

supe

rpos

ition

•D

istin

guis

hing

bet

wee

n st

andi

ng a

nd tr

avel

ling

wav

es

•O

bser

ving

, ske

tchi

ng a

nd in

terp

retin

g st

andi

ng w

ave

patt

erns

in s

trin

gs

and

pipe

s

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e fr

eque

ncy

of a

har

mon

ic, l

engt

h of

the

stan

ding

wav

e an

d th

e sp

eed

of th

e w

ave

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

con

side

r the

form

atio

n of

sta

ndin

g w

aves

from

th

e su

perp

ositi

on o

f no

mor

e th

an tw

o w

aves

•Bo

unda

ry c

ondi

tions

for s

trin

gs a

re: t

wo

fixed

bou

ndar

ies;

fixed

and

free

bo

unda

ry; t

wo

free

bou

ndar

ies

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e ar

t of m

usic

, whi

ch h

as it

s sc

ient

ific

basi

s in

thes

e id

eas,

is u

nive

rsal

to

all c

ultu

res,

pas

t and

pre

sent

. Man

y m

usic

al in

stru

men

ts re

ly h

eavi

ly o

n th

e ge

nera

tion

and

man

ipul

atio

n of

sta

ndin

g w

aves

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

ere

are

clos

e lin

ks b

etw

een

stan

ding

wav

es in

str

ings

and

Sch

rodi

nger

’s th

eory

for t

he p

roba

bilit

y am

plitu

de o

f ele

ctro

ns in

the

atom

. App

licat

ion

to

supe

rstr

ing

theo

ry re

quire

s st

andi

ng w

ave

patt

erns

in 1

1 di

men

sion

s. W

hat i

s th

e ro

le o

f rea

son

and

imag

inat

ion

in e

nabl

ing

scie

ntis

ts to

vis

ualiz

e sc

enar

ios

that

are

bey

ond

our p

hysi

cal c

apab

ilitie

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•St

uden

ts s

tudy

ing

mus

ic s

houl

d be

enc

oura

ged

to b

ring

thei

r ow

n ex

perie

nces

of t

his

art f

orm

to th

e ph

ysic

s cl

assr

oom

Topic 4: Waves

Physics guide 53

4.5

– St

andi

ng w

aves

•Bo

unda

ry c

ondi

tions

for p

ipes

are

: tw

o cl

osed

bou

ndar

ies;

clos

ed a

nd o

pen

boun

dary

; tw

o op

en b

ound

arie

s

•Fo

r sta

ndin

g w

aves

in a

ir, e

xpla

natio

ns w

ill n

ot b

e re

quire

d in

term

s of

pr

essu

re n

odes

and

pre

ssur

e an

tinod

es

•Th

e lo

wes

t fre

quen

cy m

ode

of a

sta

ndin

g w

ave

is k

now

n as

the

first

har

mon

ic

•Th

e te

rms

fund

amen

tal a

nd o

vert

one

will

not

be

used

in e

xam

inat

ion

ques

tions

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: stu

dent

s ar

e ab

le to

bot

h ph

ysic

ally

obs

erve

and

qua

litat

ivel

y m

easu

re

the

loca

tions

of n

odes

and

ant

inod

es, f

ollo

win

g th

e in

vest

igat

ive

tech

niqu

es

of e

arly

sci

entis

ts a

nd m

usic

ians

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ob

serv

atio

n of

st

andi

ng w

ave

patt

erns

in p

hysi

cal o

bjec

ts (e

g sl

inky

spr

ings

); pr

edic

tion

of h

arm

onic

loca

tions

in a

n ai

r tub

e in

wat

er; d

eter

min

ing

the

freq

uenc

y of

tu

ning

fork

s; ob

serv

ing

or m

easu

ring

vibr

atin

g vi

olin

/gui

tar s

trin

gs

•A

im 8

: the

inte

rnat

iona

l dim

ensi

on o

f the

app

licat

ion

of s

tand

ing

wav

es is

im

port

ant i

n m

usic

Physics guide54

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: W

hen

char

ges

mov

e an

ele

ctric

cur

rent

is c

reat

ed.

5.1

– El

ectr

ic fi

elds

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Mod

ellin

g: E

lect

rical

theo

ry d

emon

stra

tes

the

scie

ntifi

c th

ough

t inv

olve

d in

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f a m

icro

scop

ic m

odel

(beh

avio

ur o

f cha

rge

carr

iers

) fro

m m

acro

scop

ic

obse

rvat

ion.

The

his

toric

al d

evel

opm

ent a

nd re

finem

ent o

f the

se s

cien

tific

idea

s w

hen

the

mic

rosc

opic

pro

pert

ies

wer

e un

know

n an

d un

obse

rvab

le is

test

amen

t to

the

deep

thin

king

sho

wn

by th

e sc

ient

ists

of t

he ti

me.

(1.1

0)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ch

arge

•El

ectr

ic fi

eld

•Co

ulom

b’s

law

•El

ectr

ic c

urre

nt

•D

irect

cur

rent

(dc)

•Po

tent

ial d

iffer

ence

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Id

entif

ying

two

form

s of

cha

rge

and

the

dire

ctio

n of

the

forc

es b

etw

een

them

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g el

ectr

ic fi

elds

and

Cou

lom

b’s

law

•Ca

lcul

atin

g w

ork

done

in a

n el

ectr

ic fi

eld

in b

oth

joul

es a

nd e

lect

ronv

olts

•Id

entif

ying

sig

n an

d na

ture

of c

harg

e ca

rrie

rs in

a m

etal

•Id

entif

ying

drif

t spe

ed o

f cha

rge

carr

iers

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

usin

g th

e dr

ift s

peed

equ

atio

n

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g cu

rren

t, po

tent

ial d

iffer

ence

and

cha

rge

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•El

ectr

icity

and

its

bene

fits

have

an

unpa

ralle

led

pow

er to

tran

sfor

m s

ocie

ty

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Ea

rly s

cien

tists

iden

tifie

d po

sitiv

e ch

arge

s as

the

char

ge c

arrie

rs in

m

etal

s; ho

wev

er, t

he d

isco

very

of t

he e

lect

ron

led

to th

e in

trod

uctio

n of

“c

onve

ntio

nal”

cur

rent

dire

ctio

n. W

as th

is a

sui

tabl

e so

lutio

n to

a m

ajor

shi

ft

in th

inki

ng?

Wha

t rol

e do

par

adig

m s

hift

s pl

ay in

the

prog

ress

ion

of s

cien

tific

kn

owle

dge?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Tr

ansf

errin

g en

ergy

from

one

pla

ce to

ano

ther

(see

Che

mist

ry o

ptio

n C

and

Ph

ysic

s top

ic 11

)

•Im

pact

on

the

envi

ronm

ent f

rom

ele

ctric

ity g

ener

atio

n (s

ee P

hysic

s top

ic 8

an

d Ch

emist

ry o

ptio

n su

b-to

pic

C2)

•Th

e co

mpa

rison

bet

wee

n th

e tr

eatm

ent o

f ele

ctric

fiel

ds a

nd g

ravi

tatio

nal

field

s (s

ee P

hysic

s top

ic 1

0)

Core Topi

c 5:

Ele

ctric

ity a

nd m

agne

tism

15

hou

rs

Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism

Physics guide 55

5.1

– El

ectr

ic fi

elds

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

app

ly C

oulo

mb’

s la

w fo

r a ra

nge

of p

erm

ittiv

ity

valu

es

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•I

q t=

∆ ∆

•F

kq

q r12

2=

•k

14

0πε

=

•V

W q=

•E

F q=

•I

nAvq

=

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: ele

ctric

al th

eory

lies

at t

he h

eart

of m

uch

mod

ern

scie

nce

and

engi

neer

ing

•A

im 3

: adv

ance

s in

ele

ctric

al th

eory

hav

e br

ough

t im

men

se c

hang

e to

all

soci

etie

s

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): de

mon

stra

tions

sh

owin

g th

e ef

fect

of a

n el

ectr

ic fi

eld

(eg.

usi

ng s

emol

ina)

; sim

ulat

ions

in

volv

ing

the

plac

emen

t of o

ne o

r mor

e po

int c

harg

es a

nd d

eter

min

ing

the

resu

ltant

fiel

d

•A

im 7

: use

of c

ompu

ter s

imul

atio

ns w

ould

ena

ble

stud

ents

to m

easu

re

mic

rosc

opic

inte

ract

ions

that

are

typi

cally

ver

y di

ffic

ult i

n a

scho

ol la

bora

tory

si

tuat

ion


Physics guide56

Esse

ntia

l id

ea: O

ne o

f the

ear

liest

use

s fo

r ele

ctric

ity

was

to p

rodu

ce li

ght a

nd h

eat.

This

tech

nolo

gy c

ontin

ues

to h

ave

a m

ajor

impa

ct o

n th

e liv

es o

f peo

ple

arou

nd

the

wor

ld.

5.2

– H

eati

ng e

ffec

t of e

lect

ric

curr

ents

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Peer

revi

ew: A

lthou

gh O

hm a

nd B

arlo

w p

ublis

hed

thei

r fin

ding

s on

the

natu

re o

f ele

ctric

cur

rent

aro

und

the

sam

e tim

e, li

ttle

cre

denc

e w

as g

iven

to O

hm. B

arlo

w’s

inco

rrec

t la

w w

as n

ot in

itial

ly c

ritic

ized

or i

nves

tigat

ed fu

rthe

r. Th

is is

a re

flect

ion

of th

e na

ture

of a

cade

mia

of t

he ti

me,

with

phy

sics

in G

erm

any

bein

g la

rgel

y no

n-m

athe

mat

ical

and

Ba

rlow

hel

d in

hig

h re

spec

t in

Engl

and.

It in

dica

tes

the

need

for t

he p

ublic

atio

n an

d pe

er re

view

of r

esea

rch

findi

ngs

in re

cogn

ized

sci

entif

ic jo

urna

ls. (

4.4)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ci

rcui

t dia

gram

s

•Ki

rchh

off’s

circ

uit l

aws

•H

eatin

g ef

fect

of c

urre

nt a

nd it

s co

nseq

uenc

es

•Re

sist

ance

exp

ress

ed a

s R

I=

V

•O

hm’s

law

•Re

sist

ivity

•Po

wer

dis

sipa

tion

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

raw

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

circ

uit d

iagr

ams

•Id

entif

ying

ohm

ic a

nd n

on-o

hmic

con

duct

ors

thro

ugh

a co

nsid

erat

ion

of th

e V/

I cha

ract

eris

tic g

raph

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g po

tent

ial d

iffer

ence

, cur

rent

, cha

rge,

Kirc

hhof

f’s

circ

uit l

aws,

pow

er, r

esis

tanc

e an

d re

sist

ivity

•In

vest

igat

ing

com

bina

tions

of r

esis

tors

in p

aral

lel a

nd s

erie

s ci

rcui

ts

•D

escr

ibin

g id

eal a

nd n

on-id

eal a

mm

eter

s an

d vo

ltmet

ers

•D

escr

ibin

g pr

actic

al u

ses o

f pot

entia

l div

ider

circ

uits

, inc

ludi

ng th

e ad

vant

ages

of

a p

oten

tial d

ivid

er o

ver a

ser

ies r

esis

tor i

n co

ntro

lling

a si

mpl

e ci

rcui

t

•In

vest

igat

ing

one

or m

ore

of th

e fa

ctor

s th

at a

ffec

t res

ista

nce

expe

rimen

tally

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•A

set

of u

nive

rsal

sym

bols

is n

eede

d so

that

phy

sici

sts

in d

iffer

ent c

ultu

res

can

read

ily c

omm

unic

ate

idea

s in

sci

ence

and

eng

inee

ring

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Se

nse

perc

eptio

n in

ear

ly e

lect

rical

inve

stig

atio

ns w

as k

ey to

cla

ssify

ing

the

effe

ct o

f var

ious

pow

er s

ourc

es; h

owev

er, t

his

is fr

augh

t with

pos

sibl

e irr

ever

sibl

e co

nseq

uenc

es fo

r the

sci

entis

ts in

volv

ed. C

an w

e st

ill e

thic

ally

and

sa

fely

use

sen

se p

erce

ptio

n in

sci

ence

rese

arch

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

lthou

gh th

ere

are

near

ly li

mitl

ess

way

s th

at w

e us

e el

ectr

ical

circ

uits

, hea

ting

and

light

ing

are

two

of th

e m

ost w

ides

prea

d

•Se

nsiti

ve d

evic

es c

an e

mpl

oy d

etec

tors

cap

able

of m

easu

ring

smal

l var

iatio

ns

in p

oten

tial d

iffer

ence

and

/or c

urre

nt, r

equi

ring

care

fully

pla

nned

circ

uits

and

hi

gh p

reci

sion

com

pone

nts


Physics guide 57

5.2

– H

eati

ng e

ffec

t of e

lect

ric

curr

ents

Gui

danc

e:

•Th

e fil

amen

t lam

p sh

ould

be

desc

ribed

as

a no

n-oh

mic

dev

ice;

a m

etal

wire

at

a co

nsta

nt te

mpe

ratu

re is

an

ohm

ic d

evic

e

•Th

e us

e of

non

-idea

l vol

tmet

ers

is c

onfin

ed to

vol

tmet

ers

with

a c

onst

ant b

ut

finite

resi

stan

ce

•Th

e us

e of

non

-idea

l am

met

ers

is c

onfin

ed to

am

met

ers

with

a c

onst

ant b

ut

non-

zero

resi

stan

ce

•A

pplic

atio

n of

Kirc

hhof

f’s c

ircui

t law

s w

ill b

e lim

ited

to c

ircui

ts w

ith a

m

axim

um n

umbe

r of t

wo

sour

ce-c

arry

ing

loop

s

Dat

a bo

ok re

fere

nce:

•Ki

rcho

ff’s

circ

uit l

aws:

•∑V

= 0

(loo

p)

•∑I

= 0

(jun

ctio

n)

•R

V I=

•P

VII

RV R

==

=2

2

•�

RR

Rto

tal

12

=+

+

•�

RR

R1

11

tota

l1

2

=+

+

•RA L

ρ=

•Re

fer t

o el

ectr

ical

sym

bols

on p

age

4 of

the

phys

ics d

ata

book

let

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: ele

ctric

al th

eory

and

its

appr

oach

to m

acro

and

mic

ro e

ffec

ts

char

acte

rizes

muc

h of

the

phys

ical

app

roac

h ta

ken

in th

e an

alys

is o

f the

un

iver

se

•A

im 3

: ele

ctric

al te

chni

ques

, bot

h pr

actic

al a

nd th

eore

tical

, pro

vide

a

rela

tivel

y si

mpl

e op

port

unity

for s

tude

nts

to d

evel

op a

feel

ing

for t

he

argu

men

ts o

f phy

sics

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): us

e of

a h

ot-w

ire

amm

eter

as

an h

isto

rical

ly im

port

ant d

evic

e; c

ompa

rison

of r

esis

tivity

of a

va

riety

of c

ondu

ctor

s su

ch a

s a

wire

at c

onst

ant t

empe

ratu

re, a

fila

men

t lam

p,

or a

gra

phite

pen

cil;

dete

rmin

atio

n of

thic

knes

s of

a p

enci

l mar

k on

pap

er;

inve

stig

atio

n of

ohm

ic a

nd n

on-o

hmic

con

duct

or c

hara

cter

istic

s; us

ing

a re

sist

ive

wire

wou

nd a

nd ta

ped

arou

nd th

e re

serv

oir o

f a th

erm

omet

er to

re

late

wire

resi

stan

ce to

cur

rent

in th

e w

ire a

nd te

mpe

ratu

re o

f wire

•A

im 7

: the

re a

re m

any

soft

war

e an

d on

line

optio

ns fo

r con

stru

ctin

g si

mpl

e an

d co

mpl

ex c

ircui

ts q

uick

ly to

inve

stig

ate

the

effe

ct o

f usi

ng d

iffer

ent

com

pone

nts

with

in a

circ

uit


Physics guide58

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: E

lect

ric c

ells

allo

w u

s to

sto

re e

nerg

y in

a c

hem

ical

form

.

5.3

– El

ectr

ic c

ells

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Long

-ter

m ri

sks:

Scie

ntis

ts n

eed

to b

alan

ce th

e re

sear

ch in

to e

lect

ric c

ells

that

can

sto

re e

nerg

y w

ith g

reat

er e

nerg

y de

nsity

to p

rovi

de lo

nger

dev

ice

lifet

imes

with

the

long

-ter

m ri

sks

asso

ciat

ed w

ith th

e di

spos

al o

f the

che

mic

als

invo

lved

whe

n ba

tter

ies

are

disc

arde

d. (4

.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ce

lls

•In

tern

al re

sist

ance

•Se

cond

ary

cells

•Te

rmin

al p

oten

tial d

iffer

ence

•El

ectr

omot

ive

forc

e (e

mf)

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•In

vest

igat

ing

prac

tical

ele

ctric

cel

ls (b

oth

prim

ary

and

seco

ndar

y)

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e di

scha

rge

char

acte

ristic

of a

sim

ple

cell

(var

iatio

n of

term

inal

po

tent

ial d

iffer

ence

with

tim

e)

•Id

entif

ying

the

dire

ctio

n of

cur

rent

flow

requ

ired

to re

char

ge a

cel

l

•D

eter

min

ing

inte

rnal

resi

stan

ce e

xper

imen

tally

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g em

f, in

tern

al re

sist

ance

and

oth

er e

lect

rical

qu

antit

ies

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d re

cogn

ize

that

the

term

inal

pot

entia

l diff

eren

ce o

f a ty

pica

l pr

actic

al e

lect

ric c

ell l

oses

its

initi

al v

alue

qui

ckly

, has

a s

tabl

e an

d co

nsta

nt

valu

e fo

r mos

t of i

ts li

fetim

e, fo

llow

ed b

y a

rapi

d de

crea

se to

zer

o as

the

cell

disc

harg

es c

ompl

etel

y

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•IR

r(

)ε

=+

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Ba

tter

y st

orag

e is

impo

rtan

t to

soci

ety

for u

se in

are

as s

uch

as p

orta

ble

devi

ces,

tran

spor

tatio

n op

tions

and

bac

k-up

pow

er s

uppl

ies

for m

edic

al

faci

litie

s

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Ba

tter

y st

orag

e is

see

n as

use

ful t

o so

ciet

y de

spite

the

pote

ntia

l en

viro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s su

rrou

ndin

g th

eir d

ispo

sal.

Shou

ld s

cien

tists

be

held

m

oral

ly re

spon

sibl

e fo

r the

long

-ter

m c

onse

quen

ces

of th

eir i

nven

tions

and

di

scov

erie

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e ch

emis

try

of e

lect

ric c

ells

(see

Che

mist

ry s

ub-t

opic

s 9.

2 an

d C.

6)

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): in

vest

igat

ion

of

sim

ple

elec

trol

ytic

cel

ls u

sing

var

ious

mat

eria

ls fo

r the

cat

hode

, ano

de a

nd

elec

trol

yte;

sof

twar

e-ba

sed

inve

stig

atio

ns o

f ele

ctric

al c

ell d

esig

n; c

ompa

rison

of

the

life

expe

ctan

cy o

f var

ious

bat

terie

s

•A

im 8

: alth

ough

cel

l tec

hnol

ogy

can

supp

ly e

lect

ricity

with

out d

irect

co

ntrib

utio

n fr

om n

atio

nal g

rid s

yste

ms

(and

the

inhe

rent

car

bon

outp

ut

issu

es),

safe

dis

posa

l of b

atte

ries

and

the

chem

ical

s th

ey u

se c

an in

trod

uce

land

and

wat

er p

ollu

tion

prob

lem

s

•A

im 1

0: im

prov

emen

ts in

cel

l tec

hnol

ogy

has

been

thro

ugh

colla

bora

tion

with

che

mis

ts


Physics guide 59

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he e

ffec

t sci

entis

ts c

all m

agne

tism

aris

es w

hen

one

char

ge m

oves

in th

e vi

cini

ty o

f ano

ther

mov

ing

char

ge.

5.4

– M

agne

tic

effe

cts

of e

lect

ric

curr

ents

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Mod

els

and

visu

aliz

atio

n: M

agne

tic fi

eld

lines

pro

vide

a p

ower

ful v

isua

lizat

ion

of a

mag

netic

fiel

d. H

isto

rical

ly, t

he fi

eld

lines

hel

ped

scie

ntis

ts a

nd e

ngin

eers

to u

nder

stan

d a

link

that

beg

ins

with

the

influ

ence

of o

ne m

ovin

g ch

arge

on

anot

her a

nd le

ads

onto

rela

tivity

. (1.

10)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•M

agne

tic fi

elds

•M

agne

tic fo

rce

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

eter

min

ing

the

dire

ctio

n of

forc

e on

a c

harg

e m

ovin

g in

a m

agne

tic fi

eld

•D

eter

min

ing

the

dire

ctio

n of

forc

e on

a c

urre

nt-c

arry

ing

cond

ucto

r in

a m

agne

tic fi

eld

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

mag

netic

fiel

d pa

tter

ns

•D

eter

min

ing

the

dire

ctio

n of

the

mag

netic

fiel

d ba

sed

on c

urre

nt d

irect

ion

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g m

agne

tic fo

rces

, fie

lds,

cur

rent

and

cha

rges

Gui

danc

e:

•M

agne

tic fi

eld

patt

erns

will

be

rest

ricte

d to

long

str

aigh

t con

duct

ors,

so

leno

ids,

and

bar

mag

nets

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•F

qvB

sinθ

=

•F

BIL

sinθ

=

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e in

vest

igat

ion

of m

agne

tism

is o

ne o

f the

old

est s

tudi

es b

y m

an a

nd w

as

used

ext

ensi

vely

by

voya

gers

in th

e M

edite

rran

ean

and

beyo

nd th

ousa

nds

of

year

s ag

o

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Fi

eld

patt

erns

pro

vide

a v

isua

lizat

ion

of a

com

plex

phe

nom

enon

, ess

entia

l to

an u

nder

stan

ding

of t

his

topi

c. W

hy m

ight

it b

e us

eful

to re

gard

kno

wle

dge

in a

sim

ilar w

ay, u

sing

the

met

apho

r of k

now

ledg

e as

a m

ap –

a s

impl

ified

re

pres

enta

tion

of re

ality

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•O

nly

com

para

tivel

y re

cent

ly h

as th

e m

agne

tic c

ompa

ss b

een

supe

rsed

ed b

y di

ffer

ent t

echn

olog

ies

afte

r hun

dred

s of

yea

rs o

f our

dep

ende

nce

on it

•M

oder

n m

edic

al s

cann

ers

rely

hea

vily

on

the

stro

ng, u

nifo

rm m

agne

tic fi

elds

pr

oduc

ed b

y de

vice

s th

at u

tiliz

e su

perc

ondu

ctor

s

•Pa

rtic

le a

ccel

erat

ors s

uch

as th

e La

rge

Had

ron

Colli

der a

t CER

N re

ly o

n a

varie

ty

of p

reci

se m

agne

ts fo

r alig

ning

the

part

icle

bea

ms

Aim

s:

•A

ims

2 an

d 9:

vis

ualiz

atio

ns fr

eque

ntly

pro

vide

us

with

insi

ghts

into

the

actio

n of

mag

netic

fiel

ds; h

owev

er, t

he v

isua

lizat

ions

them

selv

es h

ave

thei

r ow

n lim

itatio

ns

•A

im 7

: com

pute

r-ba

sed

sim

ulat

ions

ena

ble

the

visu

aliz

atio

n of

el

ectr

omag

netic

fiel

ds in

thre

e-di

men

sion

al s

pace

Physics guide60

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: A

forc

e ap

plie

d pe

rpen

dicu

lar t

o its

dis

plac

emen

t can

resu

lt in

circ

ular

mot

ion.

6.1

– Ci

rcul

ar m

otio

n

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Obs

erva

ble

univ

erse

: Obs

erva

tions

and

sub

sequ

ent d

educ

tions

led

to th

e re

aliz

atio

n th

at th

e fo

rce

mus

t act

radi

ally

inw

ards

in a

ll ca

ses

of c

ircul

ar m

otio

n. (1

.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Pe

riod,

freq

uenc

y, a

ngul

ar d

ispl

acem

ent a

nd a

ngul

ar v

eloc

ity

•Ce

ntrip

etal

forc

e

•Ce

ntrip

etal

acc

eler

atio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Id

entif

ying

the

forc

es p

rovi

ding

the

cent

ripet

al fo

rces

suc

h as

tens

ion,

fric

tion,

gr

avita

tiona

l, el

ectr

ical

, or m

agne

tic

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g ce

ntrip

etal

forc

e, c

entr

ipet

al a

ccel

erat

ion,

per

iod,

fr

eque

ncy,

ang

ular

dis

plac

emen

t, lin

ear s

peed

and

ang

ular

vel

ocity

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

and

quan

titat

ivel

y de

scrib

ing

exam

ples

of c

ircul

ar m

otio

n in

clud

ing

case

s of

ver

tical

and

hor

izon

tal c

ircul

ar m

otio

n

Gui

danc

e:

•Ba

nkin

g w

ill b

e co

nsid

ered

qua

litat

ivel

y on

ly

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•r

νω

=

•a

v rr

T42

2 2π=

=

•F

mv r

mr

22

ω=

=

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•In

tern

atio

nal c

olla

bora

tion

is n

eede

d in

est

ablis

hing

eff

ectiv

e ro

cket

laun

ch

site

s to

ben

efit

spac

e pr

ogra

ms

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Fo

ucau

lt’s

pend

ulum

giv

es a

sim

ple

obse

rvab

le p

roof

of t

he ro

tatio

n of

the

eart

h, w

hich

is la

rgel

y un

obse

rvab

le. H

ow c

an w

e ha

ve k

now

ledg

e of

thin

gs

that

are

uno

bser

vabl

e?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•M

otio

n of

cha

rged

par

ticle

s in

mag

netic

fiel

ds (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 5

.4)

•M

ass

spec

trom

etry

(see

Che

mist

ry s

ub-t

opic

s 2.

1 an

d 11

.3)

•Pl

aygr

ound

and

am

usem

ent p

ark

rides

oft

en u

se th

e pr

inci

ples

of c

ircul

ar

mot

ion

in th

eir d

esig

n

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): m

ass

on a

str

ing;

ob

serv

atio

n an

d qu

antif

icat

ion

of lo

op-t

he-lo

op e

xper

ienc

es; f

rictio

n of

a

mas

s on

a tu

rnta

ble

•A

im 7

: tec

hnol

ogy

has

allo

wed

for m

ore

accu

rate

and

pre

cise

mea

sure

men

ts

of c

ircul

ar m

otio

n, in

clud

ing

data

logg

ers

for f

orce

mea

sure

men

ts a

nd v

ideo

an

alys

is o

f obj

ects

mov

ing

in c

ircul

ar m

otio

n

Topi

c 6:

Circ

ular

mot

ion

and

grav

itatio

n 5

hour

s

Core

Topic 6: Circular motion and gravitation

Physics guide 61

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he N

ewto

nian

idea

of g

ravi

tatio

nal f

orce

act

ing

betw

een

two

sphe

rical

bod

ies

and

the

law

s of

mec

hani

cs c

reat

e a

mod

el th

at c

an b

e us

ed to

cal

cula

te th

e m

otio

n of

pla

nets

.

6.2

– N

ewto

n’s

law

of g

ravi

tati

on

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Law

s: N

ewto

n’s l

aw o

f gra

vita

tion

and

the

law

s of m

echa

nics

are

the

foun

datio

n fo

r det

erm

inist

ic c

lass

ical

phy

sics.

Thes

e ca

n be

use

d to

mak

e pr

edic

tions

but

do

not e

xpla

in w

hy

the

obse

rved

phe

nom

ena

exist

. (2.

4)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•N

ewto

n’s

law

of g

ravi

tatio

n

•G

ravi

tatio

nal f

ield

str

engt

h

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n gr

avita

tiona

l for

ce a

nd c

entr

ipet

al fo

rce

•A

pply

ing

New

ton’

s la

w o

f gra

vita

tion

to th

e m

otio

n of

an

obje

ct in

circ

ular

or

bit a

roun

d a

poin

t mas

s

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g gr

avita

tiona

l for

ce, g

ravi

tatio

nal f

ield

str

engt

h,

orbi

tal s

peed

and

orb

ital p

erio

d

•D

eter

min

ing

the

resu

ltant

gra

vita

tiona

l fie

ld s

tren

gth

due

to tw

o bo

dies

Gui

danc

e:

•N

ewto

n’s

law

of g

ravi

tatio

n sh

ould

be

exte

nded

to s

pher

ical

mas

ses

of

unifo

rm d

ensi

ty b

y as

sum

ing

that

thei

r mas

s is

con

cent

rate

d at

thei

r cen

tre

•G

ravi

tatio

nal f

ield

str

engt

h at

a p

oint

is th

e fo

rce

per u

nit m

ass

expe

rienc

ed b

y a

smal

l poi

nt m

ass

at th

at p

oint

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns o

f the

resu

ltant

gra

vita

tiona

l fie

ld s

tren

gth

due

to tw

o bo

dies

will

be

rest

ricte

d to

poi

nts

alon

g th

e st

raig

ht li

ne jo

inin

g th

e bo

dies

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•F

GM

m r2=

•g

F m=

•g

GM r2

=

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e la

ws

of m

echa

nics

alo

ng w

ith th

e la

w o

f gra

vita

tion

crea

te th

e de

term

inis

tic n

atur

e of

cla

ssic

al p

hysi

cs. A

re c

lass

ical

phy

sics

and

mod

ern

phys

ics

com

patib

le?

Do

othe

r are

as o

f kno

wle

dge

also

hav

e a

sim

ilar d

ivis

ion

betw

een

clas

sica

l and

mod

ern

in th

eir h

isto

rical

dev

elop

men

t?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e la

w o

f gra

vita

tion

is e

ssen

tial i

n de

scrib

ing

the

mot

ion

of s

atel

lites

, pl

anet

s, m

oons

and

ent

ire g

alax

ies

•Co

mpa

rison

to C

oulo

mb’

s la

w (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 5

.1)

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: the

theo

ry o

f gra

vita

tion

whe

n co

mbi

ned

and

synt

hesi

zed

with

the

rest

of t

he la

ws

of m

echa

nics

allo

ws

deta

iled

pred

ictio

ns a

bout

the

futu

re

posi

tion

and

mot

ion

of p

lane

ts

Physics guide62

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: In

the

mic

rosc

opic

wor

ld e

nerg

y is

dis

cret

e.

7.1

– D

iscr

ete

ener

gy a

nd ra

dioa

ctiv

ity

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Acc

iden

tal d

isco

very

: Rad

ioac

tivity

was

dis

cove

red

by a

ccid

ent w

hen

Becq

uere

l dev

elop

ed p

hoto

grap

hic

film

that

had

acc

iden

tally

bee

n ex

pose

d to

radi

atio

n fr

om

radi

oact

ive

rock

s. T

he m

arks

on

the

phot

ogra

phic

film

see

n by

Bec

quer

el p

roba

bly

wou

ld n

ot le

ad to

any

thin

g fu

rthe

r for

mos

t peo

ple.

Wha

t Bec

quer

el d

id w

as to

co

rrel

ate

the

pres

ence

of t

he m

arks

with

the

pres

ence

of t

he ra

dioa

ctiv

e ro

cks

and

inve

stig

ate

the

situ

atio

n fu

rthe

r. (1

.4)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•D

iscr

ete

ener

gy a

nd d

iscr

ete

ener

gy le

vels

•Tr

ansi

tions

bet

wee

n en

ergy

leve

ls

•Ra

dioa

ctiv

e de

cay

•Fu

ndam

enta

l for

ces

and

thei

r pro

pert

ies

•A

lpha

par

ticle

s, b

eta

part

icle

s an

d ga

mm

a ra

ys

•H

alf-l

ife

•A

bsor

ptio

n ch

arac

teris

tics

of d

ecay

par

ticle

s

•Is

otop

es

•Ba

ckgr

ound

radi

atio

n

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e ge

opol

itics

of t

he p

ast 6

0+ y

ears

hav

e be

en g

reat

ly in

fluen

ced

by th

e ex

iste

nce

of n

ucle

ar w

eapo

ns

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e ro

le o

f luc

k/se

rend

ipity

in s

ucce

ssfu

l sci

entif

ic d

isco

very

is a

lmos

t in

evita

bly

acco

mpa

nied

by

a sc

ient

ifica

lly c

urio

us m

ind

that

will

pur

sue

the

outc

ome

of th

e “lu

cky”

eve

nt. T

o w

hat e

xten

t mig

ht s

cien

tific

dis

cove

ries

that

ha

ve b

een

desc

ribed

as

bein

g th

e re

sult

of lu

ck a

ctua

lly b

e be

tter

des

crib

ed a

s be

ing

the

resu

lt of

reas

on o

r int

uitio

n?

Topi

c 7:

Ato

mic

, nuc

lear

and

par

ticle

phy

sics

14

hou

rs

Core

Topic 7: Atomic, nuclear and particle physics

Physics guide 63

7.1

– D

iscr

ete

ener

gy a

nd ra

dioa

ctiv

ity

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e em

issi

on a

nd a

bsor

ptio

n sp

ectr

um o

f com

mon

gas

es

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g at

omic

spe

ctra

, inc

ludi

ng c

alcu

latin

g th

e w

avel

engt

h of

pho

tons

em

itted

dur

ing

atom

ic tr

ansi

tions

•Co

mpl

etin

g de

cay

equa

tions

for a

lpha

and

bet

a de

cay

•D

eter

min

ing

the

half-

life

of a

nuc

lide

from

a d

ecay

cur

ve

•In

vest

igat

ing

half-

life

expe

rimen

tally

(or b

y si

mul

atio

n)

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e re

quire

d to

sol

ve p

robl

ems

on ra

dioa

ctiv

e de

cay

invo

lvin

g on

ly in

tegr

al n

umbe

rs o

f hal

f-liv

es

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

incl

ude

the

neut

rino

and

antin

eutr

ino

in b

eta

deca

y eq

uatio

ns

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•E

hf=

•hc E

λ=

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Kn

owle

dge

of ra

dioa

ctiv

ity, r

adio

activ

e su

bsta

nces

and

the

radi

oact

ive

deca

y la

w a

re c

ruci

al in

mod

ern

nucl

ear m

edic

ine

•H

ow to

dea

l with

the

radi

oact

ive

outp

ut o

f nuc

lear

dec

ay is

impo

rtan

t in

the

deba

te o

ver n

ucle

ar p

ower

sta

tions

(see

Phy

sics s

ub-t

opic

8.1

)

•Ca

rbon

dat

ing

is u

sed

in p

rovi

ding

evi

denc

e fo

r evo

lutio

n (s

ee B

iolo

gy s

ub-

topi

c 5.

1)

•Ex

pone

ntia

l fun

ctio

ns (s

ee M

athe

mat

ical

stud

ies S

L su

b-to

pic

6.4;

Mat

hem

atic

s H

L su

b-to

pic

2.4)

Aim

s:

•A

im 8

: the

use

of r

adio

activ

e m

ater

ials

pos

es e

nviro

nmen

tal d

ange

rs th

at

mus

t be

addr

esse

d at

all

stag

es o

f res

earc

h

•A

im 9

: the

use

of r

adio

activ

e m

ater

ials

requ

ires

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f saf

e ex

perim

enta

l pra

ctic

es a

nd m

etho

ds fo

r han

dlin

g ra

dioa

ctiv

e m

ater

ials


Physics guide64

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: E

nerg

y ca

n be

rele

ased

in n

ucle

ar d

ecay

s an

d re

actio

ns a

s a

resu

lt of

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

mas

s an

d en

ergy

.

7.2

– N

ucle

ar re

acti

ons

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Patt

erns

, tre

nds

and

disc

repa

ncie

s: G

raph

s of

bin

ding

ene

rgy

per n

ucle

on a

nd o

f neu

tron

num

ber v

ersu

s pr

oton

num

ber r

evea

l unm

ista

kabl

e pa

tter

ns. T

his

allo

ws

scie

ntis

ts to

mak

e pr

edic

tions

of i

soto

pe c

hara

cter

istic

s ba

sed

on th

ese

grap

hs. (

3.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e un

ified

ato

mic

mas

s un

it

•M

ass

defe

ct a

nd n

ucle

ar b

indi

ng e

nerg

y

•N

ucle

ar fi

ssio

n an

d nu

clea

r fus

ion

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g m

ass

defe

ct a

nd b

indi

ng e

nerg

y

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e en

ergy

rele

ased

in ra

dioa

ctiv

e de

cay,

nuc

lear

fis

sion

and

nuc

lear

fusi

on

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

the

gene

ral s

hape

of t

he c

urve

of a

vera

ge b

indi

ng

ener

gy p

er n

ucle

on a

gain

st n

ucle

on n

umbe

r

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e ac

cept

ance

that

mas

s an

d en

ergy

are

equ

ival

ent w

as a

maj

or p

arad

igm

sh

ift in

phy

sics

. How

hav

e ot

her p

arad

igm

shi

fts

chan

ged

the

dire

ctio

n of

sc

ienc

e? H

ave

ther

e be

en s

imila

r par

adig

m s

hift

s in

oth

er a

reas

of k

now

ledg

e?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•O

ur u

nder

stan

ding

of t

he e

nerg

etic

s of

the

nucl

eus

has

led

to w

ays

to

prod

uce

elec

tric

ity fr

om n

ucle

i but

als

o to

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f ver

y de

stru

ctiv

e w

eapo

ns

•Th

e ch

emis

try

of n

ucle

ar re

actio

ns (s

ee C

hem

istry

opt

ion

sub-

topi

cs C

.3

and

C.7)


Physics guide 65

7.2

– N

ucle

ar re

acti

ons

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts m

ust b

e ab

le to

cal

cula

te c

hang

es in

term

s of

mas

s or

bin

ding

en

ergy

•Bi

ndin

g en

ergy

may

be

defin

ed in

term

s of

ene

rgy

requ

ired

to c

ompl

etel

y se

para

te th

e nu

cleo

ns o

r the

ene

rgy

rele

ased

whe

n a

nucl

eus

is fo

rmed

from

its

nuc

leon

s

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•E

mc2

∆=

∆

Aim

s:

•A

im 5

: som

e of

the

issu

es ra

ised

by

the

use

of n

ucle

ar p

ower

tran

scen

d na

tiona

l bou

ndar

ies

and

requ

ire th

e co

llabo

ratio

n of

sci

entis

ts fr

om m

any

diff

eren

t nat

ions

•A

im 8

: the

dev

elop

men

t of n

ucle

ar p

ower

and

nuc

lear

wea

pons

rais

es v

ery

serio

us m

oral

and

eth

ical

que

stio

ns: w

ho s

houl

d be

allo

wed

to p

osse

ss

nucl

ear p

ower

and

nuc

lear

wea

pons

and

who

sho

uld

mak

e th

ese

deci

sion

s?

Ther

e al

so s

erio

us e

nviro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s as

soci

ated

with

the

nucl

ear w

aste

of

nucl

ear p

ower

pla

nts.


Physics guide66

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: It

is b

elie

ved

that

all

the

mat

ter a

roun

d us

is m

ade

up o

f fun

dam

enta

l par

ticle

s ca

lled

quar

ks a

nd le

pton

s. It

is k

now

n th

at m

atte

r has

a h

iera

rchi

cal s

truc

ture

w

ith q

uark

s m

akin

g up

nuc

leon

s, n

ucle

ons

mak

ing

up n

ucle

i, nu

clei

and

ele

ctro

ns m

akin

g up

ato

ms

and

atom

s m

akin

g up

mol

ecul

es. I

n th

is h

iera

rchi

cal s

truc

ture

, the

sm

alle

st s

cale

is s

een

for q

uark

s an

d le

pton

s (1

0–18 m

).

7.3

– Th

e st

ruct

ure

of m

atte

r

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Pred

ictio

ns: O

ur p

rese

nt u

nder

stan

ding

of m

atte

r is

calle

d th

e St

anda

rd M

odel

, con

sist

ing

of s

ix q

uark

s an

d si

x le

pton

s. Q

uark

s w

ere

post

ulat

ed o

n a

com

plet

ely

mat

hem

atic

al b

asis

in o

rder

to e

xpla

in p

atte

rns

in p

rope

rtie

s of

par

ticle

s. (1

.9)

Colla

bora

tion:

It w

as m

uch

late

r tha

t lar

ge-s

cale

col

labo

rativ

e ex

perim

enta

tion

led

to th

e di

scov

ery

of th

e pr

edic

ted

fund

amen

tal p

artic

les.

(4.3

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Q

uark

s, le

pton

s an

d th

eir a

ntip

artic

les

•H

adro

ns, b

aryo

ns a

nd m

eson

s

•Th

e co

nser

vatio

n la

ws

of c

harg

e, b

aryo

n nu

mbe

r, le

pton

num

ber a

nd

stra

ngen

ess

•Th

e na

ture

and

rang

e of

the

stro

ng n

ucle

ar fo

rce,

wea

k nu

clea

r for

ce a

nd

elec

trom

agne

tic fo

rce

•Ex

chan

ge p

artic

les

•Fe

ynm

an d

iagr

ams

•Co

nfin

emen

t

•Th

e H

iggs

bos

on

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e Ru

ther

ford

-Gei

ger-

Mar

sden

exp

erim

ent t

hat l

ed to

the

disc

over

y of

the

nucl

eus

•A

pply

ing

cons

erva

tion

law

s in

par

ticle

reac

tions

•D

escr

ibin

g pr

oton

s an

d ne

utro

ns in

term

s of

qua

rks

•Co

mpa

ring

the

inte

ract

ion

stre

ngth

s of

the

fund

amen

tal f

orce

s, in

clud

ing

grav

ity

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e m

edia

tion

of th

e fu

ndam

enta

l for

ces

thro

ugh

exch

ange

pa

rtic

les

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Re

sear

ch in

to p

artic

le p

hysi

cs re

quire

s ev

er-in

crea

sing

fund

ing,

lead

ing

to

deba

tes

in g

over

nmen

ts a

nd in

tern

atio

nal r

esea

rch

orga

niza

tions

on

the

fair

allo

catio

n of

pre

ciou

s fin

anci

al re

sour

ces

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•D

oes

the

belie

f in

the

exis

tenc

e of

fund

amen

tal p

artic

les

mea

n th

at it

is

just

ifiab

le to

see

phy

sics

as

bein

g m

ore

impo

rtan

t tha

n ot

her a

reas

of

know

ledg

e?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

n un

ders

tand

ing

of p

artic

le p

hysi

cs is

nee

ded

to d

eter

min

e th

e fin

al fa

te o

f th

e un

iver

se (s

ee P

hysic

s opt

ion

sub-

topi

cs D

.3 a

nd D

.4)

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: the

rese

arch

that

dea

ls w

ith th

e fu

ndam

enta

l str

uctu

re o

f mat

ter i

s in

tern

atio

nal i

n na

ture

and

is a

cha

lleng

ing

and

stim

ulat

ing

adve

ntur

e fo

r th

ose

who

take

par

t

•A

im 4

: par

ticle

phy

sics

invo

lves

the

anal

ysis

and

eva

luat

ion

of v

ery

larg

e am

ount

s of

dat

a

•A

im 6

: stu

dent

s co

uld

inve

stig

ate

the

scat

terin

g an

gle

of a

lpha

par

ticle

s as

a

func

tion

of th

e ai

min

g er

ror,

or th

e m

inim

um d

ista

nce

of a

ppro

ach

as a

fu

nctio

n of

the

initi

al k

inet

ic e

nerg

y of

the

alph

a pa

rtic

le


Physics guide 67

7.3

– Th

e st

ruct

ure

of m

atte

r

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

sim

ple

Feyn

man

dia

gram

s

•D

escr

ibin

g w

hy fr

ee q

uark

s ar

e no

t obs

erve

d

Gui

danc

e:

•A

qua

litat

ive

desc

riptio

n of

the

stan

dard

mod

el is

requ

ired

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

Char

geQ

uark

sBa

ryon

nu

mbe

r

e2 3

uc

t1 3

e1 3

−d

sb

1 3

All q

uark

s hav

e a

stra

ngen

ess n

umbe

r of

0 ex

cept

the

stra

nge

quar

k th

at h

as a

stra

ngen

ess

num

ber o

f –1

Char

geLe

pton

s

–1e

μτ

0υ e

υ μυ τ

All

lept

ons

have

a le

pton

nu

mbe

r of 1

and

ant

ilept

ons

have

a le

pton

num

ber o

f –1

•A

im 8

: sci

entif

ic a

nd g

over

nmen

t org

aniz

atio

ns a

re a

sked

if th

e fu

ndin

g fo

r pa

rtic

le p

hysi

cs re

sear

ch c

ould

be

spen

t on

othe

r res

earc

h or

soc

ial n

eeds

Gra

vita

tion

alW

eak

Elec

trom

agne

tic

Stro

ng

Part

icle

s ex

peri

enci

ngA

llQ

uark

s, le

pton

sCh

arge

dQ

uark

s, g

luon

s

Par

ticl

es m

edia

ting

Gra

vito

nW

+ , W– , Z

0γ

Glu

ons

Physics guide68

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he c

onst

ant n

eed

for n

ew e

nerg

y so

urce

s im

plie

s de

cisi

ons

that

may

hav

e a

serio

us e

ffec

t on

the

envi

ronm

ent.

The

finite

qua

ntit

y of

foss

il fu

els

and

thei

r im

plic

atio

n in

glo

bal w

arm

ing

has

led

to th

e de

velo

pmen

t of a

ltern

ativ

e so

urce

s of

ene

rgy.

Thi

s co

ntin

ues

to b

e an

are

a of

rapi

dly

chan

ging

tech

nolo

gica

l inn

ovat

ion.

8.1

– En

ergy

sou

rces

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Risk

s an

d pr

oble

m-s

olvi

ng: S

ince

ear

ly ti

mes

man

kind

und

erst

ood

the

vita

l rol

e of

har

ness

ing

ener

gy a

nd la

rge-

scal

e pr

oduc

tion

of e

lect

ricity

has

impa

cted

all

leve

ls o

f so

ciet

y. P

roce

sses

whe

re e

nerg

y is

tran

sfor

med

requ

ire h

olis

tic a

ppro

ache

s th

at in

volv

e m

any

area

s of

kno

wle

dge.

Res

earc

h an

d de

velo

pmen

t of a

ltern

ativ

e en

ergy

sou

rces

ha

s la

cked

sup

port

in s

ome

coun

trie

s fo

r eco

nom

ic a

nd p

oliti

cal r

easo

ns. S

cien

tists

, how

ever

, hav

e co

ntin

ued

to c

olla

bora

te a

nd s

hare

new

tech

nolo

gies

that

can

redu

ce

our d

epen

denc

e on

non

-ren

ewab

le e

nerg

y so

urce

s. (4

.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Sp

ecifi

c en

ergy

and

ene

rgy

dens

ity o

f fue

l sou

rces

•Sa

nkey

dia

gram

s

•Pr

imar

y en

ergy

sou

rces

•El

ectr

icity

as

a se

cond

ary

and

vers

atile

form

of e

nerg

y

•Re

new

able

and

non

-ren

ewab

le e

nerg

y so

urce

s

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g sp

ecifi

c en

ergy

and

ene

rgy

dens

ity p

robl

ems

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

Sank

ey d

iagr

ams

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ba

sic

feat

ures

of f

ossi

l fue

l pow

er s

tatio

ns, n

ucle

ar p

ower

st

atio

ns, w

ind

gene

rato

rs, p

umpe

d st

orag

e hy

droe

lect

ric s

yste

ms

and

sola

r po

wer

cel

ls

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

rele

vant

to e

nerg

y tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns in

the

cont

ext o

f the

se

gene

ratin

g sy

stem

s

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e pr

oduc

tion

of e

nerg

y fr

om fo

ssil

fuel

s ha

s a

clea

r im

pact

on

the

wor

ld w

e liv

e in

and

ther

efor

e in

volv

es g

loba

l thi

nkin

g. T

he g

eogr

aphi

c co

ncen

trat

ions

of

foss

il fu

els

have

led

to p

oliti

cal c

onfli

ct a

nd e

cono

mic

ineq

ualit

ies.

The

pr

oduc

tion

of e

nerg

y th

roug

h al

tern

ativ

e en

ergy

reso

urce

s de

man

ds n

ew

leve

ls o

f int

erna

tiona

l col

labo

ratio

n.

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e us

e of

nuc

lear

ene

rgy

insp

ires

a ra

nge

of e

mot

iona

l res

pons

es fr

om

scie

ntis

ts a

nd s

ocie

ty. H

ow c

an a

ccur

ate

scie

ntifi

c ris

k as

sess

men

t be

unde

rtak

en in

em

otio

nally

cha

rged

are

as?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•G

ener

ator

s fo

r ele

ctric

al p

rodu

ctio

n an

d en

gine

s fo

r mot

ion

have

re

volu

tioni

zed

the

wor

ld (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ics

5.4

and

11.2

)

•Th

e en

gine

erin

g be

hind

alte

rnat

ive

ener

gy s

ourc

es is

influ

ence

d by

diff

eren

t ar

eas

of p

hysi

cs (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ics

3.2,

5.4

and

B.2

)

Topi

c 8:

Ene

rgy

prod

uctio

n 8

hour

s

Core

Topic 8: Energy production

Physics guide 69

8.1

– En

ergy

sou

rces

•D

iscu

ssin

g sa

fety

issu

es a

nd ri

sks

asso

ciat

ed w

ith th

e pr

oduc

tion

of

nucl

ear p

ower

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e di

ffer

ence

s be

twee

n ph

otov

olta

ic c

ells

and

sol

ar

heat

ing

pane

ls

Gui

danc

e:

•Sp

ecifi

c en

ergy

has

uni

ts o

f J k

g–1; e

nerg

y de

nsity

has

uni

ts o

f J m

–3

•Th

e de

scrip

tion

of th

e ba

sic

feat

ures

of n

ucle

ar p

ower

sta

tions

mus

t inc

lude

th

e us

e of

con

trol

rods

, mod

erat

ors

and

heat

exc

hang

ers

•D

eriv

atio

n of

the

win

d ge

nera

tor e

quat

ion

is n

ot re

quire

d bu

t an

awar

enes

s of

re

leva

nt a

ssum

ptio

ns a

nd li

mita

tions

is re

quire

d

•St

uden

ts a

re e

xpec

ted

to b

e aw

are

of n

ew a

nd d

evel

opin

g te

chno

logi

es

whi

ch m

ay b

ecom

e im

port

ant d

urin

g th

e lif

e of

this

gui

de

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•Po

wer

ener

gytim

e=

•ρν

=A

Pow

er1 2

3

•En

ergy

den

sity

(see

Che

mist

ry s

ub-t

opic

C.1

)

•Ca

rbon

recy

clin

g (s

ee B

iolo

gy s

ub-t

opic

4.3

)

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: the

pro

duct

ion

of p

ower

invo

lves

man

y di

ffer

ent s

cien

tific

dis

cipl

ines

an

d re

quire

s th

e ev

alua

tion

and

synt

hesi

s of

sci

entif

ic in

form

atio

n

•A

im 8

: the

pro

duct

ion

of e

nerg

y ha

s w

ide

econ

omic

, env

ironm

enta

l, m

oral

an

d et

hica

l dim

ensi

ons


Physics guide70

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: F

or s

impl

ified

mod

ellin

g pu

rpos

es th

e Ea

rth

can

be tr

eate

d as

a b

lack

-bod

y ra

diat

or a

nd th

e at

mos

pher

e tr

eate

d as

a g

rey-

body

.

8.2

– Th

erm

al e

nerg

y tr

ansf

er

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Sim

ple

and

com

plex

mod

ellin

g: T

he k

inet

ic th

eory

of g

ases

is a

sim

ple

mat

hem

atic

al m

odel

that

pro

duce

s a

good

app

roxi

mat

ion

of th

e be

havi

our o

f rea

l gas

es. S

cien

tists

ar

e al

so a

ttem

ptin

g to

mod

el th

e Ea

rth’

s cl

imat

e, w

hich

is a

far m

ore

com

plex

sys

tem

. Adv

ance

s in

dat

a av

aila

bilit

y an

d th

e ab

ility

to in

clud

e m

ore

proc

esse

s in

the

mod

els

toge

ther

with

con

tinue

d te

stin

g an

d sc

ient

ific

deba

te o

n th

e va

rious

mod

els

will

impr

ove

the

abili

ty to

pre

dict

clim

ate

chan

ge m

ore

accu

rate

ly. (

1.12

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Co

nduc

tion,

con

vect

ion

and

ther

mal

radi

atio

n

•Bl

ack-

body

radi

atio

n

•A

lbed

o an

d em

issi

vity

•Th

e so

lar c

onst

ant

•Th

e gr

eenh

ouse

eff

ect

•En

ergy

bal

ance

in th

e Ea

rth

surf

ace–

atm

osph

ere

syst

em

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

grap

hs s

how

ing

the

varia

tion

of in

tens

ity w

ith

wav

elen

gth

for b

odie

s em

ittin

g th

erm

al ra

diat

ion

at d

iffer

ent t

empe

ratu

res

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e St

efan

–Bol

tzm

ann

law

and

Wie

n’s

disp

lace

men

t law

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ef

fect

s of

the

Eart

h’s

atm

osph

ere

on th

e m

ean

surf

ace

tem

pera

ture

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g al

bedo

, em

issi

vity

, sol

ar c

onst

ant a

nd th

e Ea

rth’

s av

erag

e te

mpe

ratu

re

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e co

ncer

n ov

er th

e po

ssib

le im

pact

of c

limat

e ch

ange

has

resu

lted

in a

n ab

unda

nce

of in

tern

atio

nal p

ress

cov

erag

e, m

any

polit

ical

dis

cuss

ions

with

in

and

betw

een

natio

ns, a

nd th

e co

nsid

erat

ion

of p

eopl

e, c

orpo

ratio

ns, a

nd

the

envi

ronm

ent w

hen

deci

ding

on

futu

re p

lans

for o

ur p

lane

t. IB

gra

duat

es

shou

ld b

e aw

are

of th

e sc

ienc

e be

hind

man

y of

thes

e sc

enar

ios.

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e de

bate

abo

ut g

loba

l war

min

g ill

ustr

ates

the

diff

icul

ties

that

aris

e w

hen

scie

ntis

ts c

anno

t alw

ays

agre

e on

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

the

data

, esp

ecia

lly

as th

e so

lutio

n w

ould

invo

lve

larg

e-sc

ale

actio

n th

roug

h in

tern

atio

nal

gove

rnm

ent c

oope

ratio

n. W

hen

scie

ntis

ts d

isag

ree,

how

do

we

deci

de

betw

een

com

petin

g th

eorie

s?


Physics guide 71

8.2

– Th

erm

al e

nerg

y tr

ansf

er

Gui

danc

e:

•D

iscu

ssio

n of

con

duct

ion

and

conv

ectio

n w

ill b

e qu

alita

tive

only

•D

iscu

ssio

n of

con

duct

ion

is li

mite

d to

inte

rmol

ecul

ar a

nd e

lect

ron

colli

sion

s

•D

iscu

ssio

n of

con

vect

ion

is li

mite

d to

sim

ple

gas

or li

quid

tran

sfer

via

den

sity

di

ffer

ence

s

•Th

e ab

sorp

tion

of in

frar

ed ra

diat

ion

by g

reen

hous

e ga

ses

shou

ld b

e de

scrib

ed

in te

rms

of th

e m

olec

ular

ene

rgy

leve

ls a

nd th

e su

bseq

uent

em

issi

on o

f ra

diat

ion

in a

ll di

rect

ions

•Th

e gr

eenh

ouse

gas

es to

be

cons

ider

ed a

re C

H4,

H2O

, CO

2 and

N2O

. It i

s su

ffic

ient

for s

tude

nts

to k

now

that

eac

h ha

s bo

th n

atur

al a

nd m

an-m

ade

orig

ins.

•Ea

rth’

s al

bedo

var

ies

daily

and

is d

epen

dent

on

seas

on (c

loud

form

atio

ns)

and

latit

ude.

The

glo

bal a

nnua

l mea

n al

bedo

will

be

take

n to

be

0.3

(30%

) fo

r Ear

th.

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•P

eAT

4σ

=

•T

(met

res)

2.90

10ke

lvin

max

3

λ(

)=

×−

•I

Apo

wer

=

•al

bedo

tota

lsca

tter

edpo

wer

tota

linc

iden

tpow

er=

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Cl

imat

e m

odel

s an

d th

e va

riatio

n in

det

ail/p

roce

sses

incl

uded

•En

viro

nmen

tal c

hem

istr

y (s

ee C

hem

istry

opt

ion

topi

c C)

•Cl

imat

e ch

ange

(see

Bio

logy

sub

-top

ic 4

.4 a

nd E

nviro

nmen

tal s

yste

ms a

nd

soci

etie

s top

ics

5 an

d 6)

•Th

e no

rmal

dis

trib

utio

n cu

rve

is e

xplo

red

in M

athe

mat

ical

stud

ies S

L

sub-

topi

c 4.

1

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: thi

s to

pic

give

s st

uden

ts th

e op

port

unity

to u

nder

stan

d th

e w

ide

rang

e of

sci

entif

ic a

naly

sis

behi

nd c

limat

e ch

ange

issu

es

•A

im 6

: sim

ulat

ions

of e

nerg

y ex

chan

ge in

the

Eart

h su

rfac

e–at

mos

pher

e sy

stem

•A

im 8

: whi

le s

cien

ce h

as th

e ab

ility

to a

naly

se a

nd p

ossi

bly

help

sol

ve

clim

ate

chan

ge is

sues

, stu

dent

s sh

ould

be

awar

e of

the

impa

ct o

f sci

ence

on

the

initi

atio

n of

con

ditio

ns th

at a

llow

ed c

limat

e ch

ange

due

to h

uman

co

ntrib

utio

ns to

occ

ur. S

tude

nts

shou

ld a

lso

be a

war

e of

the

way

sci

ence

can

be

use

d to

pro

mot

e th

e in

tere

sts

of o

ne s

ide

of th

e de

bate

on

clim

ate

chan

ge

(or,

conv

erse

ly, t

o hi

nder

deb

ate)

.

Physics guide72

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he s

olut

ion

of th

e ha

rmon

ic o

scill

ator

can

be

fram

ed a

roun

d th

e va

riatio

n of

kin

etic

and

pot

entia

l ene

rgy

in th

e sy

stem

.

9.1

– Si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Insi

ghts

: The

equ

atio

n fo

r sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion

(SH

M) c

an b

e so

lved

ana

lytic

ally

and

num

eric

ally

. Phy

sici

sts

use

such

sol

utio

ns to

hel

p th

em to

vis

ualiz

e th

e be

havi

our

of th

e os

cilla

tor.

The

use

of th

e eq

uatio

ns is

ver

y po

wer

ful a

s an

y os

cilla

tion

can

be d

escr

ibed

in te

rms

of a

com

bina

tion

of h

arm

onic

osc

illat

ors.

Num

eric

al m

odel

ling

of

osci

llato

rs is

impo

rtan

t in

the

desi

gn o

f ele

ctric

al c

ircui

ts. (

1.11

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e de

finin

g eq

uatio

n of

SH

M

•En

ergy

cha

nges

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g ac

cele

ratio

n, v

eloc

ity a

nd d

ispl

acem

ent d

urin

g si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n, b

oth

grap

hica

lly a

nd a

lgeb

raic

ally

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e in

terc

hang

e of

kin

etic

and

pot

entia

l ene

rgy

durin

g si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g en

ergy

tran

sfer

dur

ing

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion,

bo

th g

raph

ical

ly a

nd a

lgeb

raic

ally

Gui

danc

e

•Co

ntex

ts fo

r thi

s su

b-to

pic

incl

ude

the

sim

ple

pend

ulum

and

a m

ass-

sprin

g sy

stem

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Fo

urie

r ana

lysi

s al

low

s us

to d

escr

ibe

all p

erio

dic

osci

llatio

ns in

term

s of

sim

ple

harm

onic

osc

illat

ors.

The

mat

hem

atic

s of

sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion

is c

ruci

al to

an

y ar

eas

of s

cien

ce a

nd te

chno

logy

whe

re o

scill

atio

ns o

ccur

•Th

e in

terc

hang

e of

ene

rgie

s in

osc

illat

ion

is im

port

ant i

n el

ectr

ical

ph

enom

ena

•Q

uadr

atic

func

tions

(see

Mat

hem

atic

s HL

sub-

topi

c 2.

6; M

athe

mat

ics S

L su

b-to

pic

2.4;

Mat

hem

atic

al st

udie

s SL

sub-

topi

c 6.

3)

•Tr

igon

omet

ric fu

nctio

ns (s

ee M

athe

mat

ics S

L su

b-to

pic

3.4)

Topi

c 9:

Wav

e ph

enom

ena

17 h

ours

Add

ition

al h

ighe

r lev

el

Topic 9: Wave phenomena

Physics guide 73

9.1

– Si

mpl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•T2

ωπ

=

•a

x2

ω=

−

•x

xt

xx

tsi

n;

cos

00

ωω

==

•v

xt

vx

tco

s;

sin

00

ωω

ωω

==

−

•v

xx

022

ω(

)=

±−

•E

mx

x1 2

K2

02

2ω

()

=−

•E

mx

1 2T

202

ω=

•T

l gPe

ndul

um:

2π=

•T

m kM

ass

sprin

g:2π

−=

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: stu

dent

s ca

n us

e th

is to

pic

to d

evel

op th

eir a

bilit

y to

syn

thes

ize

com

plex

and

div

erse

sci

entif

ic in

form

atio

n

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): in

vest

igat

ion

of

sim

ple

or to

rsio

nal p

endu

lum

s; m

easu

ring

the

vibr

atio

ns o

f a tu

ning

fork

; fu

rthe

r ext

ensi

ons

of th

e ex

perim

ents

con

duct

ed in

sub

-top

ic 4

.1. B

y us

ing

the

forc

e la

w, a

stu

dent

can

, with

iter

atio

n, d

eter

min

e th

e be

havi

our o

f an

obje

ct

unde

r sim

ple

harm

onic

mot

ion.

The

iter

ativ

e ap

proa

ch (n

umer

ical

sol

utio

n),

with

giv

en in

itial

con

ditio

ns, a

pplie

s ba

sic

unifo

rm a

ccel

erat

ion

equa

tions

in

succ

essi

ve s

mal

l tim

e in

crem

ents

. At e

ach

incr

emen

t, fin

al v

alue

s be

com

e th

e fo

llow

ing

initi

al c

ondi

tions

.

•A

im 7

: the

obs

erva

tion

of s

impl

e ha

rmon

ic m

otio

n an

d th

e va

riabl

es a

ffec

ted

can

be e

asily

follo

wed

in c

ompu

ter s

imul

atio

ns


Physics guide74

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

ingl

e-sl

it di

ffra

ctio

n oc

curs

whe

n a

wav

e is

inci

dent

upo

n a

slit

of a

ppro

xim

atel

y th

e sa

me

size

as

the

wav

elen

gth.

9.2

– Si

ngle

-slit

dif

frac

tion

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Dev

elop

men

t of t

heor

ies:

Whe

n lig

ht p

asse

s th

roug

h an

ape

rtur

e th

e su

mm

atio

n of

all

part

s of

the

wav

e le

ads

to a

n in

tens

ity p

atte

rn th

at is

far r

emov

ed fr

om th

e ge

omet

rical

sha

dow

that

sim

ple

theo

ry p

redi

cts.

(1.9

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e na

ture

of s

ingl

e-sl

it di

ffra

ctio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ef

fect

of s

lit w

idth

on

the

diff

ract

ion

patt

ern

•D

eter

min

ing

the

posi

tion

of fi

rst i

nter

fere

nce

min

imum

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g si

ngle

-slit

diff

ract

ion

patt

erns

pro

duce

d fr

om w

hite

lig

ht a

nd fr

om a

rang

e of

mon

ochr

omat

ic li

ght f

requ

enci

es

Gui

danc

e:

•O

nly

rect

angu

lar s

lits

need

to b

e co

nsid

ered

•D

iffra

ctio

n ar

ound

an

obje

ct (r

athe

r tha

n th

roug

h a

slit)

doe

s no

t nee

d to

be

cons

ider

ed in

this

sub

-top

ic (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 4

.4)

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•A

re e

xpla

natio

ns in

sci

ence

diff

eren

t fro

m e

xpla

natio

ns in

oth

er a

reas

of

know

ledg

e su

ch a

s hi

stor

y?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•X-

ray

diff

ract

ion

is a

n im

port

ant t

ool o

f the

cry

stal

logr

aphe

r and

the

mat

eria

l sc

ient

ist

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: thi

s to

pic

prov

ides

a b

ody

of k

now

ledg

e th

at c

hara

cter

izes

the

way

th

at s

cien

ce is

sub

ject

to m

odifi

catio

n w

ith ti

me

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

can

be

com

bine

d w

ith th

ose

from

sub

-top

ics

4.4

and

9.3


Physics guide 75

9.2

– Si

ngle

-slit

dif

frac

tion

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

be

awar

e of

the

appr

oxim

ate

ratio

s of

suc

cess

ive

inte

nsity

max

ima

for s

ingl

e-sl

it in

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rns

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns w

ill b

e lim

ited

to a

det

erm

inat

ion

of th

e po

sitio

n of

the

first

m

inim

um fo

r sin

gle-

slit

inte

rfer

ence

pat

tern

s us

ing

the

appr

oxim

atio

n eq

uatio

n

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•b

θλ

=


Physics guide76

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: In

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rns

from

mul

tiple

slit

s an

d th

in fi

lms

prod

uce

accu

rate

ly re

peat

able

pat

tern

s.

9.3

– In

terf

eren

ce

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Curio

sity

: Obs

erve

d pa

tter

ns o

f irid

esce

nce

in a

nim

als,

suc

h as

the

shim

mer

of p

eaco

ck fe

athe

rs, l

ed s

cien

tists

to d

evel

op th

e th

eory

of t

hin

film

inte

rfer

ence

. (1.

5)

Sere

ndip

ity: T

he fi

rst l

abor

ator

y pr

oduc

tion

of th

in fi

lms

was

acc

iden

tal.

(1.5

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Yo

ung’

s do

uble

-slit

exp

erim

ent

•M

odul

atio

n of

two-

slit

inte

rfer

ence

pat

tern

by

one-

slit

diff

ract

ion

effe

ct

•M

ultip

le s

lit a

nd d

iffra

ctio

n gr

atin

g in

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rns

•Th

in fi

lm in

terf

eren

ce

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g tw

o-sl

it in

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rns,

incl

udin

g m

odul

atio

n by

one

-slit

diff

ract

ion

effe

ct

•In

vest

igat

ing

Youn

g’s

doub

le-s

lit e

xper

imen

tally

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

inte

nsity

gra

phs

of d

oubl

e-sl

it in

terf

eren

ce

patt

erns

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e di

ffra

ctio

n gr

atin

g eq

uatio

n

•D

escr

ibin

g co

nditi

ons

nece

ssar

y fo

r con

stru

ctiv

e an

d de

stru

ctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce

from

thin

film

s, in

clud

ing

phas

e ch

ange

at i

nter

face

and

eff

ect o

f ref

ract

ive

inde

x

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g in

terf

eren

ce fr

om th

in fi

lms

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•M

ost t

wo-

slit

inte

rfer

ence

des

crip

tions

can

be

mad

e w

ithou

t ref

eren

ce to

the

one-

slit

mod

ulat

ion

effe

ct. T

o w

hat l

evel

can

sci

entis

ts ig

nore

par

ts o

f a m

odel

fo

r sim

plic

ity a

nd c

larit

y?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Co

mpa

ct d

iscs

are

a c

omm

erci

al e

xam

ple

of th

e us

e of

diff

ract

ion

grat

ings

•Th

in fi

lms

are

used

to p

rodu

ce a

nti-r

efle

ctio

n co

atin

gs

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: tw

o sc

ient

ific

conc

epts

(diff

ract

ion

and

inte

rfer

ence

) com

e to

geth

er in

th

is s

ub-t

opic

, allo

win

g st

uden

ts to

ana

lyse

and

syn

thes

ize

a w

ider

rang

e of

sc

ient

ific

info

rmat

ion

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ob

serv

ing

the

use

of d

iffra

ctio

n gr

atin

gs in

spe

ctro

scop

es; a

naly

sis

of th

in s

oap

film

s; so

und

wav

e an

d m

icro

wav

e in

terf

eren

ce p

atte

rn a

naly

sis

•A

im 9

: the

ray

appr

oach

to th

e de

scrip

tion

of th

in fi

lm in

terf

eren

ce is

onl

y an

app

roxi

mat

ion.

Stu

dent

s sh

ould

reco

gniz

e th

e lim

itatio

ns o

f suc

h a

visu

aliz

atio

n


Physics guide 77

9.3

– In

terf

eren

ce

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

intr

oduc

ed to

inte

rfer

ence

pat

tern

s fr

om a

var

iety

of

cohe

rent

sou

rces

suc

h as

(but

not

lim

ited

to) e

lect

rom

agne

tic w

aves

, sou

nd

and

sim

ulat

ed d

emon

stra

tions

•D

iffra

ctio

n gr

atin

g pa

tter

ns a

re re

stric

ted

to th

ose

form

ed a

t nor

mal

inci

denc

e

•Th

e tr

eatm

ent o

f thi

n fil

m in

terf

eren

ce is

con

fined

to p

aral

lel-s

ided

film

s at

no

rmal

inci

denc

e

•Th

e co

nstr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce a

nd d

estr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce fo

rmul

ae li

sted

be

low

and

in th

e da

ta b

ookl

et a

pply

to s

peci

fic c

ases

of p

hase

cha

nges

at

inte

rfac

es a

nd a

re n

ot g

ener

ally

true

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•n

dsi

nλ

θ=

•Co

nstr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce:

dnm

21 2

λ=

+

•D

estr

uctiv

e in

terf

eren

ce:

dnm

2λ

=


Physics guide78

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: R

esol

utio

n pl

aces

an

abso

lute

lim

it on

the

exte

nt to

whi

ch a

n op

tical

or o

ther

sys

tem

can

sep

arat

e im

ages

of o

bjec

ts.

9.4

– Re

solu

tion

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Impr

oved

tech

nolo

gy: T

he R

ayle

igh

crite

rion

is th

e lim

it of

reso

lutio

n. C

ontin

uing

adv

ance

men

t in

tech

nolo

gy s

uch

as la

rge

diam

eter

dis

hes

or le

nses

or t

he u

se o

f sm

alle

r w

avel

engt

h la

sers

pus

hes

the

limits

of w

hat w

e ca

n re

solv

e. (1

.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e si

ze o

f a d

iffra

ctin

g ap

ertu

re

•Th

e re

solu

tion

of s

impl

e m

onoc

hrom

atic

two-

sour

ce s

yste

ms

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e Ra

ylei

gh c

riter

ion

for l

ight

em

itted

by

two

sour

ces

diff

ract

ed a

t a s

ingl

e sl

it

•Re

solv

ance

of d

iffra

ctio

n gr

atin

gs

Gui

danc

e:

•Pr

oof o

f the

diff

ract

ion

grat

ing

reso

lvan

ce e

quat

ion

is n

ot re

quire

d

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•b

1.22

θλ

=

•R

mN

λ λ=

∆=

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Sa

telli

te u

se fo

r com

mer

cial

and

pol

itica

l pur

pose

s is

dic

tate

d by

the

reso

lutio

n ca

pabi

litie

s of

the

sate

llite

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e re

solu

tion

limits

set

by

Daw

es a

nd R

ayle

igh

are

capa

ble

of b

eing

su

rpas

sed

by th

e co

nstr

uctio

n of

hig

h qu

ality

tele

scop

es. A

re w

e ca

pabl

e of

br

eaki

ng o

ther

lim

its o

f sci

entif

ic k

now

ledg

e w

ith o

ur a

dvan

cing

tech

nolo

gy?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

n op

tical

or o

ther

rece

ptio

n sy

stem

mus

t be

able

to re

solv

e th

e in

tend

ed

imag

es. T

his

has

impl

icat

ions

for s

atel

lite

tran

smis

sion

s, ra

dio

astr

onom

y an

d m

any

othe

r app

licat

ions

in p

hysi

cs a

nd te

chno

logy

(see

Phy

sics o

ptio

n C)

•St

orag

e m

edia

suc

h as

com

pact

dis

cs (a

nd th

eir v

aria

nts)

and

CCD

sen

sors

rely

on

reso

lutio

n lim

its to

sto

re a

nd re

prod

uce

med

ia a

ccur

atel

y

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: thi

s su

b-to

pic

help

s br

idge

the

gap

betw

een

wav

e th

eory

and

real

-life

ap

plic

atio

ns

•A

im 8

: the

nee

d fo

r com

mun

icat

ion

betw

een

natio

nal c

omm

uniti

es v

ia

sate

llite

s ra

ises

the

awar

enes

s of

the

soci

al a

nd e

cono

mic

impl

icat

ions

of

tech

nolo

gy


Physics guide 79

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he D

oppl

er e

ffec

t des

crib

es th

e ph

enom

enon

of w

avel

engt

h/fr

eque

ncy

shift

whe

n re

lativ

e m

otio

n oc

curs

.

9.5

– D

oppl

er e

ffec

t

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Tech

nolo

gy: A

lthou

gh o

rigin

ally

bas

ed o

n ph

ysic

al o

bser

vatio

ns o

f the

pitc

h of

fast

mov

ing

sour

ces

of s

ound

, the

Dop

pler

eff

ect h

as a

n im

port

ant r

ole

in m

any

diff

eren

t ar

eas

such

as

evid

ence

for t

he e

xpan

sion

of t

he u

nive

rse

and

gene

ratin

g im

ages

use

d in

wea

ther

repo

rts

and

in m

edic

ine.

(5.5

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e D

oppl

er e

ffec

t for

sou

nd w

aves

and

ligh

t wav

es

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

the

Dop

pler

eff

ect w

hen

ther

e is

rela

tive

mot

ion

betw

een

sour

ce a

nd o

bser

ver

•D

escr

ibin

g si

tuat

ions

whe

re th

e D

oppl

er e

ffec

t can

be

utili

zed

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e ch

ange

in fr

eque

ncy

or w

avel

engt

h ob

serv

ed

due

to th

e D

oppl

er e

ffec

t to

dete

rmin

e th

e ve

loci

ty o

f the

sou

rce/

obse

rver

Gui

danc

e:

•Fo

r ele

ctro

mag

netic

wav

es, t

he a

ppro

xim

ate

equa

tion

shou

ld b

e us

ed fo

r all

calc

ulat

ions

•Si

tuat

ions

to b

e di

scus

sed

shou

ld in

clud

e th

e us

e of

Dop

pler

eff

ect i

n ra

dars

an

d in

med

ical

phy

sics

, and

its

sign

ifica

nce

for t

he re

d-sh

ift in

the

light

spe

ctra

of

rece

ding

gal

axie

s

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•M

ovin

g so

urce

: ff

vv

u s

′=±

•M

ovin

g ob

serv

er: f

fv

u v0

′=±

•f f

v cλ λ

∆=

∆≈

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Ra

dar u

sage

is a

ffec

ted

by th

e D

oppl

er e

ffec

t and

mus

t be

cons

ider

ed fo

r ap

plic

atio

ns u

sing

this

tech

nolo

gy

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•H

ow im

port

ant i

s se

nse

perc

eptio

n in

exp

lain

ing

scie

ntifi

c id

eas

such

as

the

Dop

pler

eff

ect?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

stro

nom

y re

lies

on th

e an

alys

is o

f the

Dop

pler

eff

ect w

hen

deal

ing

with

fast

m

ovin

g ob

ject

s (s

ee P

hysic

s opt

ion

D)

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: the

Dop

pler

eff

ect n

eeds

to b

e co

nsid

ered

in v

ario

us a

pplic

atio

ns o

f te

chno

logy

that

util

ize

wav

e th

eory

•A

im 6

: spe

ctra

l dat

a an

d im

ages

of r

eced

ing

gala

xies

are

ava

ilabl

e fr

om

prof

essi

onal

ast

rono

mic

al o

bser

vato

ries

for a

naly

sis

•A

im 7

: com

pute

r sim

ulat

ions

of t

he D

oppl

er e

ffec

t allo

w s

tude

nts

to v

isua

lize

com

plex

and

mos

tly u

nobs

erva

ble

situ

atio

ns

Physics guide80

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: E

lect

ric c

harg

es a

nd m

asse

s ea

ch in

fluen

ce th

e sp

ace

arou

nd th

em a

nd th

at in

fluen

ce c

an b

e re

pres

ente

d th

roug

h th

e co

ncep

t of f

ield

s.

10.1

– D

escr

ibin

g fi

elds

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Para

digm

shi

ft: T

he m

ove

from

dire

ct, o

bser

vabl

e ac

tions

bei

ng re

spon

sibl

e fo

r inf

luen

ce o

n an

obj

ect t

o ac

cept

ance

of a

fiel

d’s

“act

ion

at a

dis

tanc

e” re

quire

d a

para

digm

sh

ift in

the

wor

ld o

f sci

ence

. (2.

3)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•G

ravi

tatio

nal f

ield

s

•El

ectr

osta

tic fi

elds

•El

ectr

ic p

oten

tial a

nd g

ravi

tatio

nal p

oten

tial

•Fi

eld

lines

•Eq

uipo

tent

ial s

urfa

ces

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Re

pres

entin

g so

urce

s of

mas

s an

d ch

arge

, lin

es o

f ele

ctric

and

gra

vita

tiona

l fo

rce,

and

fiel

d pa

tter

ns u

sing

an

appr

opria

te s

ymbo

lism

•M

appi

ng fi

elds

usi

ng p

oten

tial

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e co

nnec

tion

betw

een

equi

pote

ntia

l sur

face

s an

d fie

ld li

nes

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•A

lthou

gh g

ravi

tatio

nal a

nd e

lect

rost

atic

forc

es d

ecre

ase

with

the

squa

re o

f di

stan

ce a

nd w

ill o

nly

beco

me

zero

at i

nfin

ite s

epar

atio

n, fr

om a

pra

ctic

al

stan

dpoi

nt th

ey b

ecom

e ne

glig

ible

at m

uch

smal

ler d

ista

nces

. How

do

scie

ntis

ts d

ecid

e w

hen

an e

ffec

t is

so s

mal

l tha

t it c

an b

e ig

nore

d?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Kn

owle

dge

of v

ecto

r ana

lysi

s is

use

ful f

or th

is s

ub-t

opic

(see

Phy

sics

sub-

topi

c 1.

3)

Aim

s:

•A

im 9

: mod

els

deve

lope

d fo

r ele

ctric

and

gra

vita

tiona

l fie

lds

usin

g lin

es o

f fo

rces

allo

w p

redi

ctio

ns to

be

mad

e bu

t hav

e lim

itatio

ns in

term

s of

the

finite

w

idth

of a

line

Topi

c 10

: Fie

lds

11 h

ours

Add

ition

al h

ighe

r lev

el

Topic 10: Fields

Physics guide 81

10.1

– D

escr

ibin

g fi

elds

Gui

danc

e:

•El

ectr

osta

tic fi

elds

are

rest

ricte

d to

the

radi

al fi

elds

aro

und

poin

t or s

pher

ical

ch

arge

s, th

e fie

ld b

etw

een

two

poin

t cha

rges

and

the

unifo

rm fi

elds

bet

wee

n ch

arge

d pa

ralle

l pla

tes

•G

ravi

tatio

nal f

ield

s ar

e re

stric

ted

to th

e ra

dial

fiel

ds a

roun

d po

int o

r sph

eric

al

mas

ses

and

the

(ass

umed

) uni

form

fiel

d cl

ose

to th

e su

rfac

e of

mas

sive

ce

lest

ial b

odie

s an

d pl

anet

ary

bodi

es

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d re

cogn

ize

that

no

wor

k is

don

e in

mov

ing

char

ge o

r mas

s on

an

equ

ipot

entia

l sur

face

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•W

qV e

=∆

•W

mV g

=∆

Topic 10: Fields

Physics guide82

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

imila

r app

roac

hes

can

be ta

ken

in a

naly

sing

ele

ctric

al a

nd g

ravi

tatio

nal p

oten

tial p

robl

ems.

10.2

– F

ield

s at

wor

k

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Com

mun

icat

ion

of s

cien

tific

exp

lana

tions

: The

abi

lity

to a

pply

fiel

d th

eory

to th

e un

obse

rvab

le (c

harg

es) a

nd th

e m

assi

vely

sca

led

(mot

ion

of s

atel

lites

) req

uire

d sc

ient

ists

to

dev

elop

new

way

s to

inve

stig

ate,

ana

lyse

and

repo

rt fi

ndin

gs to

a g

ener

al p

ublic

use

d to

sci

entif

ic d

isco

verie

s ba

sed

on ta

ngib

le a

nd d

isce

rnib

le e

vide

nce.

(5.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Po

tent

ial a

nd p

oten

tial e

nerg

y

•Po

tent

ial g

radi

ent

•Po

tent

ial d

iffer

ence

•Es

cape

spe

ed

•O

rbita

l mot

ion,

orb

ital s

peed

and

orb

ital e

nerg

y

•Fo

rces

and

inve

rse-

squa

re la

w b

ehav

iour

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

eter

min

ing

the

pote

ntia

l ene

rgy

of a

poi

nt m

ass

and

the

pote

ntia

l ene

rgy

of

a po

int c

harg

e

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g po

tent

ial e

nerg

y

•D

eter

min

ing

the

pote

ntia

l ins

ide

a ch

arge

d sp

here

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e sp

eed

requ

ired

for a

n ob

ject

to g

o in

to o

rbit

arou

nd a

pla

net a

nd fo

r an

obje

ct to

esc

ape

the

grav

itatio

nal f

ield

of a

pla

net

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g or

bita

l ene

rgy

of c

harg

ed p

artic

les

in c

ircul

ar

orbi

tal m

otio

n an

d m

asse

s in

circ

ular

orb

ital m

otio

n

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g fo

rces

on

char

ges

and

mas

ses

in ra

dial

and

un

iform

fiel

ds

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e gl

obal

pos

ition

ing

syst

em d

epen

ds o

n co

mpl

ete

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

sa

telli

te m

otio

n

•G

eost

atio

nary

/pol

ar s

atel

lites

•Th

e ac

cele

ratio

n of

cha

rged

par

ticle

s in

par

ticle

acc

eler

ator

s an

d in

man

y m

edic

al im

agin

g de

vice

s de

pend

s on

the

pres

ence

of e

lect

ric fi

elds

(see

Ph

ysic

s opt

ion

sub-

topi

c C.

4)

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: New

ton’

s la

w o

f gra

vita

tion

and

Coul

omb’

s la

w fo

rm p

art o

f the

st

ruct

ure

know

n as

“cla

ssic

al p

hysi

cs”.

This

bod

y of

kno

wle

dge

has

prov

ided

th

e m

etho

ds a

nd to

ols

of a

naly

sis

up to

the

adve

nt o

f the

theo

ry o

f rel

ativ

ity

and

the

quan

tum

theo

ry

•A

im 4

: the

theo

ries

of g

ravi

tatio

n an

d el

ectr

osta

tic in

tera

ctio

ns a

llow

s fo

r a

grea

t syn

thes

is in

the

desc

riptio

n of

a la

rge

num

ber o

f phe

nom

ena

Topic 10: Fields

Physics guide 83

10.2

– F

ield

s at

wor

k

Gui

danc

e:

•O

rbita

l mot

ion

of a

sat

ellit

e ar

ound

a p

lane

t is

rest

ricte

d to

a c

onsi

dera

tion

of

circ

ular

orb

its (l

inks

to 6

.1 a

nd 6

.2)

•Bo

th u

nifo

rm a

nd ra

dial

fiel

ds n

eed

to b

e co

nsid

ered

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d re

cogn

ize

that

line

s of

forc

e ca

n be

two-

dim

ensi

onal

re

pres

enta

tions

of t

hree

-dim

ensi

onal

fiel

ds

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d as

sum

e th

at th

e el

ectr

ic fi

eld

ever

ywhe

re b

etw

een

para

llel

plat

es is

uni

form

with

edg

e ef

fect

s oc

curr

ing

beyo

nd th

e lim

its o

f the

pla

tes.

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

VG

M rg

=−

Vkq r

e=

gV rg

=−

∆ ∆E

V re=

−∆ ∆

Em

VG

Mm r

Pg

==

−E

qVkq

q rP

e1

2=

=

FG

mm r

G1

22

=F

kq

q rE

12

2=

•V

GM r

2es

c=

•V

GM r

orbi

t=

Physics guide84

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he m

ajor

ity o

f ele

ctric

ity g

ener

ated

thro

ugho

ut th

e w

orld

is g

ener

ated

by

mac

hine

s th

at w

ere

desi

gned

to o

pera

te u

sing

the

prin

cipl

es o

f ele

ctro

mag

netic

in

duct

ion.

11.1

– E

lect

rom

agne

tic

indu

ctio

n

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Expe

rimen

tatio

n: In

183

1 M

icha

el F

arad

ay, u

sing

prim

itive

equ

ipm

ent,

obse

rved

a m

inut

e pu

lse

of c

urre

nt in

one

coi

l of w

ire o

nly

whe

n th

e cu

rren

t in

a se

cond

coi

l of w

ire

was

sw

itche

d on

or o

ff b

ut n

othi

ng w

hile

a c

onst

ant c

urre

nt w

as e

stab

lishe

d. F

arad

ay’s

obse

rvat

ion

of th

ese

smal

l tra

nsie

nt c

urre

nts

led

him

to p

erfo

rm e

xper

imen

ts th

at

led

to h

is la

w o

f ele

ctro

mag

netic

indu

ctio

n. (1

.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•El

ectr

omot

ive

forc

e (e

mf)

•M

agne

tic fl

ux a

nd m

agne

tic fl

ux li

nkag

e

•Fa

rada

y’s

law

of i

nduc

tion

•Le

nz’s

law

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e pr

oduc

tion

of a

n in

duce

d em

f by

a ch

angi

ng m

agne

tic fl

ux

and

with

in a

uni

form

mag

netic

fiel

d

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g m

agne

tic fl

ux, m

agne

tic fl

ux li

nkag

e an

d

Fara

day’

s la

w

•Ex

plai

ning

Len

z’s

law

thro

ugh

the

cons

erva

tion

of e

nerg

y

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Te

rmin

olog

y us

ed in

ele

ctro

mag

netic

fiel

d th

eory

is e

xten

sive

and

can

co

nfus

e pe

ople

who

are

not

dire

ctly

invo

lved

. Wha

t eff

ect c

an la

ck o

f cla

rity

in

term

inol

ogy

have

on

com

mun

icat

ing

scie

ntifi

c co

ncep

ts to

the

publ

ic?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

pplic

atio

ns o

f ele

ctro

mag

netic

indu

ctio

n ca

n be

foun

d in

man

y pl

aces

in

clud

ing

tran

sfor

mer

s, e

lect

rom

agne

tic b

raki

ng, g

eoph

ones

use

d in

se

ism

olog

y, a

nd m

etal

det

ecto

rs

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: the

sim

ple

prin

cipl

es o

f ele

ctro

mag

netic

indu

ctio

n ar

e a

pow

erfu

l as

pect

of t

he p

hysi

cist

’s or

tech

nolo

gist

’s ar

mou

ry w

hen

desi

gnin

g sy

stem

s th

at tr

ansf

er e

nerg

y fr

om o

ne fo

rm to

ano

ther

Topi

c 11

: Ele

ctro

mag

netic

indu

ctio

n 16

hou

rs

Add

ition

al h

ighe

r lev

el

Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction

Physics guide 85

11.1

– E

lect

rom

agne

tic

indu

ctio

n

Gui

danc

e:

•Q

uant

itativ

e tr

eatm

ents

will

be

expe

cted

for s

trai

ght c

ondu

ctor

s m

ovin

g at

rig

ht a

ngle

s to

mag

netic

fiel

ds a

nd re

ctan

gula

r coi

ls m

ovin

g in

and

out

of

field

s an

d ro

tatin

g in

fiel

ds

•Q

ualit

ativ

e tr

eatm

ents

onl

y w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed fo

r fix

ed c

oils

in a

cha

ngin

g m

agne

tic fi

eld

and

ac g

ener

ator

s

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•BA

cos

Φθ

=

•N

tε

Φ=

−∆ ∆

•�

Bvε

=

•�

BvN

ε=


Physics guide86

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: G

ener

atio

n an

d tr

ansm

issio

n of

alte

rnat

ing

curr

ent (

ac) e

lect

ricity

has

tran

sfor

med

the

wor

ld.

11.2

– P

ower

gen

erat

ion

and

tran

smis

sion

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Bias

: In

the

late

19t

h ce

ntur

y Ed

ison

was

a p

ropo

nent

of d

irect

cur

rent

ele

ctric

al e

nerg

y tr

ansm

issi

on w

hile

Wes

tingh

ouse

and

Tes

la fa

vour

ed a

ltern

atin

g cu

rren

t tr

ansm

issi

on. T

he s

o ca

lled

“bat

tle o

f cur

rent

s” h

ad a

sig

nific

ant i

mpa

ct o

n to

day’

s so

ciet

y. (3

.5)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•A

ltern

atin

g cu

rren

t (ac

) gen

erat

ors

•Av

erag

e po

wer

and

root

mea

n sq

uare

(rm

s) v

alue

s of

cur

rent

and

vol

tage

•Tr

ansf

orm

ers

•D

iode

brid

ges

•H

alf-w

ave

and

full-

wav

e re

ctifi

catio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ex

plai

ning

the

oper

atio

n of

a b

asic

ac

gene

rato

r, in

clud

ing

the

effe

ct o

f ch

angi

ng th

e ge

nera

tor f

requ

ency

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e av

erag

e po

wer

in a

n ac

circ

uit

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g st

ep-u

p an

d st

ep-d

own

tran

sfor

mer

s

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e us

e of

tran

sfor

mer

s in

ac

elec

tric

al p

ower

dis

trib

utio

n

•In

vest

igat

ing

a di

ode

brid

ge re

ctifi

catio

n ci

rcui

t exp

erim

enta

lly

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g th

e ef

fect

of a

ddin

g a

capa

cito

r to

a di

ode

brid

ge

rect

ifica

tion

circ

uit

Gui

danc

e:

•Ca

lcul

atio

ns w

ill b

e re

stric

ted

to id

eal t

rans

form

ers b

ut st

uden

ts sh

ould

be

awar

e of

som

e of

the

reas

ons w

hy re

al tr

ansf

orm

ers a

re n

ot id

eal (

for e

xam

ple:

flux

le

akag

e, jo

ule

heat

ing,

edd

y cu

rren

t hea

ting,

mag

netic

hys

tere

sis)

•Pr

oof o

f the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

the

peak

and

rms

valu

es w

ill n

ot b

e ex

pect

ed

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e ab

ility

to m

aint

ain

a re

liabl

e po

wer

grid

has

bee

n th

e ai

m o

f all

gove

rnm

ents

sin

ce th

e w

ides

prea

d us

e of

ele

ctric

ity s

tart

ed

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

ere

is c

ontin

ued

deba

te o

f the

eff

ect o

f ele

ctro

mag

netic

wav

es o

n

the

heal

th o

f hum

ans,

esp

ecia

lly c

hild

ren.

Is it

just

ifiab

le to

mak

e us

e of

s

cien

tific

adv

ance

s ev

en if

we

do n

ot k

now

wha

t the

ir lo

ng-t

erm

co

nseq

uenc

es m

ay b

e?

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): co

nstr

uctio

n of

a

basi

c ac

gen

erat

or; i

nves

tigat

ion

of v

aria

tion

of in

put a

nd o

utpu

t coi

ls o

n a

tran

sfor

mer

; obs

ervi

ng W

heat

ston

e an

d W

ien

brid

ge c

ircui

ts

•A

im 7

: con

stru

ctio

n an

d ob

serv

atio

n of

the

adju

stm

ents

mad

e in

ver

y la

rge

elec

tric

ity d

istr

ibut

ion

syst

ems

are

best

car

ried

out u

sing

com

pute

r-m

odel

ling

soft

war

e an

d w

ebsi

tes

•A

im 9

: pow

er tr

ansm

issi

on is

mod

elle

d us

ing

perf

ectly

eff

icie

nt s

yste

ms

but n

o su

ch s

yste

m tr

uly

exis

ts. A

lthou

gh th

e m

odel

is im

perf

ect,

it re

nder

s th

e m

axim

um p

ower

tran

smis

sion

. Rec

ogni

tion

of, a

nd a

ccou

ntin

g fo

r, th

e di

ffer

ence

s be

twee

n th

e “p

erfe

ct” s

yste

m a

nd th

e pr

actic

al s

yste

m is

one

of

the

mai

n fu

nctio

ns o

f pro

fess

iona

l sci

entis

ts


Physics guide 87

11.2

– P

ower

gen

erat

ion

and

tran

smis

sion

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•I

I 2rm

s0

=

•V

V 2rm

s0

=

•R

V IV I

0 0

rms

rms

==

•P

IVm

ax0

0=

•P

IV1 2

00

=

•N N

I Ip s

p s

s p

ε ε=

=


Physics guide88

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: C

apac

itors

can

be

used

to st

ore

elec

tric

al e

nerg

y fo

r lat

er u

se.

11.3

– C

apac

itan

ce

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Rela

tions

hips

: Exa

mpl

es o

f exp

onen

tial g

row

th a

nd d

ecay

per

vade

the

who

le o

f sci

ence

. It i

s a

clea

r exa

mpl

e of

the

way

that

sci

entis

ts u

se m

athe

mat

ics

to m

odel

real

ity.

This

topi

c ca

n be

use

d to

cre

ate

links

bet

wee

n ph

ysic

s to

pics

but

als

o to

use

s in

che

mis

try,

bio

logy

, med

icin

e an

d ec

onom

ics.

(3.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ca

paci

tanc

e

•D

iele

ctric

mat

eria

ls

•Ca

paci

tors

in s

erie

s an

d pa

ralle

l

•Re

sist

or-c

apac

itor (

RC) s

erie

s ci

rcui

ts

•Ti

me

cons

tant

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ef

fect

of d

iffer

ent d

iele

ctric

mat

eria

ls o

n ca

paci

tanc

e

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g pa

ralle

l-pla

te c

apac

itors

•In

vest

igat

ing

com

bina

tions

of c

apac

itors

in s

erie

s or

par

alle

l circ

uits

•D

eter

min

ing

the

ener

gy s

tore

d in

a c

harg

ed c

apac

itor

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e na

ture

of t

he e

xpon

entia

l dis

char

ge o

f a c

apac

itor

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e di

scha

rge

of a

cap

acito

r thr

ough

a fi

xed

resi

stor

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e tim

e co

nsta

nt o

f an

RC c

ircui

t for

cha

rge,

vo

ltage

and

cur

rent

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Li

ghtn

ing

is a

phe

nom

enon

that

has

fasc

inat

ed p

hysi

cist

s fr

om P

liny

thro

ugh

New

ton

to F

rank

lin. T

he c

harg

ed c

loud

s fo

rm o

ne p

late

of a

cap

acito

r with

ot

her c

loud

s or

Ear

th fo

rmin

g th

e se

cond

pla

te. T

he fr

eque

ncy

of li

ghtn

ing

strik

es v

arie

s gl

obal

ly, b

eing

par

ticul

arly

pre

vale

nt in

equ

ator

ial r

egio

ns. T

he

impa

ct o

f lig

htni

ng s

trik

es is

sig

nific

ant,

with

man

y hu

man

s an

d an

imal

s be

ing

kille

d an

nual

ly a

nd h

uge

finan

cial

cos

ts to

indu

stry

from

dam

age

to b

uild

ings

, co

mm

unic

atio

n an

d po

wer

tran

smis

sion

sys

tem

s, a

nd d

elay

s or

the

need

to

rero

ute

air t

rans

port

.

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e ch

arge

and

dis

char

ge o

f cap

acito

rs o

beys

rule

s th

at h

ave

para

llels

in o

ther

br

anch

es o

f phy

sics

incl

udin

g ra

dioa

ctiv

ity (s

ee P

hysic

s sub

-top

ic 7

.1)

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: the

trea

tmen

t of e

xpon

entia

l gro

wth

and

dec

ay b

y gr

aphi

cal a

nd

alge

brai

c m

etho

ds o

ffer

s bo

th th

e vi

sual

and

rigo

rous

app

roac

h so

oft

en

char

acte

ristic

of s

cien

ce a

nd te

chno

logy

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): in

vest

igat

ing

basi

c RC

circ

uits

; usi

ng a

cap

acito

r in

a br

idge

circ

uit;

exam

inin

g ot

her t

ypes

of

capa

cito

rs; v

erify

ing

time

cons

tant


Physics guide 89

11.3

– C

apac

itan

ce

Gui

danc

e:

•O

nly

sing

le p

aral

lel-p

late

cap

acito

rs p

rovi

ding

a u

nifo

rm e

lect

ric fi

eld,

in s

erie

s w

ith a

load

, nee

d to

be

cons

ider

ed (e

dge

effe

ct w

ill b

e ne

glec

ted)

•Pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e di

scha

rge

of c

apac

itors

thro

ugh

fixed

resi

stor

s ne

ed to

be

trea

ted

both

gra

phic

ally

and

alg

ebra

ical

ly

•Pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e ch

argi

ng o

f a c

apac

itor w

ill o

nly

be tr

eate

d gr

aphi

cally

•D

eriv

atio

n of

the

char

ge, v

olta

ge a

nd c

urre

nt e

quat

ions

as

a fu

nctio

n of

tim

e is

not

requ

ired

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•C

q V=

•�

CC

Cpa

ralle

l1

2=

++

•1

11

12

CC

Cse

ries

=+

+�

•C

A dε

=

•E

CV1 2

2=

•RC

τ=

•q

qe

t

0=

τ−

•I

Ie

t

0=

τ−

•V

Ve

t

0=

τ−

Physics guide90

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he m

icro

scop

ic q

uant

um w

orld

off

ers

a ra

nge

of p

heno

men

a, th

e in

terp

reta

tion

and

expl

anat

ion

of w

hich

requ

ire n

ew id

eas

and

conc

epts

not

foun

d in

the

clas

sica

l wor

ld.

12.1

– T

he in

tera

ctio

n of

mat

ter w

ith

radi

atio

n

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Obs

erva

tions

: Muc

h of

the

wor

k to

war

ds a

qua

ntum

theo

ry o

f ato

ms

was

gui

ded

by th

e ne

ed to

exp

lain

the

obse

rved

pat

tern

s in

ato

mic

spe

ctra

. The

firs

t qua

ntum

mod

el

of m

atte

r is

the

Bohr

mod

el fo

r hyd

roge

n. (1

.8)

Para

digm

shi

ft: T

he a

ccep

tanc

e of

the

wav

e–pa

rtic

le d

ualit

y pa

rado

x fo

r lig

ht a

nd p

artic

les

requ

ired

scie

ntis

ts in

man

y fie

lds

to v

iew

rese

arch

from

new

per

spec

tives

. (2.

3)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ph

oton

s

•Th

e ph

otoe

lect

ric e

ffec

t

•M

atte

r wav

es

•Pa

ir pr

oduc

tion

and

pair

anni

hila

tion

•Q

uant

izat

ion

of a

ngul

ar m

omen

tum

in th

e Bo

hr m

odel

for h

ydro

gen

•Th

e w

ave

func

tion

•Th

e un

cert

aint

y pr

inci

ple

for e

nerg

y an

d tim

e an

d po

sitio

n an

d m

omen

tum

•Tu

nnel

ling,

pot

entia

l bar

rier a

nd fa

ctor

s af

fect

ing

tunn

ellin

g pr

obab

ility

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e du

ality

of m

atte

r and

tunn

ellin

g ar

e ca

ses

whe

re th

e la

ws

of c

lass

ical

ph

ysic

s ar

e vi

olat

ed. T

o w

hat e

xten

t hav

e ad

vanc

es in

tech

nolo

gy e

nabl

ed

para

digm

shi

fts

in s

cien

ce?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e el

ectr

on m

icro

scop

e an

d th

e tu

nnel

ling

elec

tron

mic

rosc

ope

rely

on

the

findi

ngs

from

stu

dies

in q

uant

um p

hysi

cs

•Pr

obab

ility

is tr

eate

d in

a m

athe

mat

ical

sen

se in

Mat

hem

atic

al st

udie

s SL

sub-

topi

cs 3

.6–3

.7

Topi

c 12

: Qua

ntum

and

nuc

lear

phy

sics

16

hou

rs

Add

ition

al h

ighe

r lev

el

Topic 12: Quantum and nuclear physics

Physics guide 91

12.1

– T

he in

tera

ctio

n of

mat

ter w

ith

radi

atio

n

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

iscu

ssin

g th

e ph

otoe

lect

ric e

ffec

t exp

erim

ent a

nd e

xpla

inin

g w

hich

feat

ures

of

the

expe

rimen

t can

not b

e ex

plai

ned

by th

e cl

assi

cal w

ave

theo

ry o

f lig

ht

•So

lvin

g ph

otoe

lect

ric p

robl

ems

both

gra

phic

ally

and

alg

ebra

ical

ly

•D

iscu

ssin

g ex

perim

enta

l evi

denc

e fo

r mat

ter w

aves

, inc

ludi

ng a

n ex

perim

ent

in w

hich

the

wav

e na

ture

of e

lect

rons

is e

vide

nt

•St

atin

g or

der o

f mag

nitu

de e

stim

ates

from

the

unce

rtai

nty

prin

cipl

e

Gui

danc

e:

•Th

e or

der o

f mag

nitu

de e

stim

ates

from

the

unce

rtai

nty

prin

cipl

e m

ay in

clud

e (b

ut is

not

lim

ited

to) e

stim

ates

of t

he e

nerg

y of

the

grou

nd s

tate

of a

n at

om,

the

impo

ssib

ility

of a

n el

ectr

on e

xist

ing

with

in a

nuc

leus

, and

the

lifet

ime

of

an e

lect

ron

in a

n ex

cite

d en

ergy

sta

te

•Tu

nnel

ling

to b

e tr

eate

d qu

alita

tivel

y us

ing

the

idea

of c

ontin

uity

of w

ave

func

tions

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•E

hf=

•E

hfm

axΦ

=−

•E

neV

13.6 2

=−

•m

vrnh 2π

=

•P

rV

()

2=

Ψ∆

•x

ph 4π

∆∆

≥

•E

th 4π

∆∆

≥

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: stu

dy o

f qua

ntum

phe

nom

ena

intr

oduc

es s

tude

nts

to a

n ex

citin

g ne

w

wor

ld th

at is

not

exp

erie

nced

at t

he m

acro

scop

ic le

vel.

The

stud

y of

tunn

elin

g is

a n

ovel

phe

nom

enon

not

obs

erve

d in

mac

rosc

opic

phy

sics

.

•A

im 6

: the

pho

toel

ectr

ic e

ffec

t can

be

inve

stig

ated

usi

ng L

EDs

•A

im 9

: the

Boh

r mod

el is

ver

y su

cces

sful

with

hyd

roge

n bu

t not

of a

ny u

se fo

r ot

her e

lem

ents


Physics guide92

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he id

ea o

f dis

cret

enes

s th

at w

e m

et in

the

atom

ic w

orld

con

tinue

s to

exi

st in

the

nucl

ear w

orld

as

wel

l.

12.2

– N

ucle

ar p

hysi

cs

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Theo

retic

al a

dvan

ces

and

insp

iratio

n: P

rogr

ess

in a

tom

ic, n

ucle

ar a

nd p

artic

le p

hysi

cs o

ften

cam

e fr

om th

eore

tical

adv

ance

s an

d st

roke

s of

insp

iratio

n.

Adv

ance

s in

inst

rum

enta

tion:

New

way

s of

det

ectin

g su

bato

mic

par

ticle

s du

e to

adv

ance

s in

ele

ctro

nic

tech

nolo

gy w

ere

also

cru

cial

.

Mod

ern

com

putin

g po

wer

: Fin

ally

, the

ana

lysi

s of

the

data

gat

here

d in

mod

ern

part

icle

det

ecto

rs in

par

ticle

acc

eler

ator

exp

erim

ents

wou

ld b

e im

poss

ible

with

out m

oder

n co

mpu

ting

pow

er. (

1.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Ru

ther

ford

sca

tter

ing

and

nucl

ear r

adiu

s

•N

ucle

ar e

nerg

y le

vels

•Th

e ne

utrin

o

•Th

e la

w o

f rad

ioac

tive

deca

y an

d th

e de

cay

cons

tant

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g a

scat

terin

g ex

perim

ent i

nclu

ding

loca

tion

of m

inim

um in

tens

ity

for t

he d

iffra

cted

par

ticle

s ba

sed

on th

eir d

e Br

oglie

wav

elen

gth

•Ex

plai

ning

dev

iatio

ns fr

om R

uthe

rfor

d sc

atte

ring

in h

igh

ener

gy e

xper

imen

ts

•D

escr

ibin

g ex

perim

enta

l evi

denc

e fo

r nuc

lear

ene

rgy

leve

ls

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e ra

dioa

ctiv

e de

cay

law

for a

rbitr

ary

time

inte

rval

s

•Ex

plai

ning

the

met

hods

for m

easu

ring

shor

t and

long

hal

f-liv

es

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•M

uch

of th

e kn

owle

dge

abou

t sub

atom

ic p

artic

les

is b

ased

on

the

mod

els

one

uses

to in

terp

ret t

he d

ata

from

exp

erim

ents

. How

can

we

be s

ure

that

we

are

disc

over

ing

an “i

ndep

ende

nt tr

uth”

not

influ

ence

d by

our

mod

els?

Is th

ere

such

a th

ing

as a

sin

gle

trut

h?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Kn

owle

dge

of ra

dioa

ctiv

ity, r

adio

activ

e su

bsta

nces

and

the

radi

oact

ive

deca

y la

w a

re c

ruci

al in

mod

ern

nucl

ear m

edic

ine

(see

Phy

sics o

ptio

n su

b-to

pic

C.4)

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: det

ectio

n of

the

neut

rino

dem

onst

rate

s th

e co

ntin

uing

gro

win

g bo

dy

of k

now

ledg

e sc

ient

ists

are

gat

herin

g in

this

are

a of

stu

dy


Physics guide 93

12.2

– N

ucle

ar p

hysi

cs

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

aw

are

that

nuc

lear

den

sitie

s ar

e ap

prox

imat

ely

the

sam

e fo

r all

nucl

ei a

nd th

at th

e on

ly m

acro

scop

ic o

bjec

ts w

ith th

e sa

me

dens

ity a

s nu

clei

are

neu

tron

sta

rs

•Th

e sm

all a

ngle

app

roxi

mat

ion

is u

sual

ly n

ot a

ppro

pria

te to

use

to d

eter

min

e th

e lo

catio

n of

the

min

imum

inte

nsity

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•R

RA

01/

3=

•N

Ne

t0

=λ

−

•A

Ne

t0

λ=

λ−

•D

sin

θλ

≈

Physics guide94

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: E

inst

ein’

s st

udy

of e

lect

rom

agne

tism

reve

aled

inco

nsis

tenc

ies

betw

een

the

theo

ry o

f Max

wel

l and

New

ton‘

s m

echa

nics

. He

reco

gniz

ed th

at b

oth

theo

ries

coul

d no

t be

reco

ncile

d an

d so

cho

osin

g to

trus

t Max

wel

l’s th

eory

of e

lect

rom

agne

tism

he

was

forc

ed to

cha

nge

long

-che

rishe

d id

eas

abou

t spa

ce a

nd ti

me

in m

echa

nics

.

A.1

– T

he b

egin

ning

s of

rela

tivi

ty

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Para

digm

shi

ft: T

he fu

ndam

enta

l fac

t tha

t the

spe

ed o

f lig

ht is

con

stan

t for

all

iner

tial o

bser

vers

has

far-

reac

hing

con

sequ

ence

s ab

out o

ur u

nder

stan

ding

of s

pace

and

tim

e.

Idea

s ab

out s

pace

and

tim

e th

at w

ent u

ncha

lleng

ed fo

r mor

e th

an 2

,000

yea

rs w

ere

show

n to

be

fals

e. T

he e

xten

sion

of t

he p

rinci

ple

of re

lativ

ity to

acc

eler

ated

fram

es o

f re

fere

nce

lead

s to

the

revo

lutio

nary

idea

of g

ener

al re

lativ

ity th

at th

e m

ass

and

ener

gy th

at s

pace

time

cont

ains

det

erm

ines

the

geom

etry

of s

pace

time.

(2.3

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Re

fere

nce

fram

es

•G

alile

an re

lativ

ity a

nd N

ewto

n’s

post

ulat

es c

once

rnin

g tim

e an

d sp

ace

•M

axw

ell a

nd th

e co

nsta

ncy

of th

e sp

eed

of li

ght

•Fo

rces

on

a ch

arge

or c

urre

nt

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•U

sing

the

Gal

ilean

tran

sfor

mat

ion

equa

tions

•D

eter

min

ing

whe

ther

a fo

rce

on a

cha

rge

or c

urre

nt is

ele

ctric

or m

agne

tic in

a

give

n fr

ame

of re

fere

nce

•D

eter

min

ing

the

natu

re o

f the

fiel

ds o

bser

ved

by d

iffer

ent o

bser

vers

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•W

hen

scie

ntis

ts c

laim

a n

ew d

irect

ion

in th

inki

ng re

quire

s a

para

digm

shi

ft in

ho

w w

e ob

serv

e th

e un

iver

se, h

ow d

o w

e en

sure

thei

r cla

ims

are

valid

?

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: thi

s su

b-to

pic

is th

e co

rner

ston

e of

dev

elop

men

ts th

at fo

llow

ed in

re

lativ

ity a

nd m

oder

n ph

ysic

s

Core

topi

cs

15 h

ours

Opt

ion

A: R

elat

ivity

Core topics

Physics guide 95

A.1

– T

he b

egin

ning

s of

rela

tivi

ty

Gui

danc

e:

•M

axw

ell’s

equ

atio

ns d

o no

t nee

d to

be

desc

ribed

•Q

ualit

ativ

e tr

eatm

ent o

f ele

ctric

and

mag

netic

fiel

ds a

s m

easu

red

by

obse

rver

s in

rela

tive

mot

ion.

Exa

mpl

es w

ill in

clud

e a

char

ge m

ovin

g in

a

mag

netic

fiel

d or

two

char

ged

part

icle

s m

ovin

g w

ith p

aral

lel v

eloc

ities

. St

uden

ts w

ill b

e as

ked

to a

naly

se th

ese

mot

ions

from

the

poin

t of v

iew

of

obse

rver

s at

rest

with

resp

ect t

o th

e pa

rtic

les

and

obse

rver

s at

rest

with

re

spec

t to

the

mag

netic

fiel

d.

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•x

xvt

′=−

•u

uv

′=−

Core topics

Physics guide96

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: O

bser

vers

in re

lativ

e un

iform

mot

ion

disa

gree

on

the

num

eric

al v

alue

s of

spa

ce a

nd ti

me

coor

dina

tes

for e

vent

s, b

ut a

gree

with

the

num

eric

al v

alue

of

the

spee

d of

ligh

t in

a va

cuum

. The

Lor

entz

tran

sfor

mat

ion

equa

tions

rela

te th

e va

lues

in o

ne re

fere

nce

fram

e to

thos

e in

ano

ther

. The

se e

quat

ions

repl

ace

the

Gal

ilean

tr

ansf

orm

atio

n eq

uatio

ns th

at fa

il fo

r spe

eds

clos

e to

that

of l

ight

.

A.2

– L

oren

tz tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Pure

sci

ence

: Ein

stei

n ba

sed

his

theo

ry o

f rel

ativ

ity o

n tw

o po

stul

ates

and

ded

uced

the

rest

by

mat

hem

atic

al a

naly

sis.

The

firs

t pos

tula

te in

tegr

ates

all

of th

e la

ws

of p

hysi

cs

incl

udin

g th

e la

ws

of e

lect

rom

agne

tism

, not

onl

y N

ewto

n’s

law

s of

mec

hani

cs. (

1.2)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e tw

o po

stul

ates

of s

peci

al re

lativ

ity

•Cl

ock

sync

hron

izat

ion

•Th

e Lo

rent

z tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns

•Ve

loci

ty a

dditi

on

•In

varia

nt q

uant

ities

(spa

cetim

e in

terv

al, p

rope

r tim

e, p

rope

r len

gth

and

re

st m

ass)

•Ti

me

dila

tion

•Le

ngth

con

trac

tion

•Th

e m

uon

deca

y ex

perim

ent

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•U

sing

the

Lore

ntz

tran

sfor

mat

ions

to d

escr

ibe

how

diff

eren

t mea

sure

men

ts

of s

pace

and

tim

e by

two

obse

rver

s ca

n be

con

vert

ed in

to th

e m

easu

rem

ents

ob

serv

ed in

eith

er fr

ame

of re

fere

nce

•U

sing

the

Lore

ntz

tran

sfor

mat

ion

equa

tions

to d

eter

min

e th

e po

sitio

n an

d tim

e co

ordi

nate

s of

var

ious

eve

nts

•U

sing

the

Lore

ntz

tran

sfor

mat

ion

equa

tions

to s

how

that

if tw

o ev

ents

are

si

mul

tane

ous

for o

ne o

bser

ver b

ut h

appe

n at

diff

eren

t poi

nts

in s

pace

, the

n th

e ev

ents

are

not

sim

ulta

neou

s fo

r an

obse

rver

in a

diff

eren

t ref

eren

ce fr

ame

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g ve

loci

ty a

dditi

on

•D

eriv

ing

the

time

dila

tion

and

leng

th c

ontr

actio

n eq

uatio

ns u

sing

the

Lore

ntz

equa

tions

Uti

lizat

ion:

•O

nce

a ve

ry e

sote

ric p

art o

f phy

sics

, rel

ativ

ity id

eas

abou

t spa

ce a

nd ti

me

are

need

ed in

ord

er to

pro

duce

acc

urat

e gl

obal

pos

ition

ing

syst

ems

(GPS

)

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: the

Lor

entz

tran

sfor

mat

ion

form

ulae

pro

vide

a c

onsi

sten

t bod

y of

kn

owle

dge

that

can

be

used

to c

ompa

re th

e de

scrip

tion

of m

otio

n by

one

ob

serv

er to

the

desc

riptio

n of

ano

ther

obs

erve

r in

rela

tive

mot

ion

to

the

first

•A

im 3

: the

se fo

rmul

ae c

an b

e ap

plie

d to

a v

arie

d se

t of c

ondi

tions

and

si

tuat

ions

•A

im 9

: the

intr

oduc

tion

of re

lativ

ity p

ushe

d th

e lim

its o

f Gal

ilean

thou

ghts

on

spac

e an

d m

otio

n

Core topics

Physics guide 97

A.2

– L

oren

tz tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g tim

e di

latio

n an

d le

ngth

con

trac

tion

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e m

uon

deca

y ex

perim

ent

Gui

danc

e:

•Pr

oble

ms

will

be

limite

d to

one

dim

ensi

on

•D

eriv

atio

n of

the

Lore

ntz

tran

sfor

mat

ion

equa

tions

will

not

be

exam

ined

•M

uon

deca

y ex

perim

ents

can

be

used

as

evid

ence

for b

oth

time

dila

tion

and

leng

th c

ontr

actio

n

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•v c

1

12 2

γ=

−

•x

xvt

xx

vt

();

()

γγ

′=−

∆′=

∆−

∆

•′ =

−

′ =

−

t

tvx c

tt

vx

cγ

γ2

2;∆

∆∆

•u

uv uv c

12

′=− −

•t

t 0γ

∆=

∆

•L

L 0 γ=

•ct

xct

x(

)(

)(

)(

)2

22

2′

−′

=−

Core topics

Physics guide98

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: S

pace

time

diag

ram

s are

a v

ery

clea

r and

illu

stra

tive

way

to sh

ow g

raph

ical

ly h

ow d

iffer

ent o

bser

vers

in re

lativ

e m

otio

n to

eac

h ot

her h

ave

mea

sure

men

ts th

at

diff

er fr

om e

ach

othe

r.

A.3

– S

pace

tim

e di

agra

ms

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Visu

aliz

atio

n of

mod

els:

The

visu

aliz

atio

n of

the

desc

riptio

n of

eve

nts i

n te

rms o

f spa

cetim

e di

agra

ms i

s an

enor

mou

s adv

ance

in u

nder

stan

ding

the

conc

ept o

f spa

cetim

e. (1

.10)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

s

•W

orld

lines

•Th

e tw

in p

arad

ox

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Re

pres

entin

g ev

ents

on

a sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

as

poin

ts

•Re

pres

entin

g th

e po

sitio

ns o

f a m

ovin

g pa

rtic

le o

n a

spac

etim

e di

agra

m b

y a

curv

e (th

e w

orld

line)

•Re

pres

entin

g m

ore

than

one

iner

tial r

efer

ence

fram

e on

the

sam

e sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

•D

eter

min

ing

the

angl

e be

twee

n a

wor

ldlin

e fo

r spe

cific

spe

ed a

nd th

e tim

e ax

is o

n a

spac

etim

e di

agra

m

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

on s

imul

tane

ity a

nd k

inem

atic

s us

ing

spac

etim

e di

agra

ms

•Re

pres

entin

g tim

e di

latio

n an

d le

ngth

con

trac

tion

on s

pace

time

diag

ram

s

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e tw

in p

arad

ox

•Re

solv

ing

of th

e tw

in p

arad

ox th

roug

h sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

s

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Ca

n pa

rado

xes

be s

olve

d by

reas

on a

lone

, or d

o th

ey re

quire

the

utili

zatio

n of

ot

her w

ays

of k

now

ing?

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: spa

cetim

e di

agra

ms

allo

w o

ne to

ana

lyse

pro

blem

s in

rela

tivity

m

ore

relia

bly

Core topics

Physics guide 99

A.3

– S

pace

tim

e di

agra

ms

Gui

danc

e:

•Ex

amin

atio

n qu

estio

ns w

ill re

fer t

o sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

s; th

ese

are

also

kno

wn

as M

inko

wsk

i dia

gram

s

•Q

uant

itativ

e qu

estio

ns in

volv

ing

spac

etim

e di

agra

ms

will

be

limite

d to

co

nsta

nt v

eloc

ity

•Sp

acet

ime

diag

ram

s ca

n ha

ve t

or c

t on

the

vert

ical

axi

s

•Ex

amin

atio

n qu

estio

ns m

ay u

se u

nits

in w

hich

c =

1

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•c

tan

1θ

υ=

−

Physics guide100

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he re

lativ

ity o

f spa

ce a

nd ti

me

requ

ires

new

def

initi

ons

for e

nerg

y an

d m

omen

tum

in o

rder

to p

rese

rve

the

cons

erve

d na

ture

of t

hese

law

s.

A.4

– R

elat

ivis

tic

mec

hani

cs

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Para

digm

shi

ft: E

inst

ein

real

ized

that

the

law

of c

onse

rvat

ion

of m

omen

tum

cou

ld n

ot b

e m

aint

aine

d as

a la

w o

f phy

sics

. He

ther

efor

e de

duce

d th

at in

ord

er fo

r mom

entu

m

to b

e co

nser

ved

unde

r all

cond

ition

s, th

e de

finiti

on o

f mom

entu

m h

ad to

cha

nge

and

alon

g w

ith it

the

defin

ition

s of

oth

er m

echa

nics

qua

ntiti

es s

uch

as k

inet

ic e

nerg

y an

d to

tal e

nerg

y of

a p

artic

le. T

his

was

a m

ajor

par

adig

m s

hift

. (2.

3)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•To

tal e

nerg

y an

d re

st e

nerg

y

•Re

lativ

istic

mom

entu

m

•Pa

rtic

le a

ccel

erat

ion

•El

ectr

ic c

harg

e as

an

inva

riant

qua

ntity

•Ph

oton

s

•M

eV c–2

as

the

unit

of m

ass

and

MeV

c–1 a

s th

e un

it of

mom

entu

m

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e la

ws

of c

onse

rvat

ion

of m

omen

tum

and

con

serv

atio

n of

en

ergy

with

in s

peci

al re

lativ

ity

•D

eter

min

ing

the

pote

ntia

l diff

eren

ce n

eces

sary

to a

ccel

erat

e a

part

icle

to a

gi

ven

spee

d or

ene

rgy

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g re

lativ

istic

ene

rgy

and

mom

entu

m c

onse

rvat

ion

in c

ollis

ions

and

par

ticle

dec

ays

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•In

wha

t way

s do

law

s in

the

natu

ral s

cien

ces

diff

er fr

om la

ws

in e

cono

mic

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

e la

ws

of re

lativ

istic

mec

hani

cs a

re ro

utin

ely

used

in o

rder

to m

anag

e th

e op

erat

ion

of n

ucle

ar p

ower

pla

nts,

par

ticle

acc

eler

ator

s an

d pa

rtic

le d

etec

tors

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: rel

ativ

istic

mec

hani

cs s

ynth

esiz

es k

now

ledg

e on

the

beha

viou

r of

mat

ter a

t spe

eds

clos

e to

the

spee

d of

ligh

t

•A

im 9

: the

theo

ry o

f rel

ativ

ity im

pose

s on

e se

vere

lim

itatio

n: n

othi

ng c

an

exce

ed th

e sp

eed

of li

ght

Addi

tiona

l hig

her l

evel

opt

ion

topi

cs

10 h

ours

Opt

ion

A: R

elat

ivity

Additional higher level option topics

Physics guide 101

A.4

– R

elat

ivis

tic

mec

hani

cs

Gui

danc

e:

•A

pplic

atio

ns w

ill in

volv

e re

lativ

istic

dec

ays

such

as

calc

ulat

ing

the

wav

elen

gths

of p

hoto

ns in

the

deca

y of

a m

ovin

g pi

on [

2]

oπ

γ→

•Th

e sy

mbo

l m0 r

efer

s to

the

inva

riant

rest

mas

s of a

par

ticle

•Th

e co

ncep

t of a

rela

tivis

tic m

ass

that

var

ies

with

spe

ed w

ill n

ot b

e us

ed

•Pr

oble

ms

will

be

limite

d to

one

dim

ensi

on

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•E

mc

02

γ=

•E

mc

00

2=

•E

mc

(1)

K0

2γ

=−

•p

m0

γυ

=

•E

pc

mc

22

202

4=

+

•qV

E K=

∆


Physics guide102

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: G

ener

al re

lativ

ity is

app

lied

to b

ring

toge

ther

fund

amen

tal c

once

pts

of m

ass,

spa

ce a

nd ti

me

in o

rder

to d

escr

ibe

the

fate

of t

he u

nive

rse.

A.5

– G

ener

al re

lati

vity

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Crea

tive

and

criti

cal t

hink

ing:

Ein

stei

n’s

grea

t ach

ieve

men

t, th

e ge

nera

l the

ory

of re

lativ

ity, i

s ba

sed

on in

tuiti

on, c

reat

ive

thin

king

and

imag

inat

ion,

nam

ely

to c

onne

ct th

e ge

omet

ry o

f spa

cetim

e (th

roug

h its

cur

vatu

re) t

o th

e m

ass

and

ener

gy c

onte

nt o

f spa

cetim

e. F

or y

ears

it w

as th

ough

t tha

t not

hing

cou

ld e

scap

e a

blac

k ho

le a

nd th

is is

tr

ue b

ut o

nly

for c

lass

ical

bla

ck h

oles

. Whe

n qu

antu

m th

eory

is ta

ken

into

acc

ount

a b

lack

hol

e ra

diat

es li

ke a

bla

ck b

ody.

Thi

s un

expe

cted

resu

lt re

veal

ed o

ther

equ

ally

un

expe

cted

con

nect

ions

bet

wee

n bl

ack

hole

s an

d th

erm

odyn

amic

s. (1

.4)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e eq

uiva

lenc

e pr

inci

ple

•Th

e be

ndin

g of

ligh

t

•G

ravi

tatio

nal r

edsh

ift a

nd th

e Po

und–

Rebk

a–Sn

ider

exp

erim

ent

•Sc

hwar

zsch

ild b

lack

hol

es

•Ev

ent h

oriz

ons

•Ti

me

dila

tion

near

a b

lack

hol

e

•A

pplic

atio

ns o

f gen

eral

rela

tivity

to th

e un

iver

se a

s a

who

le

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•U

sing

the

equi

vale

nce

prin

cipl

e to

ded

uce

and

expl

ain

light

ben

ding

nea

r mas

sive

obje

cts

•U

sing

the

equi

vale

nce

prin

cipl

e to

ded

uce

and

expl

ain

grav

itatio

nal t

ime

dila

tion

•Ca

lcul

atin

g gr

avita

tiona

l fre

quen

cy s

hift

s

•D

escr

ibin

g an

exp

erim

ent i

n w

hich

gra

vita

tiona

l red

shift

is o

bser

ved

and

mea

sure

d

•Ca

lcul

atin

g th

e Sc

hwar

zsch

ild ra

dius

of a

bla

ck h

ole

•A

pply

ing

the

form

ula

for g

ravi

tatio

nal t

ime

dila

tion

near

the

even

t hor

izon

of a

bl

ack

hole

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•A

lthou

gh E

inst

ein

self-

desc

ribed

the

cosm

olog

ical

con

stan

t as

his

“gre

ates

t bl

unde

r”, t

he 2

011

Nob

el P

rize

was

won

by

scie

ntis

ts w

ho h

ad p

rove

d it

to b

e va

lid th

roug

h th

eir s

tudi

es o

n da

rk e

nerg

y. W

hat o

ther

exa

mpl

es a

re th

ere

of

initi

ally

dou

bted

cla

ims

bein

g pr

oven

cor

rect

late

r in

hist

ory?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Fo

r the

glo

bal p

ositi

onin

g sy

stem

to b

e so

acc

urat

e, g

ener

al re

lativ

ity m

ust b

e ta

ken

into

acc

ount

in c

alcu

latin

g th

e de

tails

of t

he s

atel

lite’

s or

bit

•Th

e de

velo

pmen

t of t

he g

ener

al th

eory

of r

elat

ivity

has

bee

n us

ed to

exp

lain

th

e ve

ry la

rge-

scal

e be

havi

our o

f the

uni

vers

e as

a w

hole

with

far-r

each

ing

impl

icat

ions

abo

ut th

e fu

ture

dev

elop

men

t and

fate

of t

he u

nive

rse

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: the

gen

eral

theo

ry o

f rel

ativ

ity is

a g

reat

synt

hesis

of i

deas

that

are

requ

ired

to d

escr

ibe

the

larg

e-sc

ale

stru

ctur

e of

the

univ

erse

•A

im 9

: it m

ust b

e ap

prec

iate

d th

at th

e m

agni

ficen

t New

toni

an st

ruct

ure

had

serio

us li

mita

tions

whe

n it

cam

e to

the

desc

riptio

n of

ver

y de

taile

d as

pect

s of

plan

etar

y m

otio

n


Physics guide 103

A.5

– G

ener

al re

lati

vity

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d re

cogn

ize

the

equi

vale

nce

prin

cipl

e in

term

s of

acc

eler

atin

g re

fere

nce

fram

es a

nd fr

eely

falli

ng fr

ames

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•f f

gh

c2

∆=

∆

•R

GM

c2s

2=

•t

t R r1

0

S

∆=

∆ −

Physics guide104

Esse

ntia

l id

ea: T

he b

asic

law

s of

mec

hani

cs h

ave

an e

xten

sion

whe

n eq

uiva

lent

pri

ncip

les

are

appl

ied

to r

otat

ion.

Act

ual o

bjec

ts h

ave

dim

ensi

ons

and

they

req

uire

th

e ex

pans

ion

of th

e p

oint

par

ticl

e m

odel

to c

onsi

der t

he p

ossi

bilit

y of

dif

fere

nt p

oint

s on

an

obje

ct h

avin

g di

ffer

ent s

tate

s of

mot

ion

and/

or d

iffe

rent

vel

ocit

ies.

B.1

– Ri

gid

bodi

es a

nd ro

tati

onal

dyn

amic

s

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Mod

ellin

g: T

he u

se o

f mod

els

has

diff

eren

t pur

pose

s an

d ha

s al

low

ed s

cien

tists

to id

entif

y, s

impl

ify a

nd a

naly

se a

pro

blem

with

in a

giv

en c

onte

xt to

tack

le it

suc

cess

fully

. Th

e ex

tens

ion

of th

e po

int p

artic

le m

odel

to a

ctua

lly c

onsi

der t

he d

imen

sion

s of

an

obje

ct le

d to

man

y gr

ound

brea

king

dev

elop

men

ts in

eng

inee

ring.

(1.2

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•To

rque

•M

omen

t of i

nert

ia

•Ro

tatio

nal a

nd tr

ansl

atio

nal e

quili

briu

m

•A

ngul

ar a

ccel

erat

ion

•Eq

uatio

ns o

f rot

atio

nal m

otio

n fo

r uni

form

ang

ular

acc

eler

atio

n

•N

ewto

n’s

seco

nd la

w a

pplie

d to

ang

ular

mot

ion

•Co

nser

vatio

n of

ang

ular

mom

entu

m

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ca

lcul

atin

g to

rque

for s

ingl

e fo

rces

and

cou

ples

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ving

mom

ent o

f ine

rtia

, tor

que

and

angu

lar a

ccel

erat

ion

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

n w

hich

obj

ects

are

in b

oth

rota

tiona

l and

tran

slatio

nal

equi

libriu

m

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•M

odel

s ar

e al

way

s va

lid w

ithin

a c

onte

xt a

nd th

ey a

re m

odifi

ed, e

xpan

ded

or re

plac

ed w

hen

that

con

text

is a

ltere

d or

con

side

red

diff

eren

tly. A

re th

ere

exam

ples

of u

ncha

ngin

g m

odel

s in

the

natu

ral s

cien

ces

or in

any

oth

er a

reas

of

kno

wle

dge?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•St

ruct

ural

des

ign

and

civi

l eng

inee

ring

rely

on

the

know

ledg

e of

how

obj

ects

ca

n m

ove

in a

ll si

tuat

ions

Aim

s:

•A

im 7

: tec

hnol

ogy

has a

llow

ed fo

r com

pute

r sim

ulat

ions

that

acc

urat

ely

mod

el

the

com

plic

ated

out

com

es o

f act

ions

on

bodi

es

Core

topi

cs

15 h

ours

Opt

ion

B: E

ngin

eerin

g ph

ysic

s

Core topics

Physics guide 105

B.1

– Ri

gid

bodi

es a

nd ro

tati

onal

dyn

amic

s

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms u

sing

rota

tiona

l qua

ntiti

es a

nalo

gous

to li

near

qua

ntiti

es

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

grap

hs o

f rot

atio

nal m

otio

n

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ving

rolli

ng w

ithou

t slip

ping

Gui

danc

e:

•A

naly

sis

will

be

limite

d to

bas

ic g

eom

etric

sha

pes

•Th

e eq

uatio

n fo

r the

mom

ent o

f ine

rtia

of a

spe

cific

sha

pe w

ill b

e pr

ovid

ed

whe

n ne

cess

ary

•G

raph

s w

ill b

e lim

ited

to a

ngul

ar d

ispl

acem

ent–

time,

ang

ular

vel

ocity

–tim

e an

d to

rque

–tim

e

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•Fr

sin

Γθ

=

•I

mr2

=Σ

•I

Γα

=

•f

2ω

π=

•t

fi

ωω

α=

+

•2

f2i2

ωω

αθ

=+

•t

t1 2

i2

θω

α=

+

•L

Iω=

•E

I1 2

K2

rot

ω=

Core topics

Physics guide106

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he fi

rst l

aw o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics

rela

tes

the

chan

ge in

inte

rnal

ene

rgy

of a

sys

tem

to th

e en

ergy

tran

sfer

red

and

the

wor

k do

ne. T

he e

ntro

py o

f the

uni

vers

e te

nds

to a

max

imum

.

B.2

– Th

erm

odyn

amic

s

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Varie

ty o

f per

spec

tives

: With

thre

e al

tern

ativ

e an

d eq

uiva

lent

sta

tem

ents

of t

he s

econ

d la

w o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics,

this

are

a of

phy

sics

dem

onst

rate

s th

e co

llabo

ratio

n an

d te

stin

g in

volv

ed in

con

firm

ing

abst

ract

not

ions

suc

h as

this

. (4.

1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e fir

st la

w o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics

•Th

e se

cond

law

of t

herm

odyn

amic

s

•En

trop

y

•Cy

clic

pro

cess

es a

nd p

V di

agra

ms

•Is

ovol

umet

ric, i

soba

ric, i

soth

erm

al a

nd a

diab

atic

pro

cess

es

•Ca

rnot

cyc

le

•Th

erm

al e

ffic

ienc

y

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e fir

st la

w o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics a

s a st

atem

ent o

f con

serv

atio

n of

en

ergy

•Ex

plai

ning

sign

con

vent

ion

used

whe

n st

atin

g th

e fir

st la

w o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics a

QU

W=

∆+

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e fir

st la

w o

f the

rmod

ynam

ics

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e se

cond

law

of t

herm

odyn

amic

s in

Cla

usiu

s fo

rm, K

elvi

n fo

rm

and

as a

con

sequ

ence

of e

ntro

py

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e de

velo

pmen

t of t

his

topi

c w

as th

e su

bjec

t of i

nten

se d

ebat

e be

twee

n sc

ient

ists

of m

any

coun

trie

s in

the

19th

cen

tury

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Th

is w

ork

lead

s di

rect

ly to

the

conc

ept o

f the

hea

t eng

ines

that

pla

y su

ch a

la

rge

role

in m

oder

n so

ciet

y

•Th

e po

ssib

ility

of t

he h

eat d

eath

of t

he u

nive

rse

is b

ased

on

ever

-incr

easi

ng

entr

opy

•Ch

emis

try

of e

ntro

py (s

ee C

hem

istry

sub-

topi

c 15

.2)

Aim

s:

•A

im 5

: dev

elop

men

t of t

he se

cond

law

dem

onst

rate

s the

col

labo

ratio

n in

volv

ed

in sc

ient

ific

purs

uits

•A

im 1

0: th

e re

latio

nshi

ps a

nd si

mila

ritie

s bet

wee

n sc

ient

ific

disc

iplin

es a

re

part

icul

arly

app

aren

t her

e

Core topics

Physics guide 107

B.2

– Th

erm

odyn

amic

s

•D

escr

ibin

g ex

ampl

es o

f pro

cess

es in

term

s of

ent

ropy

cha

nge

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g en

trop

y ch

ange

s

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

cycl

ic p

roce

sses

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

for a

diab

atic

pro

cess

es fo

r mon

atom

ic g

ases

usi

ng

pV5 3 =

con

stan

t

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

erm

al e

ffic

ienc

y

Gui

danc

e:

•If

cycl

es o

ther

than

the

Carn

ot c

ycle

are

use

d qu

antit

ativ

ely,

full

deta

ils w

ill b

e pr

ovid

ed

•O

nly

grap

hica

l ana

lysi

s w

ill b

e re

quire

d fo

r det

erm

inat

ion

of w

ork

done

on

a pV

dia

gram

whe

n pr

essu

re is

not

con

stan

t

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•Q

UW

=∆

+

•U

nRT

3 2=

•S

Q T∆

=∆

•pV

5 3 =

con

stan

t (fo

r mon

atom

ic g

ases

)

•W

pV

=∆

•us

eful

wor

kdo

neen

ergy

inpu

tη

=

•T T

1Ca

rnot

cold

hot

η=

−

Physics guide108

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: F

luid

s ca

nnot

be

mod

elle

d as

poi

nt p

artic

les.

The

ir di

stin

guis

habl

e re

spon

se to

com

pres

sion

from

sol

ids

crea

tes

a se

t of c

hara

cter

istic

s th

at re

quire

an

in-

dept

h st

udy.

B.3

– Fl

uids

and

flui

d dy

nam

ics

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Hum

an u

nder

stan

ding

s: U

nder

stan

ding

and

mod

ellin

g flu

id fl

ow h

as b

een

impo

rtan

t in

man

y te

chno

logi

cal d

evel

opm

ents

suc

h as

des

igns

of t

urbi

nes,

aer

odyn

amic

s of

ca

rs a

nd a

ircra

ft, a

nd m

easu

rem

ent o

f blo

od fl

ow. (

1.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•D

ensi

ty a

nd p

ress

ure

•Bu

oyan

cy a

nd A

rchi

med

es’ p

rinci

ple

•Pa

scal

’s pr

inci

ple

•H

ydro

stat

ic e

quili

briu

m

•Th

e id

eal f

luid

•St

ream

lines

•Th

e co

ntin

uity

equ

atio

n

•Th

e Be

rnou

lli e

quat

ion

and

the

Bern

oulli

eff

ect

•St

okes

’ law

and

vis

cosi

ty

•La

min

ar a

nd tu

rbul

ent f

low

and

the

Reyn

olds

num

ber

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

eter

min

ing

buoy

ancy

forc

es u

sing

Arc

him

edes

’ prin

cipl

e

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g pr

essu

re, d

ensi

ty a

nd P

asca

l’s p

rinci

ple

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

usin

g th

e Be

rnou

lli e

quat

ion

and

the

cont

inui

ty e

quat

ion

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•W

ater

sou

rces

for d

ams

and

irrig

atio

n re

ly o

n th

e kn

owle

dge

of fl

uid

flow

. Th

ese

reso

urce

s ca

n cr

oss

natio

nal b

ound

arie

s le

adin

g to

sha

ring

of w

ater

or

disp

utes

ove

r ow

ners

hip

and

use.

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e m

ytho

logy

beh

ind

the

anec

dote

of A

rchi

med

es’ “

Eure

ka!”

mom

ent o

f di

scov

ery

dem

onst

rate

s on

e of

the

man

y w

ays

scie

ntifi

c kn

owle

dge

has

been

tr

ansm

itted

thro

ugho

ut th

e ag

es. W

hat r

ole

can

myt

holo

gy a

nd a

necd

otes

pl

ay in

pas

sing

on

scie

ntifi

c kn

owle

dge?

Wha

t rol

e m

ight

they

pla

y in

pas

sing

on

sci

entif

ic k

now

ledg

e w

ithin

indi

geno

us k

now

ledg

e sy

stem

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•H

ydro

elec

tric

pow

er s

tatio

ns

•A

erod

ynam

ic d

esig

n of

airc

raft

and

veh

icle

s

•Fl

uid

mec

hani

cs is

ess

entia

l in

unde

rsta

ndin

g bl

ood

flow

in a

rter

ies

•Bi

omec

hani

cs (s

ee S

port

s, ex

erci

se a

nd h

ealth

scie

nce

SL s

ub-t

opic

4.3

)

Addi

tiona

l hig

her l

evel

opt

ion

topi

cs

10 h

ours

Opt

ion

B: E

ngin

eerin

g ph

ysic

s


Physics guide 109

B.3

– Fl

uids

and

flui

d dy

nam

ics

•Ex

plai

ning

situ

atio

ns in

volv

ing

the

Bern

oulli

eff

ect

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e fr

ictio

nal d

rag

forc

e ex

erte

d on

sm

all s

pher

ical

obj

ects

in

lam

inar

flui

d flo

w

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g St

okes

’ law

•D

eter

min

ing

the

Reyn

olds

num

ber i

n si

mpl

e si

tuat

ions

Gui

danc

e:

•Id

eal f

luid

s w

ill b

e ta

ken

to m

ean

fluid

s th

at a

re in

com

pres

sibl

e an

d no

n-vi

scou

s an

d ha

ve s

tead

y flo

ws

•A

pplic

atio

ns o

f the

Ber

noul

li eq

uatio

n w

ill in

volv

e (b

ut n

ot b

e lim

ited

to) f

low

ou

t of a

con

tain

er, d

eter

min

ing

the

spee

d of

a p

lane

(pito

t tub

es),

and

vent

uri

tube

s

•Pr

oof o

f the

Ber

noul

li eq

uatio

n w

ill n

ot b

e re

quire

d fo

r exa

min

atio

n pu

rpos

es

•La

min

ar a

nd tu

rbul

ent f

low

will

onl

y be

con

side

red

in s

impl

e si

tuat

ions

•Va

lues

of

R10

3<

will

be

take

n to

repr

esen

t co

nditi

ons

for l

amin

ar fl

ow

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•B

Vg

ff

ρ=

•ρ

=+

PP

gd0

f

•Av

cons

tant

=

•v

gzp

1 2co

nsta

nt2

ρρ

++

=

•F

rv6

Dπη

=

•R

vrρ η

=

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: flu

id d

ynam

ics i

s an

esse

ntia

l par

t of a

ny u

nive

rsity

phy

sics o

r eng

inee

ring

cour

se

•A

im 7

: the

com

plex

ity o

f flu

id d

ynam

ics m

akes

it a

n id

eal t

opic

to b

e vi

sual

ized

th

roug

h co

mpu

ter s

oftw

are


Physics guide110

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: In

the

real

wor

ld, d

ampi

ng o

ccur

s in

osc

illat

ors

and

has

impl

icat

ions

that

nee

d to

be

cons

ider

ed.

B.4

– Fo

rced

vib

rati

ons

and

reso

nanc

e

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Risk

ass

essm

ent:

The

idea

s of

reso

nanc

e an

d fo

rced

osc

illat

ion

have

app

licat

ion

in m

any

area

s of

eng

inee

ring

rang

ing

from

ele

ctric

al o

scill

atio

n to

the

safe

des

ign

of c

ivil

stru

ctur

es. I

n la

rge-

scal

e ci

vil s

truc

ture

s, m

odel

ling

all p

ossi

ble

effe

cts

is e

ssen

tial b

efor

e co

nstr

uctio

n. (4

.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•N

atur

al fr

eque

ncy

of v

ibra

tion

•Q

fact

or a

nd d

ampi

ng

•Pe

riodi

c st

imul

us a

nd th

e dr

ivin

g fr

eque

ncy

•Re

sona

nce

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

and

quan

titat

ivel

y de

scrib

ing

exam

ples

of u

nder

-, ov

er- a

nd c

ritic

ally

-da

mpe

d os

cilla

tions

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Co

mm

unic

atio

n th

roug

h ra

dio

and

tele

visi

on s

igna

ls is

bas

ed o

n re

sona

nce

of

the

broa

dcas

t sig

nals

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Sc

ienc

e an

d te

chno

logy

mee

t hea

d-on

whe

n th

e re

al b

ehav

iour

of d

ampe

d os

cilla

ting

syst

ems

is m

odel

led


Physics guide 111

B.4

– Fo

rced

vib

rati

ons

and

reso

nanc

e

•G

raph

ical

ly d

escr

ibin

g th

e va

riatio

n of

the

ampl

itude

of v

ibra

tion

with

driv

ing

freq

uenc

y of

an

obje

ct c

lose

to it

s na

tura

l fre

quen

cy o

f vib

ratio

n

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ph

ase

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

driv

ing

freq

uenc

y an

d fo

rced

os

cilla

tions

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g Q

fact

or

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e us

eful

and

des

truc

tive

effe

cts

of re

sona

nce

Gui

danc

e:

•O

nly

ampl

itude

reso

nanc

e is

requ

ired

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•Q

2en

ergy

stor

eden

ergy

diss

ipat

edpe

rcyc

leπ

=

•Q

2re

sona

ntfre

quen

cyen

ergy

stor

edpo

wer

loss

π=

××

Aim

s:

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): ob

serv

atio

n of

sand

on

a vi

brat

ing

surf

ace

of v

aryi

ng fr

eque

ncie

s; in

vest

igat

ion

of th

e ef

fect

of i

ncre

asin

g da

mpi

ng o

n an

osc

illat

ing

syst

em, s

uch

as a

tuni

ng fo

rk; o

bser

ving

the

use

of a

dr

ivin

g fre

quen

cy o

n fo

rced

osc

illat

ions

•A

im 7

: to

inve

stig

ate

the

use

of re

sona

nce

in e

lect

rical

circ

uits

, ato

ms/

mol

ecul

es,

or w

ith ra

dio/

tele

visio

n co

mm

unic

atio

ns is

bes

t ach

ieve

d th

roug

h so

ftw

are

mod

ellin

g ex

ampl

es

Physics guide112

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he p

rogr

ess o

f a w

ave

can

be m

odel

led

via

the

ray

or th

e w

avef

ront

. The

cha

nge

in w

ave

spee

d w

hen

mov

ing

betw

een

med

ia c

hang

es th

e sh

ape

of th

e w

ave.

C.1

– In

trod

ucti

on to

imag

ing

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Ded

uctiv

e lo

gic:

The

use

of v

irtua

l im

ages

is e

ssen

tial f

or o

ur a

naly

sis

of le

nses

and

mirr

ors.

(1.6

)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

in le

nses

•Co

nver

ging

and

div

ergi

ng le

nses

•Co

nver

ging

and

div

ergi

ng m

irror

s

•Ra

y di

agra

ms

•Re

al a

nd v

irtua

l im

ages

•Li

near

and

ang

ular

mag

nific

atio

n

•Sp

heric

al a

nd c

hrom

atic

abe

rrat

ions

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g ho

w a

cur

ved

tran

spar

ent i

nter

face

mod

ifies

the

shap

e of

an

inci

dent

wav

efro

nt

•Id

entif

ying

the

prin

cipa

l axi

s, fo

cal p

oint

and

foca

l len

gth

of a

sim

ple

conv

ergi

ng o

r div

ergi

ng le

ns o

n a

scal

ed d

iagr

am

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g no

t mor

e th

an tw

o le

nses

by

cons

truc

ting

scal

ed

ray

diag

ram

s

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•O

ptic

s is

an

anci

ent s

tudy

enc

ompa

ssin

g de

velo

pmen

t mad

e in

the

early

G

reco

-Rom

an a

nd m

edie

val I

slam

ic w

orld

s

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Co

uld

sign

con

vent

ion,

usi

ng th

e sy

mbo

ls o

f pos

itive

and

neg

ativ

e,

emot

iona

lly in

fluen

ce s

cien

tists

?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•M

icro

scop

es a

nd te

lesc

opes

•Ey

egla

sses

and

con

tact

lens

es

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: the

theo

ries

of o

ptic

s, o

rigin

atin

g w

ith h

uman

cur

iosi

ty o

f our

ow

n se

nses

, con

tinue

to b

e of

gre

at v

alue

in le

adin

g to

new

and

use

ful t

echn

olog

y

•A

im 6

: exp

erim

ents

cou

ld in

clud

e (b

ut a

re n

ot li

mite

d to

): m

agni

ficat

ion

dete

rmin

atio

n us

ing

an o

ptic

al b

ench

; inv

estig

atin

g re

al a

nd v

irtua

l im

ages

fo

rmed

by

lens

es; o

bser

ving

abe

rrat

ions

Core

topi

cs

15 h

ours

Opt

ion

C: Im

agin

g

Core topics

Physics guide 113

C.1

– In

trod

ucti

on to

imag

ing

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g no

t mor

e th

an tw

o cu

rved

mirr

ors

by c

onst

ruct

ing

scal

ed ra

y di

agra

ms

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e th

in le

ns e

quat

ion,

line

ar m

agni

ficat

ion

and

angu

lar m

agni

ficat

ion

•Ex

plai

ning

sph

eric

al a

nd c

hrom

atic

abe

rrat

ions

and

des

crib

ing

way

s to

redu

ce

thei

r eff

ects

on

imag

es

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts s

houl

d tr

eat t

he p

assa

ge o

f lig

ht th

roug

h le

nses

from

the

stan

dpoi

nt

of b

oth

rays

and

wav

efro

nts

•Cu

rved

mirr

ors

are

limite

d to

sph

eric

al a

nd p

arab

olic

con

verg

ing

mirr

ors

and

sphe

rical

div

ergi

ng m

irror

s

•O

nly

thin

lens

es a

re to

be

cons

ider

ed in

this

topi

c

•Th

e le

ns-m

aker

’s fo

rmul

a is

not

requ

ired

•Si

gn c

onve

ntio

n us

ed in

exa

min

atio

ns w

ill b

e ba

sed

on re

al b

eing

pos

itive

(th

e “r

eal-i

s-po

sitiv

e” c

onve

ntio

n)

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•f

vu

11

1=

+

•P

f1=

•m

h hv u

i o

==

−

•M

i oθ θ=

•M

D fM

D fne

ar p

oint

infin

ity

=+

=1

;

Core topics

Physics guide114

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: O

ptic

al m

icro

scop

es a

nd te

lesc

opes

util

ize

sim

ilar p

hysi

cal p

rope

rtie

s of

lens

es a

nd m

irror

s. A

naly

sis

of th

e un

iver

se is

per

form

ed b

oth

optic

ally

and

by

usin

g ra

dio

tele

scop

es to

inve

stig

ate

diff

eren

t reg

ions

of t

he e

lect

rom

agne

tic s

pect

rum

.

C.2

– Im

agin

g in

stru

men

tati

on

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Impr

oved

inst

rum

enta

tion:

The

opt

ical

tele

scop

e ha

s be

en in

use

for o

ver 5

00 y

ears

. It h

as e

nabl

ed h

uman

kind

to o

bser

ve a

nd h

ypot

hesi

ze a

bout

the

univ

erse

. Mor

e re

cent

ly, r

adio

tele

scop

es h

ave

been

dev

elop

ed to

inve

stig

ate

the

elec

trom

agne

tic ra

diat

ion

beyo

nd th

e vi

sibl

e re

gion

. Tel

esco

pes

(bot

h vi

sual

and

radi

o) a

re n

ow p

lace

d aw

ay fr

om th

e Ea

rth’

s su

rfac

e to

avo

id th

e im

age

degr

adat

ion

caus

ed b

y th

e at

mos

pher

e, w

hile

cor

rect

ive

optic

s ar

e us

ed to

enh

ance

imag

es c

olle

cted

at t

he E

arth

’s su

rfac

e. M

any

sate

llite

s ha

ve b

een

laun

ched

with

sen

sors

cap

able

of r

ecor

ding

vas

t am

ount

s of

dat

a in

the

infr

ared

, ultr

avio

let,

X-ra

y an

d ot

her e

lect

rom

agne

tic s

pect

rum

ra

nges

. (1.

8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•O

ptic

al c

ompo

und

mic

rosc

opes

•Si

mpl

e op

tical

ast

rono

mic

al re

frac

ting

tele

scop

es

•Si

mpl

e op

tical

ast

rono

mic

al re

flect

ing

tele

scop

es

•Si

ngle

-dis

h ra

dio

tele

scop

es

•Ra

dio

inte

rfer

omet

ry te

lesc

opes

•Sa

telli

te-b

orne

tele

scop

es

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Co

nstr

uctin

g an

d in

terp

retin

g ra

y di

agra

ms

of o

ptic

al c

ompo

und

mic

rosc

opes

at

nor

mal

adj

ustm

ent

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e an

gula

r mag

nific

atio

n an

d re

solu

tion

of

optic

al c

ompo

und

mic

rosc

opes

•In

vest

igat

ing

the

optic

al c

ompo

und

mic

rosc

ope

expe

rimen

tally

•Co

nstr

uctin

g or

com

plet

ing

ray

diag

ram

s of

sim

ple

optic

al a

stro

nom

ical

re

frac

ting

tele

scop

es a

t nor

mal

adj

ustm

ent

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e us

e of

the

radi

o in

terf

erom

etry

tele

scop

e cr

osse

s cu

lture

s w

ith

colla

bora

tion

betw

een

scie

ntis

ts fr

om m

any

coun

trie

s to

pro

duce

arr

ays

of

inte

rfer

omet

ers

that

spa

n th

e co

ntin

ents

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•H

owev

er a

dvan

ced

the

tech

nolo

gy, m

icro

scop

es a

nd te

lesc

opes

alw

ays

invo

lve

sens

e pe

rcep

tion.

Can

tech

nolo

gy b

e us

ed e

ffec

tivel

y to

ext

end

or

corr

ect o

ur s

ense

s?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Ce

ll ob

serv

atio

n (s

ee B

iolo

gy s

ub-t

opic

1.2

)

•Th

e in

form

atio

n th

at th

e as

tron

omic

al te

lesc

opes

gat

her c

ontin

ues

to a

llow

us

to im

prov

e ou

r und

erst

andi

ng o

f the

uni

vers

e

•Re

solu

tion

is c

over

ed fo

r oth

er s

ourc

es in

Phy

sics s

ub-t

opic

9.4

Core topics

Physics guide 115

C.2

– Im

agin

g in

stru

men

tati

on

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g th

e an

gula

r mag

nific

atio

n of

sim

ple

optic

al

astr

onom

ical

tele

scop

es

•In

vest

igat

ing

the

perf

orm

ance

of a

sim

ple

optic

al a

stro

nom

ical

refr

actin

g te

lesc

ope

expe

rimen

tally

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e co

mpa

rativ

e pe

rfor

man

ce o

f Ear

th-b

ased

tele

scop

es a

nd

sate

llite

-bor

ne te

lesc

opes

Gui

danc

e:

•Si

mpl

e op

tical

ast

rono

mic

al re

flect

ing

tele

scop

e de

sign

is li

mite

d to

N

ewto

nian

and

Cas

segr

ain

mou

ntin

g

•Ra

dio

inte

rfer

omet

er te

lesc

opes

sho

uld

be a

ppro

xim

ated

as

a di

sh o

f dia

met

er

equa

l to

the

max

imum

sep

arat

ion

of th

e an

tenn

ae

•Ra

dio

inte

rfer

omet

ry te

lesc

opes

refe

r to

arra

y te

lesc

opes

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•=

Mf fo e

Aim

s:

•A

im 3

: im

ages

from

mic

rosc

opes

and

tele

scop

es b

oth

in th

e sc

hool

labo

rato

ry

and

obta

ined

via

the

inte

rnet

ena

ble

stud

ents

to a

pply

thei

r kno

wle

dge

of

thes

e te

chni

ques

•A

im 5

: res

earc

h as

tron

omy

and

astr

ophy

sics

is a

n ex

ampl

e of

the

need

fo

r col

labo

ratio

n be

twee

n te

ams

of s

cien

tists

from

diff

eren

t cou

ntrie

s an

d co

ntin

ents

•A

im 6

: loc

al a

mat

eur o

r pro

fess

iona

l ast

rono

mic

al o

rgan

izat

ions

can

be

usef

ul

for a

rran

ging

dem

onst

ratio

ns o

f the

nig

ht s

ky

Core topics

Physics guide116

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

otal

inte

rnal

refle

ctio

n al

low

s lig

ht o

r inf

rare

d ra

diat

ion

to tr

avel

alo

ng a

tran

spar

ent f

ibre

. How

ever

, the

per

form

ance

of a

fibr

e ca

n be

deg

rade

d by

di

sper

sion

and

att

enua

tion

effe

cts.

C.3

– Fi

bre

opti

cs

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

App

lied

scie

nce:

Adv

ance

s in

com

mun

icat

ion

links

usi

ng fi

bre

optic

s ha

ve le

d to

a g

loba

l net

wor

k of

opt

ical

fibr

es th

at h

as tr

ansf

orm

ed g

loba

l com

mun

icat

ions

by

voic

e,

vide

o an

d da

ta. (

1.2)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•St

ruct

ure

of o

ptic

fibr

es

•St

ep-in

dex

fibre

s and

gra

ded-

inde

x fib

res

•To

tal i

nter

nal r

efle

ctio

n an

d cr

itica

l ang

le

•W

aveg

uide

and

mat

eria

l disp

ersio

n in

opt

ic fi

bres

•At

tenu

atio

n an

d th

e de

cibe

l (dB

) sca

le

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ving

tota

l int

erna

l ref

lect

ion

and

criti

cal a

ngle

in th

e co

ntex

t of f

ibre

opt

ics

•D

escr

ibin

g ho

w w

aveg

uide

and

mat

eria

l disp

ersio

n ca

n le

ad to

att

enua

tion

and

how

this

can

be a

ccou

nted

for

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g at

tenu

atio

n

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of f

ibre

opt

ics

over

twis

ted

pair

and

coax

ial c

able

s

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

e un

der-

sea

optic

fibr

es a

re a

vita

l par

t of t

he c

omm

unic

atio

n be

twee

n co

ntin

ents

Uti

lizat

ion:

•W

ill a

com

mun

icat

ion

limit

be re

ache

d as

we

cann

ot m

ove

info

rmat

ion

fast

er

than

the

spee

d of

ligh

t?

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: thi

s is

a g

loba

l tec

hnol

ogy

that

em

brac

es a

nd d

rives

incr

ease

s in

co

mm

unic

atio

n sp

eeds

•A

im 9

: the

dis

pers

ion

effe

cts

illus

trat

e th

e in

here

nt li

mita

tions

that

can

be

part

of a

tech

nolo

gy

Core topics

Physics guide 117

C.3

– Fi

bre

opti

cs

Gui

danc

e:

•Q

uant

itativ

e de

scrip

tions

of a

tten

uatio

n ar

e re

quire

d an

d in

clud

e at

tenu

atio

n pe

r uni

t len

gth

•Th

e te

rm w

aveg

uide

disp

ersio

n w

ill b

e us

ed in

exa

min

atio

ns. W

aveg

uide

di

sper

sion

is s

omet

imes

kno

wn

as m

odal

disp

ersio

n.

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•n

c1

sin

=

•I I

atte

nuat

ion

=10

log

0

Physics guide118

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he b

ody

can

be im

aged

usi

ng ra

diat

ion

gene

rate

d fr

om b

oth

outs

ide

and

insi

de. I

mag

ing

has e

nabl

ed m

edic

al p

ract

ition

ers t

o im

prov

e di

agno

sis w

ith fe

wer

in

vasi

ve p

roce

dure

s.

C.4

– M

edic

al im

agin

g

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Risk

ana

lysi

s: Th

e do

ctor

’s ro

le is

to m

inim

ize

patie

nt ri

sk in

med

ical

dia

gnos

is a

nd p

roce

dure

s ba

sed

on a

n as

sess

men

t of t

he o

vera

ll be

nefit

to th

e pa

tient

. Arg

umen

ts

invo

lvin

g pr

obab

ility

are

use

d in

con

side

ring

the

atte

nuat

ion

of ra

diat

ion

tran

smitt

ed th

roug

h th

e bo

dy. (

4.8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•D

etec

tion

and

reco

rdin

g of

X-r

ay im

ages

in m

edic

al c

onte

xts

•G

ener

atio

n an

d de

tect

ion

of u

ltras

ound

in m

edic

al c

onte

xts

•M

edic

al im

agin

g te

chni

ques

(mag

netic

reso

nanc

e im

agin

g) in

volv

ing

nucl

ear

mag

netic

reso

nanc

e (N

MR)

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ex

plai

ning

feat

ures

of X

-ray

imag

ing,

incl

udin

g at

tenu

atio

n co

effic

ient

, hal

f-val

ue

thic

knes

s, lin

ear/m

ass a

bsor

ptio

n co

effic

ient

s and

tech

niqu

es fo

r im

prov

emen

ts

of sh

arpn

ess a

nd c

ontr

ast

•So

lvin

g X-

ray

atte

nuat

ion

prob

lem

s

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ving

ultr

asou

nd a

cous

tic im

peda

nce,

spee

d of

ultr

asou

nd

thro

ugh

tissu

e an

d ai

r and

rela

tive

inte

nsity

leve

ls

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

ere

is c

onst

ant d

ialo

gue

betw

een

rese

arch

clin

icia

ns in

diff

eren

t cou

ntrie

s to

com

mun

icat

e ne

w m

etho

ds a

nd tr

eatm

ents

for t

he g

ood

of p

atie

nts

ever

ywhe

re

•O

rgan

izat

ions

suc

h as

Méd

ecin

s San

s Fro

ntiè

res p

rovi

de v

alua

ble

med

ical

ski

lls

in p

arts

of t

he w

orld

whe

re m

edic

al h

elp

is re

quire

d

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•“I

t’s n

ot w

hat y

ou lo

ok a

t tha

t mat

ters

, it’s

wha

t you

see

.” –

Hen

ry D

avid

Th

orea

u. T

o w

hat e

xten

t do

you

agre

e w

ith th

is c

omm

ent o

n th

e im

pact

of

fact

ors

such

as

expe

ctat

ion

on p

erce

ptio

n?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Sc

anni

ng th

e hu

man

bra

in (s

ee B

iolo

gy s

ub-t

opic

A.4

)

Addi

tiona

l hig

her l

evel

opt

ion

topi

cs

10 h

ours

Opt

ion

C: Im

agin

g

Additional higher level topics

Physics guide 119

C.4

– M

edic

al im

agin

g

•Ex

plai

ning

feat

ures

of m

edic

al u

ltras

ound

tech

niqu

es, in

clud

ing

choi

ce o

f fre

quen

cy, u

se o

f gel

and

the

diffe

renc

e be

twee

n A

and

B sc

ans

•Ex

plai

ning

the

use

of g

radi

ent f

ield

s in

NM

R

•Ex

plai

ning

the

orig

in o

f the

rela

xatio

n of

pro

ton

spin

and

con

sequ

ent e

miss

ion

of

signa

l in

NM

R

•D

iscus

sing

the

adva

ntag

es a

nd d

isadv

anta

ges o

f ultr

asou

nd a

nd N

MR

scan

ning

m

etho

ds, in

clud

ing

a sim

ple

asse

ssm

ent o

f risk

in th

ese

med

ical

pro

cedu

res

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts w

ill b

e ex

pect

ed to

com

pute

fina

l bea

m in

tens

ity a

fter

pas

sage

thro

ugh

mul

tiple

laye

rs o

f tiss

ue. O

nly

para

llel p

lane

inte

rfac

es w

ill b

e tr

eate

d.

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•=

LI I

10lo

gI

1 0

•I

Ie

x0

=µ

−

•x

ln2

1 2

µ=

•Z

cρ=

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: the

re a

re m

any

oppo

rtun

ities

for s

tude

nts

to a

naly

se a

nd e

valu

ate

scie

ntifi

c in

form

atio

n

•A

im 8

: the

soc

ial i

mpa

ct o

f the

se s

cien

tific

tech

niqu

es fo

r the

ben

efit

of

hum

anki

nd c

anno

t be

over

-em

phas

ized

•A

im 1

0: m

edic

ine

and

phys

ics

mee

t in

the

hi-t

ech

wor

ld o

f sca

nnin

g an

d tr

eatm

ent.

Mod

ern

doct

ors

rely

on

tech

nolo

gy th

at a

rises

from

dev

elop

men

ts

in th

e ph

ysic

al s

cien

ces.

Physics guide120

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: O

ne o

f the

mos

t diff

icul

t pro

blem

s in

ast

rono

my

is c

omin

g to

term

s w

ith th

e va

st d

ista

nces

bet

wee

n st

ars

and

gala

xies

and

dev

isin

g ac

cura

te m

etho

ds fo

r m

easu

ring

them

.

D.1

– S

tella

r qua

ntit

ies

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Real

ity: T

he s

yste

mat

ic m

easu

rem

ent o

f dis

tanc

e an

d br

ight

ness

of s

tars

and

gal

axie

s ha

s le

d to

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

univ

erse

on

a sc

ale

that

is d

iffic

ult t

o im

agin

e an

d co

mpr

ehen

d. (1

.1)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•O

bjec

ts in

the

univ

erse

•Th

e na

ture

of s

tars

•A

stro

nom

ical

dis

tanc

es

•St

ella

r par

alla

x an

d its

lim

itatio

ns

•Lu

min

osity

and

app

aren

t brig

htne

ss

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Id

entif

ying

obj

ects

in th

e un

iver

se

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribin

g th

e eq

uilib

rium

bet

wee

n pr

essu

re a

nd g

ravi

tatio

n

in s

tars

•U

sing

the

astr

onom

ical

uni

t (AU

), lig

ht y

ear (

ly) a

nd p

arse

c (p

c)

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e m

etho

d to

det

erm

ine

dist

ance

to s

tars

thro

ugh

stel

lar p

aral

lax

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms

invo

lvin

g lu

min

osity

, app

aren

t brig

htne

ss a

nd d

ista

nce

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e va

st d

ista

nces

bet

wee

n st

ars

and

gala

xies

are

diff

icul

t to

com

preh

end

or

imag

ine.

Are

oth

er w

ays

of k

now

ing

mor

e us

eful

than

imag

inat

ion

for g

aini

ng

know

ledg

e in

ast

rono

my?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•Si

mila

r par

alla

x te

chni

ques

can

be

used

to a

ccur

atel

y m

easu

re d

ista

nces

her

e on

Ear

th

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: cre

ativ

ity is

requ

ired

to a

naly

se o

bjec

ts th

at a

re s

uch

vast

dis

tanc

es

from

us

•A

im 6

: loc

al a

mat

eur o

r pro

fess

iona

l ast

rono

mic

al o

rgan

izat

ions

can

be

usef

ul

for a

rran

ging

vie

win

g ev

enin

gs

•A

im 9

: as

we

are

able

to o

bser

ve fu

rthe

r int

o th

e un

iver

se, w

e re

ach

the

limits

of

our

cur

rent

tech

nolo

gy to

mak

e ac

cura

te m

easu

rem

ents

Core

topi

cs

15 h

ours

Opt

ion

D: A

stro

phys

ics

Core topics

Physics guide 121

D.1

– S

tella

r qua

ntit

ies

Gui

danc

e:

•Fo

r thi

s co

urse

, obj

ects

in th

e un

iver

se in

clud

e pl

anet

s, c

omet

s, s

tars

(sin

gle

and

bina

ry),

plan

etar

y sy

stem

s, c

onst

ella

tions

, ste

llar c

lust

ers

(ope

n an

d gl

obul

ar),

nebu

lae,

gal

axie

s, c

lust

ers

of g

alax

ies

and

supe

r clu

ster

s of

gal

axie

s

•St

uden

ts a

re e

xpec

ted

to h

ave

an a

war

enes

s of

the

vast

cha

nges

in d

ista

nce

scal

e fr

om p

lane

tary

sys

tem

s th

roug

h to

sup

er c

lust

ers

of g

alax

ies

and

the

univ

erse

as

a w

hole

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•d

p(p

arse

c)1

(arc

–sec

ond)

=

•L

AT4

σ=

•b

L d4

2π

=

Core topics

Physics guide122

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: A

sim

ple

diag

ram

that

plo

ts th

e lu

min

osity

ver

sus t

he su

rfac

e te

mpe

ratu

re o

f sta

rs re

veal

s unu

sual

ly d

etai

led

patt

erns

that

hel

p un

ders

tand

the

inne

r wor

king

s of

star

s. S

tars

follo

w w

ell-d

efin

ed p

atte

rns f

rom

the

mom

ent t

hey

are

crea

ted

out o

f col

laps

ing

inte

rste

llar g

as, t

o th

eir l

ives

on

the

mai

n se

quen

ce a

nd to

thei

r eve

ntua

l dea

th.

D.2

– S

tella

r cha

ract

eris

tics

and

ste

llar e

volu

tion

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Evid

ence

: The

sim

ple

light

spe

ctra

of a

gas

on

Eart

h ca

n be

com

pare

d to

the

light

spe

ctra

of d

ista

nt s

tars

. Thi

s ha

s al

low

ed u

s to

det

erm

ine

the

velo

city

, com

posi

tion

and

stru

ctur

e of

sta

rs a

nd c

onfir

med

hyp

othe

ses

abou

t the

exp

ansi

on o

f the

uni

vers

e. (1

.11)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•St

ella

r spe

ctra

•H

ertz

spru

ng–R

usse

ll (H

R) d

iagr

am

•M

ass–

lum

inos

ity re

latio

n fo

r mai

n se

quen

ce s

tars

•Ce

phei

d va

riabl

es

•St

ella

r evo

lutio

n on

HR

diag

ram

s

•Re

d gi

ants

, whi

te d

war

fs, n

eutr

on s

tars

and

bla

ck h

oles

•Ch

andr

asek

har a

nd O

ppen

heim

er–V

olko

ff li

mits

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ex

plai

ning

how

sur

face

tem

pera

ture

may

be

obta

ined

from

a s

tar’s

spe

ctru

m

•Ex

plai

ning

how

the

chem

ical

com

posi

tion

of a

sta

r may

be

dete

rmin

ed fr

om

the

star

’s sp

ectr

um

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

HR

diag

ram

s

•Id

entif

ying

the

mai

n re

gion

s of

the

HR

diag

ram

and

des

crib

ing

the

mai

n pr

oper

ties

of s

tars

in th

ese

regi

ons

•A

pply

ing

the

mas

s–lu

min

osity

rela

tion

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e re

ason

for t

he v

aria

tion

of C

ephe

id v

aria

bles

•D

eter

min

ing

dist

ance

usi

ng d

ata

on C

ephe

id v

aria

bles

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

evol

utio

nary

pat

hs o

f sta

rs o

n an

HR

diag

ram

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ev

olut

ion

of s

tars

off

the

mai

n se

quen

ce

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ro

le o

f mas

s in

ste

llar e

volu

tion

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Th

e in

form

atio

n re

veal

ed th

roug

h sp

ectr

a ne

eds

a tr

aine

d m

ind

to b

e in

terp

rete

d. W

hat i

s th

e ro

le o

f int

erpr

etat

ion

in g

aini

ng k

now

ledg

e in

the

natu

ral s

cien

ces?

How

doe

s th

is d

iffer

from

the

role

of i

nter

pret

atio

n in

oth

er

area

s of

kno

wle

dge?

Uti

lizat

ion:

•A

n un

ders

tand

ing

of h

ow s

imila

r sta

rs to

our

Sun

hav

e ag

ed a

nd e

volv

ed

assi

sts

in o

ur p

redi

ctio

ns o

f our

fate

on

Eart

h

Aim

s:

•A

im 4

: ana

lysi

s of

sta

r spe

ctra

pro

vide

s m

any

oppo

rtun

ities

for e

valu

atio

n

and

synt

hesi

s

•A

im 6

: sof

twar

e-ba

sed

anal

ysis

is a

vaila

ble

for s

tude

nts

to p

artic

ipat

e in

as

trop

hysi

cs re

sear

ch

Core topics

Physics guide 123

D.2

– S

tella

r cha

ract

eris

tics

and

ste

llar e

volu

tion

Gui

danc

e:

•Re

gion

s of

the

HR

diag

ram

are

rest

ricte

d to

the

mai

n se

quen

ce, w

hite

dw

arfs

, re

d gi

ants

, sup

er g

iant

s an

d th

e in

stab

ility

str

ip (v

aria

ble

star

s), a

s w

ell a

s lin

es

of c

onst

ant r

adiu

s

•H

R di

agra

ms

will

be

labe

lled

with

lum

inos

ity o

n th

e ve

rtic

al a

xis

and

tem

pera

ture

on

the

horiz

onta

l axi

s

•O

nly

one

spec

ific

expo

nent

(3.5

) will

be

used

in th

e m

ass–

lum

inos

ity re

latio

n

•Re

fere

nces

to e

lect

ron

and

neut

ron

dege

nera

cy p

ress

ures

nee

d to

be

mad

e

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•λ m

axT=

×−

29

103

.m

K

•L

M3.

5∝

Core topics

Physics guide124

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he H

ot B

ig B

ang

mod

el is

a th

eory

that

des

crib

es th

e or

igin

and

exp

ansi

on o

f the

uni

vers

e an

d is

sup

port

ed b

y ex

tens

ive

expe

rimen

tal e

vide

nce.

D.3

– C

osm

olog

y

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Occ

am’s

Razo

r: Th

e Bi

g Ba

ng m

odel

was

pur

ely

spec

ulat

ive

until

it w

as c

onfir

med

by

the

disc

over

y of

the

cosm

ic m

icro

wav

e ba

ckgr

ound

radi

atio

n. T

he m

odel

, whi

le

corr

ectly

des

crib

ing

man

y as

pect

s of

the

univ

erse

as

we

obse

rve

it to

day,

stil

l can

not e

xpla

in w

hat h

appe

ned

at ti

me

zero

. (2.

7)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e Bi

g Ba

ng m

odel

•Co

smic

mic

row

ave

back

grou

nd (C

MB)

radi

atio

n

•H

ubbl

e’s l

aw

•Th

e ac

cele

ratin

g un

iver

se a

nd re

dshi

ft (z

)

•Th

e co

smic

scal

e fa

ctor

(R)

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g bo

th sp

ace

and

time

as o

rigin

atin

g w

ith th

e Bi

g Ba

ng

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e ch

arac

teris

tics o

f the

CM

B ra

diat

ion

•Ex

plai

ning

how

the

CMB

radi

atio

n is

evid

ence

for a

Hot

Big

Ban

g

•So

lvin

g pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ving

z, R

and

Hub

ble’

s law

•Es

timat

ing

the

age

of th

e un

iver

se b

y as

sum

ing

a co

nsta

nt e

xpan

sion

rate

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Co

ntrib

utio

ns fr

om s

cien

tists

from

man

y na

tions

mad

e th

e an

alys

is o

f the

co

smic

mic

row

ave

back

grou

nd ra

diat

ion

poss

ible

Uti

lizat

ion:

•D

oppl

er e

ffec

t (se

e Ph

ysic

s sub

-top

ic 9

.5)

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

: sci

entif

ic e

xpla

natio

n of

bla

ck h

oles

requ

ires

a he

ight

ened

leve

l of

cre

ativ

ity

•A

im 9

: our

lim

it of

und

erst

andi

ng is

gui

ded

by o

ur a

bilit

y to

obs

erve

with

in

our u

nive

rse

Core topics

Physics guide 125

D.3

– C

osm

olog

y

Gui

danc

e:

•CM

B ra

diat

ion

will

be

cons

ider

ed to

be

isotr

opic

with

T≈

2.76

K

•Fo

r CM

B ra

diat

ion

a sim

ple

expl

anat

ion

in te

rms o

f the

uni

vers

e co

olin

g do

wn

or

dist

ance

s (an

d he

nce

wav

elen

gths

) bei

ng st

retc

hed

out i

s all

that

is re

quire

d

•A

qual

itativ

e de

scrip

tion

of th

e ro

le o

f typ

e Ia

supe

rnov

ae a

s pro

vidi

ng e

vide

nce

for a

n ac

cele

ratin

g un

iver

se is

requ

ired

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•z

v c0λ λ

=∆

≈

•z

R R1

0

=−

•v

Hd

0=

•T ≈

H1 0

Physics guide126

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he la

ws

of n

ucle

ar p

hysi

cs a

pplie

d to

nuc

lear

fusi

on p

roce

sses

insi

de s

tars

det

erm

ine

the

prod

uctio

n of

all

elem

ents

up

to ir

on.

D.4

– S

tella

r pro

cess

es

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Obs

erva

tion

and

dedu

ctio

n: O

bser

vatio

ns o

f ste

llar s

pect

ra s

how

ed th

e ex

iste

nce

of d

iffer

ent e

lem

ents

in s

tars

. Ded

uctio

ns fr

om n

ucle

ar fu

sion

theo

ry w

ere

able

to e

xpla

in

this

. (1.

8)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e Je

ans c

riter

ion

•N

ucle

ar fu

sion

•N

ucle

osyn

thes

is of

f the

mai

n se

quen

ce

•Ty

pe Ia

and

II su

pern

ovae

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•Ap

plyi

ng th

e Je

ans c

riter

ion

to st

ar fo

rmat

ion

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e di

ffere

nt ty

pes o

f nuc

lear

fusio

n re

actio

ns ta

king

pla

ce o

ff th

e m

ain

sequ

ence

•Ap

plyi

ng th

e m

ass–

lum

inos

ity re

latio

n to

com

pare

life

times

on

the

mai

n se

quen

ce re

lativ

e to

that

of o

ur S

un

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e fo

rmat

ion

of e

lem

ents

in st

ars t

hat a

re h

eavi

er th

an ir

on in

clud

ing

the

requ

ired

incr

ease

s in

tem

pera

ture

•Q

ualit

ativ

ely

desc

ribe

the

s and

r pr

oces

ses f

or n

eutr

on c

aptu

re

•D

istin

guish

ing

betw

een

type

Ia a

nd II

supe

rnov

ae

Aim

s:

•A

im 1

0: a

naly

sis

of n

ucle

osyn

thes

is in

volv

es th

e w

ork

of c

hem

ists

Addi

tiona

l hig

her l

evel

opt

ion

topi

cs

10 h

ours

Opt

ion

D: A

stro

phys

ics


Physics guide 127

D.4

– S

tella

r pro

cess

es

Gui

danc

e:

•O

nly

an e

lem

enta

ry a

pplic

atio

n of

the

Jean

s cr

iterio

n is

requ

ired,

ie c

olla

pse

of

an in

ters

tella

r clo

ud m

ay b

egin

if M

> M

j

•St

uden

ts sh

ould

be

awar

e of

the

use

of ty

pe Ia

supe

rnov

ae a

s sta

ndar

d ca

ndle

s


Physics guide128

Esse

ntia

l ide

a: T

he m

oder

n fie

ld o

f cos

mol

ogy

uses

adv

ance

d ex

perim

enta

l and

obs

erva

tiona

l tec

hniq

ues

to c

olle

ct d

ata

with

an

unpr

eced

ente

d de

gree

of p

reci

sion

and

as

a re

sult

very

sur

pris

ing

and

deta

iled

conc

lusi

ons

abou

t the

str

uctu

re o

f the

uni

vers

e ha

ve b

een

reac

hed.

D.5

– F

urth

er c

osm

olog

y

Nat

ure

of s

cien

ce:

Cogn

itive

bia

s: A

ccor

ding

to e

very

body

’s ex

pect

atio

ns th

e ra

te o

f exp

ansi

on o

f the

uni

vers

e sh

ould

be

slow

ing

dow

n be

caus

e of

gra

vity

. The

det

aile

d re

sults

from

the

1998

(and

sub

sequ

ent)

obs

erva

tions

on

dist

ant s

uper

nova

e sh

owed

that

the

oppo

site

was

in fa

ct tr

ue. T

he a

ccel

erat

ed e

xpan

sion

of t

he u

nive

rse,

whe

reas

exp

erim

enta

lly

verif

ied,

is s

till a

n un

expl

aine

d ph

enom

enon

. (3.

5)

Und

erst

andi

ngs:

•Th

e co

smol

ogic

al p

rinci

ple

•Ro

tatio

n cu

rves

and

the

mas

s of g

alax

ies

•D

ark

mat

ter

•Fl

uctu

atio

ns in

the

CMB

•Th

e co

smol

ogic

al o

rigin

of r

edsh

ift

•Cr

itica

l den

sity

•D

ark

ener

gy

App

licat

ions

and

ski

lls:

•D

escr

ibin

g th

e co

smol

ogic

al p

rinci

ple

and

its ro

le in

mod

els o

f the

uni

vers

e

•D

escr

ibin

g ro

tatio

n cu

rves

as e

vide

nce

for d

ark

mat

ter

•D

eriv

ing

rota

tiona

l vel

ocity

from

New

toni

an g

ravi

tatio

n

•D

escr

ibin

g an

d in

terp

retin

g th

e ob

serv

ed a

niso

trop

ies i

n th

e CM

B

•D

eriv

ing

criti

cal d

ensit

y fro

m N

ewto

nian

gra

vita

tion

•Sk

etch

ing

and

inte

rpre

ting

grap

hs sh

owin

g th

e va

riatio

n of

the

cosm

ic sc

ale

fact

or

with

tim

e

•D

escr

ibin

g qu

alita

tivel

y th

e co

smic

scal

e fa

ctor

in m

odel

s with

and

with

out

dark

ene

rgy

Inte

rnat

iona

l-m

inde

dnes

s:

•Th

is is

a h

ighl

y co

llabo

rativ

e fie

ld o

f res

earc

h in

volv

ing

scie

ntis

ts fr

om a

ll ov

er

the

wor

ld

Theo

ry o

f kno

wle

dge:

•Ex

perim

enta

l fac

ts s

how

that

the

expa

nsio

n of

the

univ

erse

is a

ccel

erat

ing

ye

t no

one

unde

rsta

nds

why

. Is

this

an

exam

ple

of s

omet

hing

that

we

will

ne

ver k

now

?

Aim

s:

•A

im 2

: unl

ike

how

it w

as ju

st a

few

dec

ades

ago

, the

fiel

d of

cos

mol

ogy

has

now

dev

elop

ed s

o m

uch

that

cos

mol

ogy

has

beco

me

a ve

ry e

xact

sci

ence

on

the

sam

e le

vel a

s th

e re

st o

f phy

sics

•A

im 1

0: it

is q

uite

ext

raor

dina

ry th

at to

set

tle th

e is

sue

of th

e fa

te o

f the

un

iver

se, c

osm

olog

y, th

e ph

ysic

s of

the

very

larg

e, re

quire

d th

e he

lp o

f pa

rtic

le p

hysi

cs, t

he p

hysi

cs o

f the

ver

y sm

all


Physics guide 129

D.5

– F

urth

er c

osm

olog

y

Gui

danc

e:

•St

uden

ts a

re e

xpec

ted

to b

e ab

le to

refe

r to

rota

tion

curv

es a

s evi

denc

e fo

r dar

k m

atte

r and

mus

t be

awar

e of

type

s of c

andi

date

s for

dar

k mat

ter

•St

uden

ts m

ust b

e fa

mili

ar w

ith th

e m

ain

resu

lts o

f CO

BE, W

MAP

and

the

Plan

ck

spac

e ob

serv

ator

y

•St

uden

ts a

re e

xpec

ted

to d

emon

stra

te th

at th

e te

mpe

ratu

re o

f the

uni

vers

e va

ries

with

the

cosm

ic sc

ale

fact

or a

s T

R1∝

Dat

a bo

okle

t ref

eren

ce:

•v

Gr

43π

ρ=

•H G

3 8c

2

ρπ

=

Physics guide130130

Assessment

GeneralAssessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. The most important aims of assessment in the Diploma Programme are that it should support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Both external and internal assessments are used in the Diploma Programme. IB examiners mark work produced for external assessment, while work produced for internal assessment is marked by teachers and externally moderated by the IB.

There are two types of assessment identified by the IB.

• Formative assessment informs both teaching and learning. It is concerned with providing accurate and helpful feedback to students and teachers on the kind of learning taking place and the nature of students’ strengths and weaknesses in order to help develop students’ understanding and capabilities. Formative assessment can also help to improve teaching quality, as it can provide information to monitor progress towards meeting the course aims and objectives.

• Summative assessment gives an overview of previous learning and is concerned with measuring student achievement.

The Diploma Programme primarily focuses on summative assessment designed to record student achievement at, or towards the end of, the course of study. However, many of the assessment instruments can also be used formatively during the course of teaching and learning, and teachers are encouraged to do this. A comprehensive assessment plan is viewed as being integral with teaching, learning and course organization. For further information, see the IB Programme standards and practices document.

The approach to assessment used by the IB is criterion-related, not norm-referenced. This approach to assessment judges students’ work by their performance in relation to identified levels of attainment, and not in relation to the work of other students. For further information on assessment within the Diploma Programme please refer to the publication Diploma Programme assessment: principles and practice.

To support teachers in the planning, delivery and assessment of the Diploma Programme courses, a variety of resources can be found on the OCC or purchased from the IB store (http://store.ibo.org). Additional publications such as specimen papers and markschemes, teacher support materials, subject reports and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.

Methods of assessmentThe IB uses several methods to assess work produced by students.

Assessment criteriaAssessment criteria are used when the assessment task is open-ended. Each criterion concentrates on a particular skill that students are expected to demonstrate. An assessment objective describes what students should be able to do, and assessment criteria describe how well they should be able to do it. Using assessment criteria allows discrimination between different answers and encourages a variety of responses. Each criterion comprises a set of hierarchically ordered level descriptors. Each level descriptor is worth one

Assessment in the Diploma Programme

Assessment in the Diploma Programme

Physics guide 131

or more marks. Each criterion is applied independently using a best-fit model. The maximum marks for each criterion may differ according to the criterion’s importance. The marks awarded for each criterion are added together to give the total mark for the piece of work.

MarkbandsMarkbands are a comprehensive statement of expected performance against which responses are judged. They represent a single holistic criterion divided into level descriptors. Each level descriptor corresponds to a range of marks to differentiate student performance. A best-fit approach is used to ascertain which particular mark to use from the possible range for each level descriptor.

Analytic markschemesAnalytic markschemes are prepared for those examination questions that expect a particular kind of response and/or a given final answer from students. They give detailed instructions to examiners on how to break down the total mark for each question for different parts of the response.

Marking notesFor some assessment components marked using assessment criteria, marking notes are provided. Marking notes give guidance on how to apply assessment criteria to the particular requirements of a question.

Inclusive assessment arrangementsInclusive assessment arrangements are available for candidates with assessment access requirements. These arrangements enable candidates with diverse needs to access the examinations and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the constructs being assessed.

The IB document Candidates with assessment access requirements provides details on all the inclusive assessment arrangements available to candidates with learning support requirements. The IB document Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes outlines the position of the IB with regard to candidates with diverse learning needs in the IB programmes. For candidates affected by adverse circumstances, the IB documents General regulations: Diploma Programme and the Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme provide details on special consideration.

Responsibilities of the schoolThe school is required to ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with special educational needs that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity within the International Baccalaureate programmes/Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes.

Physics guide132132

Assessment

Assessment outline—SL


Component Overall weighting

(%)

Approximate weighting of

objectives (%)

Duration (hours)

1+2 3

Paper 1 20 10 10 ¾

Paper 2 40 20 20 1¼

Paper 3 20 10 10 1

Internal assessment

20Covers objectives

1, 2, 3 and 410

Physics guide 133133

Assessment outline—HL

Assessment


Component Overall weighting (%)

Approximate weighting of

objectives (%)

Duration (hours)

1+2 3

Paper 1 20 10 10 1

Paper 2 36 18 18 2¼

Paper 3 24 12 12 1¼

Internal assessment

20 Covers objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4

10

Physics guide134134

External assessment

Assessment

The method used to assess students is the use of detailed markschemes specific to each examination paper.

External assessment details—SL

Paper 1 Duration: 3/4 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 30

• 30 multiple-choice questions on core, about 15 of which are common with HL.

• The questions on paper 1 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.

• The use of calculators is not permitted.

• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.

• A physics data booklet is provided.

Paper 2 Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 40%Marks: 50

• Short-answer and extended-response questions on core material.


• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)


Paper 3Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 35

• This paper will have questions on core and SL option material.

• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.

• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.




External assessment

Physics guide 135

External assessment details—HL

Paper 1Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 40

• 40 multiple-choice questions on core and AHL, about 15 of which are common with SL.


• The use of calculators is not permitted.

• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.


Paper 2Duration: 2¼ hoursWeighting: 36%Marks: 95

• Short-answer and extended-response questions on the core and AHL material.




Paper 3Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 24%Marks: 45

• This paper will have questions on core, AHL and option material.

• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.

• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.




Physics guide136136

Assessment

Internal assessment

Purpose of internal assessmentInternal assessment is an integral part of the course and is compulsory for both SL and HL students. It enables students to demonstrate the application of their skills and knowledge, and to pursue their personal interests, without the time limitations and other constraints that are associated with written examinations. The internal assessment should, as far as possible, be woven into normal classroom teaching and not be a separate activity conducted after a course has been taught.

The internal assessment requirements at SL and at HL are the same. This internal assessment section of the guide should be read in conjunction with the internal assessment section of the teacher support materials.

Guidance and authenticityThe work submitted for internal assessment must be the student’s own work. However, it is not the intention that students should decide upon a title or topic and be left to work on the internal assessment component without any further support from the teacher. The teacher should play an important role during both the planning stage and the period when the student is working on the internally assessed work. It is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure that students are familiar with:

• the requirements of the type of work to be internally assessed

• the IB animal experimentation policy

• the assessment criteria—students must understand that the work submitted for assessment must address these criteria effectively.

Teachers and students must discuss the internally assessed work. Students should be encouraged to initiate discussions with the teacher to obtain advice and information, and students must not be penalized for seeking guidance. As part of the learning process, teachers should read and give advice to students on one draft of the work. The teacher should provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved, but not edit the draft. The next version handed to the teacher must be the final version for submission.

It is the responsibility of teachers to ensure that all students understand the basic meaning and significance of concepts that relate to academic honesty, especially authenticity and intellectual property. Teachers must ensure that all student work for assessment is prepared according to the requirements and must explain clearly to students that the internally assessed work must be entirely their own. Where collaboration between students is permitted, it must be clear to all students what the difference is between collaboration and collusion.

All work submitted to the IB for moderation or assessment must be authenticated by a teacher, and must not include any known instances of suspected or confirmed academic misconduct. Each student must confirm that the work is his or her authentic work and constitutes the final version of that work. Once a student has officially submitted the final version of the work it cannot be retracted. The requirement to confirm the authenticity of work applies to the work of all students, not just the sample work that will be submitted to the IB for the purpose of moderation. For further details refer to the IB publications Academic honesty (2011), The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice (2009) and the relevant articles in General regulations: Diploma Programme (2012).

Internal assessment

Physics guide 137

Authenticity may be checked by discussion with the student on the content of the work, and scrutiny of one or more of the following:

• the student’s initial proposal

• the first draft of the written work

• the references cited

• the style of writing compared with work known to be that of the student

• the analysis of the work by a web-based plagiarism detection service such as http://www.turnitin.com.

The same piece of work cannot be submitted to meet the requirements of both the internal assessment and the extended essay.

Group workEach investigation is an individual piece of work based on different data collected or measurements generated. Ideally, students should work on their own when collecting data. In some cases, data collected or measurements made can be from a group experiment provided each student collected his or her own data or made his or her own measurements. In physics, in some cases, group data or measurements may be combined to provide enough for individual analysis. Even in this case, students should have collected and recorded their own data and they should clearly indicate which data are theirs.

It should be made clear to students that all work connected with the investigation should be their own. It is therefore helpful if teachers try to encourage in students a sense of responsibility for their own learning so that they accept a degree of ownership and take pride in their own work.

Time allocationInternal assessment is an integral part of the physics course, contributing 20% to the final assessment in the SL and the HL courses. This weighting should be reflected in the time that is allocated to teaching the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertake the work, as well as the total time allocated to carry out the work.

It is recommended that a total of approximately 10 hours of teaching time for both SL and HL should be allocated to the work. This should include:

• time for the teacher to explain to students the requirements of the internal assessment

• class time for students to work on the internal assessment component and ask questions

• time for consultation between the teacher and each student

• time to review and monitor progress, and to check authenticity.

Safety requirements and recommendationsWhile teachers are responsible for following national or local guidelines, which may differ from country to country, attention should be given to the guidelines below, which were developed for the International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE) Safety Committee by The Laboratory Safety Institute (LSI).

It is a basic responsibility of everyone involved to make safety and health an ongoing commitment. Any advice given will acknowledge the need to respect the local context, the varying educational and cultural traditions, the financial constraints and the legal systems of differing countries.

Internal assessment

Physics guide138

The Laboratory Safety Institute’s Laboratory Safety Guidelines...40 suggestions for a safer labSteps Requiring Minimal Expense

1. Have a written health, safety and environmental affairs (HS&E) policy statement.

2. Organize a departmental HS&E committee of employees, management, faculty, staff and students that will meet regularly to discuss HS&E issues.

3. Develop an HS&E orientation for all new employees and students.

4. Encourage employees and students to care about their health and safety and that of others.

5. Involve every employee and student in some aspect of the safety program and give each specific responsibilities.

6. Provide incentives to employees and students for safety performance.

7. Require all employees to read the appropriate safety manual. Require students to read the institution’s laboratory safety rules. Have both groups sign a statement that they have done so, understand the contents, and agree to follow the procedures and practices. Keep these statements on file in the department office

8. Conduct periodic, unannounced laboratory inspections to identify and correct hazardous conditions and unsafe practices. Involve students and employees in simulated OSHA inspections.

9. Make learning how to be safe an integral and important part of science education, your work, and your life.

10. Schedule regular departmental safety meetings for all students and employees to discuss the results of inspections and aspects of laboratory safety.

11. When conducting experiments with hazards or potential hazards, ask yourself these questions:

– What are the hazards?

– What are the worst possible things that could go wrong?

– How will I deal with them?

– What are the prudent practices, protective facilities and equipment necessary to minimize the risk of exposure to the hazards?

12. Require that all accidents (incidents) be reported, evaluated by the departmental safety committee, and discussed at departmental safety meetings.

13. Require every pre-lab/pre-experiment discussion to include consideration of the health and safety aspects.

14. Don’t allow experiments to run unattended unless they are failsafe.

15. Forbid working alone in any laboratory and working without prior knowledge of a staff member.

16. Extend the safety program beyond the laboratory to the automobile and the home.

17. Allow only minimum amounts of flammable liquids in each laboratory.

18. Forbid smoking, eating and drinking in the laboratory.

19. Do not allow food to be stored in chemical refrigerators.

20. Develop plans and conduct drills for dealing with emergencies such as fire, explosion, poisoning, chemical spill or vapour release, electric shock, bleeding and personal contamination.

21. Require good housekeeping practices in all work areas.

Internal assessment

Physics guide 139

22. Display the phone numbers of the fire department, police department, and local ambulance either on or immediately next to every phone.

23. Store acids and bases separately. Store fuels and oxidizers separately.

24. Maintain a chemical inventory to avoid purchasing unnecessary quantities of chemicals.

25. Use warning signs to designate particular hazards.

26. Develop specific work practices for individual experiments, such as those that should be conducted only in a ventilated hood or involve particularly hazardous materials. When possible most hazardous experiments should be done in a hood.

Steps Requiring Moderate Expense

27. Allocate a portion of the departmental budget to safety.

28. Require the use of appropriate eye protection at all times in laboratories and areas where chemicals are transported.

29. Provide adequate supplies of personal protective equipment—safety glasses, goggles, face shields, gloves, lab coats and bench top shields.

30. Provide fire extinguishers, safety showers, eye wash fountains, first aid kits, fire blankets and fume hoods in each laboratory and test or check monthly.

31. Provide guards on all vacuum pumps and secure all compressed gas cylinders.

32. Provide an appropriate supply of first aid equipment and instruction on its proper use.

33. Provide fireproof cabinets for storage of flammable chemicals.

34. Maintain a centrally located departmental safety library:

– “Safety in School Science Labs”, Clair Wood, 1994, Kaufman & Associates, 101 Oak Street, Wellesley, MA 02482

– “The Laboratory Safety Pocket Guide”, 1996, Genium Publisher, One Genium Plaza, Schnectady, NY

– “Safety in Academic Chemistry Laboratories”, ACS, 1155 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, DC 20036

– “Manual of Safety and Health Hazards in The School Science Laboratory”, “Safety in the School Science Laboratory”, “School Science Laboratories: A guide to Some Hazardous Substances” Council of State Science Supervisors (now available only from LSI.)

– “Handbook of Laboratory Safety”, 4th Edition, CRC Press, 2000 Corporate Boulevard NW, Boca Raton, FL 33431

– “Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials”, National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269

– ”Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Chemicals”, 2nd Edition, 1995

– “Biosafety in the Laboratory”, National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418

– “Learning By Accident”, Volumes 1–3, 1997–2000, The Laboratory Safety Institute, Natick, MA 01760

(All are available from LSI.)

35. Remove all electrical connections from inside chemical refrigerators and require magnetic closures.

Internal assessment

Physics guide140

36. Require grounded plugs on all electrical equipment and install ground fault interrupters (GFIs) where appropriate.

37. Label all chemicals to show the name of the material, the nature and degree of hazard, the appropriate precautions, and the name of the person responsible for the container.

38. Develop a program for dating stored chemicals and for recertifying or discarding them after predetermined maximum periods of storage.

39. Develop a system for the legal, safe and ecologically acceptable disposal of chemical wastes.

40. Provide secure, adequately spaced, well-ventilated storage of chemicals.

Internal assessment

Physics guide 141

Using assessment criteria for internal assessmentFor internal assessment, a number of assessment criteria have been identified. Each assessment criterion has level descriptors describing specific achievement levels, together with an appropriate range of marks. The level descriptors concentrate on positive achievement, although for the lower levels failure to achieve may be included in the description.

Teachers must judge the internally assessed work at SL and at HL against the criteria using the level descriptors.

• Assessment criteria are the same for both SL and HL.

• The aim is to find, for each criterion, the descriptor that conveys most accurately the level attained by the student, using the best-fit model. A best-fit approach means that compensation should be made when a piece of work matches different aspects of a criterion at different levels. The mark awarded should be one that most fairly reflects the balance of achievement against the criterion. It is not necessary for every single aspect of a level descriptor to be met for that mark to be awarded.

• When assessing a student’s work, teachers should read the level descriptors for each criterion until they reach a descriptor that most appropriately describes the level of the work being assessed. If a piece of work seems to fall between two descriptors, both descriptors should be read again and the one that more appropriately describes the student’s work should be chosen.

• Where there are two or more marks available within a level, teachers should award the upper marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a great extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level above. Teachers should award the lower marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a lesser extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level below.

• Only whole numbers should be recorded; partial marks (fractions and decimals) are not acceptable.

• Teachers should not think in terms of a pass or fail boundary, but should concentrate on identifying the appropriate descriptor for each assessment criterion.

• The highest level descriptors do not imply faultless performance but should be achievable by a student. Teachers should not hesitate to use the extremes if they are appropriate descriptions of the work being assessed.

• A student who attains a high achievement level in relation to one criterion will not necessarily attain high achievement levels in relation to the other criteria. Similarly, a student who attains a low achievement level for one criterion will not necessarily attain low achievement levels for the other criteria. Teachers should not assume that the overall assessment of the students will produce any particular distribution of marks.

• It is recommended that the assessment criteria be made available to students.

Internal assessment

Physics guide142


General introductionThe internal assessment requirements are the same for biology, chemistry and physics. The internal assessment, worth 20% of the final assessment, consists of one scientific investigation. The individual investigation should cover a topic that is commensurate with the level of the course of study.

Student work is internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IB. The performance in internal assessment at both SL and HL is marked against common assessment criteria, with a total mark out of 24.

Note: Any investigation that is to be used to assess students should be specifically designed to match the relevant assessment criteria.

The internal assessment task will be one scientific investigation taking about 10 hours and the write-up should be about 6 to 12 pages long. Investigations exceeding this length will be penalized in the communications criterion as lacking in conciseness.

The practical investigation, with generic criteria, will allow a wide range of practical activities satisfying the varying needs of biology, chemistry and physics. The investigation addresses many of the learner profile attributes well. See section on “Approaches to the teaching and learning of physics” for further links.

The task produced should be complex and commensurate with the level of the course. It should require a purposeful research question and the scientific rationale for it. The marked exemplar material in the teacher support materials will demonstrate that the assessment will be rigorous and of the same standard as the assessment in the previous courses.

Some of the possible tasks include:

• a hands-on laboratory investigation

• using a spreadsheet for analysis and modelling

• extracting data from a database and analysing it graphically

• producing a hybrid of spreadsheet/database work with a traditional hands-on investigation

• using a simulation, provided it is interactive and open-ended

Some task may consist of relevant and appropriate qualitative work combined with quantitative work.

The tasks include the traditional hands-on practical investigations as in the previous course. The depth of treatment required for hands-on practical investigations is unchanged from the previous internal assessment and will be shown in detail in the teacher support materials. In addition, detailed assessment of specific aspects of hands-on practical work will be assessed in the written papers as detailed in the relevant topic(s) in the “Syllabus content” section of the guide.

The task will have the same assessment criteria for SL and HL. The five assessment criteria are personalengagement, exploration, analysis, evaluation and communication.

Internal assessment

Physics guide 143

Internal assessment details

Internal assessment componentDuration: 10 hoursWeighting: 20%

• Individual investigation

• This investigation covers assessment objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Internal assessment criteriaThe new assessment model uses five criteria to assess the final report of the individual investigation with the following raw marks and weightings assigned:

Personal engagement

Exploration Analysis Evaluation Communication Total

2 (8%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 4 (17%) 24 (100%)

Levels of performance are described using multiple indicators per level. In many cases the indicators occur together in a specific level, but not always. Also, not all indicators are always present. This means that a candidate can demonstrate performances that fit into different levels. To accommodate this, the IB assessment models use markbands and advise examiners and teachers to use a best-fit approach in deciding the appropriate mark for a particular criterion.

Teachers should read the guidance on using markbands shown above in the section called “Using assessment criteria for internal assessment” before starting to mark. It is also essential to be fully acquainted with the marking of the exemplars in the teacher support material. The precise meaning of the command terms used in the criteria can be found in the glossary of the subject guides.

Personal engagement

This criterion assesses the extent to which the student engages with the exploration and makes it their own. Personal engagement may be recognized in different attributes and skills. These could include addressing personal interests or showing evidence of independent thinking, creativity or initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.

Mark Descriptor

0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

1 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is limited with little independent thinking, initiative or creativity.

The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation does not demonstrate personal significance, interest or curiosity.

There is little evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.

Internal assessment

Physics guide144

2 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is clear with significant independent thinking, initiative or creativity.

The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation demonstrates personal significance, interest or curiosity.

There is evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.

Exploration

This criterion assesses the extent to which the student establishes the scientific context for the work, states a clear and focused research question and uses concepts and techniques appropriate to the Diploma Programme level. Where appropriate, this criterion also assesses awareness of safety, environmental, and ethical considerations.

Mark Descriptor


1–2 The topic of the investigation is identified and a research question of some relevance is stated but it is not focused.

The background information provided for the investigation is superficial or of limited relevance and does not aid the understanding of the context of the investigation.

The methodology of the investigation is only appropriate to address the research question to a very limited extent since it takes into consideration few of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.

The report shows evidence of limited awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation*.

3–4 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant but not fully focused research question is described.

The background information provided for the investigation is mainly appropriate and relevant and aids the understanding of the context of the investigation.

The methodology of the investigation is mainly appropriate to address the research question but has limitations since it takes into consideration only some of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.

The report shows evidence of some awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation*.

5–6 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant and fully focused research question is clearly described.

The background information provided for the investigation is entirely appropriate and relevant and enhances the understanding of the context of the investigation.

The methodology of the investigation is highly appropriate to address the research question because it takes into consideration all, or nearly all, of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.

The report shows evidence of full awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation.*

* This indicator should only be applied when appropriate to the investigation. See exemplars in teacher support material.

Internal assessment

Physics guide 145

AnalysisThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence that the student has selected, recorded, processed and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to the research question and can support a conclusion.

Mark Descriptor


1–2 The report includes insufficient relevant raw data to support a valid conclusion to the research question.

Some basic data processing is carried out but is either too inaccurate or too insufficient to lead to a valid conclusion.

The report shows evidence of little consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.

The processed data is incorrectly or insufficiently interpreted so that the conclusion is invalid or very incomplete.

3–4 The report includes relevant but incomplete quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a simple or partially valid conclusion to the research question.

Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out that could lead to a broadly valid conclusion but there are significant inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the processing.

The report shows evidence of some consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.

The processed data is interpreted so that a broadly valid but incomplete or limited conclusion to the research question can be deduced.

5–6 The report includes sufficient relevant quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a detailed and valid conclusion to the research question.

Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out with the accuracy required to enable a conclusion to the research question to be drawn that is fully consistent with the experimental data.

The report shows evidence of full and appropriate consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.

The processed data is correctly interpreted so that a completely valid and detailed conclusion to the research question can be deduced.

Internal assessment

Physics guide146

EvaluationThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence of evaluation of the investigation and the results with regard to the research question and the accepted scientific context.

Mark Descriptor


1–2 A conclusion is outlined which is not relevant to the research question or is not supported by the data presented.

The conclusion makes superficial comparison to the accepted scientific context.

Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are outlined but are restricted to an account of the practical or procedural issues faced.

The student has outlined very few realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.

3–4 A conclusion is described which is relevant to the research question and supported by the data presented.

A conclusion is described which makes some relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.

Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are described and provide evidence of some awareness of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.

The student has described some realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.

5–6 A detailed conclusion is described and justified which is entirely relevant to the research question and fully supported by the data presented.

A conclusion is correctly described and justified through relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.

Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are discussed and provide evidence of a clear understanding of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.

The student has discussed realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.

*See exemplars in teacher support material for clarification.

Internal assessment

Physics guide 147

CommunicationThis criterion assesses whether the investigation is presented and reported in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process and outcomes.

Mark Descriptor


1–2 The presentation of the investigation is unclear, making it difficult to understand the focus, process and outcomes.

The report is not well structured and is unclear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is missing or is presented in an incoherent or disorganized way.

The understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation is obscured by the presence of inappropriate or irrelevant information.

There are many errors in the use of subject specific terminology and conventions*.

3–4 The presentation of the investigation is clear. Any errors do not hamper understanding of the focus, process and outcomes.

The report is well structured and clear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is present and presented in a coherent way.

The report is relevant and concise thereby facilitating a ready understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation.

The use of subject-specific terminology and conventions is appropriate and correct. Any errors do not hamper understanding.

*For example, incorrect/missing labelling of graphs, tables, images; use of units, decimal places. For issues of referencing and citations refer to the “Academic honesty” section.

Rationale for practical workAlthough the requirements for IA are centred on the investigation, the different types of practical activities that a student may engage in serve other purposes, including:

• illustrating, teaching and reinforcing theoretical concepts

• developing an appreciation of the essential hands-on nature of much scientific work

• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of secondary data from databases

• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of modelling

• developing an appreciation of the benefits and limitations of scientific methodology.

Practical scheme of workThe practical scheme of work (PSOW) is the practical course planned by the teacher and acts as a summary of all the investigative activities carried out by a student. Students at SL and HL in the same subject may carry out some of the same investigations.

Internal assessment

Physics guide148

Syllabus coverageThe range of practical work carried out should reflect the breadth and depth of the subject syllabus at each level, but it is not necessary to carry out an investigation for every syllabus topic. However, all students must participate in the group 4 project and the IA investigation.

Planning your practical scheme of workTeachers are free to formulate their own practical schemes of work by choosing practical activities according to the requirements outlined. Their choices should be based on:

• subjects, levels and options taught

• the needs of their students

• available resources

• teaching styles.

Each scheme must include some complex experiments that make greater conceptual demands on students. A scheme made up entirely of simple experiments, such as ticking boxes or exercises involving filling in tables, will not provide an adequate range of experience for students.

Teachers are encouraged to use the online curriculum centre (OCC) to share ideas about possible practical activities by joining in the discussion forums and adding resources in the subject home pages.

FlexibilityThe practical programme is flexible enough to allow a wide variety of practical activities to be carried out. These could include:

• short labs or projects extending over several weeks

• computer simulations

• using databases for secondary data

• developing and using models

• data-gathering exercises such as questionnaires, user trials and surveys

• data-analysis exercises

• fieldwork.

Practical work documentationDetails of the practical scheme of work are recorded on Form 4/PSOW provided in the Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme. A copy of the class 4/PSOW form must be included with any sample set sent for moderation.

Time allocation for practical workThe recommended teaching times for all Diploma Programme courses are 150 hours at SL and 240 hours at HL. Students at SL are required to spend 40 hours, and students at HL 60 hours, on practical activities (excluding time spent writing up work). These times include 10 hours for the group 4 project and 10 hours for the internal assessment investigation. (Only 2–3 hours of investigative work can be carried out after the deadline for submitting work to the moderator and still be counted in the total number of hours for the practical scheme of work.)


Assessment

The group 4 project

The group 4 project is an interdisciplinary activity in which all Diploma Programme science students must participate. The intention is that students from the different group 4 subjects analyse a common topic or problem. The exercise should be a collaborative experience where the emphasis is on the processes involved in, rather than the products of, such an activity.

In most cases students in a school would be involved in the investigation of the same topic. Where there are large numbers of students, it is possible to divide them into several smaller groups containing representatives from each of the science subjects. Each group may investigate the same topic or different topics—that is, there may be several group 4 projects in the same school.

Students studying environmental systems and societies are not required to undertake the group 4 project.

Summary of the group 4 projectThe group 4 project is a collaborative activity where students from different group 4 subjects work together on a scientific or technological topic, allowing for concepts and perceptions from across the disciplines to be shared in line with aim 10—that is, to “develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge”. The project can be practically or theoretically based. Collaboration between schools in different regions is encouraged.

The group 4 project allows students to appreciate the environmental, social and ethical implications of science and technology. It may also allow them to understand the limitations of scientific study, for example, the shortage of appropriate data and/or the lack of resources. The emphasis is on interdisciplinary cooperation and the processes involved in scientific investigation, rather than the products of such investigation.

The choice of scientific or technological topic is open but the project should clearly address aims 7, 8 and 10 of the group 4 subject guides.

Ideally, the project should involve students collaborating with those from other group 4 subjects at all stages. To this end, it is not necessary for the topic chosen to have clearly identifiable separate subject components. However, for logistical reasons, some schools may prefer a separate subject “action” phase (see the following “Project stages” section).

Project stagesThe 10 hours allocated to the group 4 project, which are part of the teaching time set aside for developing the practical scheme of work, can be divided into three stages: planning, action and evaluation.

PlanningThis stage is crucial to the whole exercise and should last about two hours.

• The planning stage could consist of a single session, or two or three shorter ones.

• This stage must involve all group 4 students meeting to “brainstorm” and discuss the central topic, sharing ideas and information.

The group 4 project

Physics guide150

• The topic can be chosen by the students themselves or selected by the teachers.

• Where large numbers of students are involved, it may be advisable to have more than one mixed subject group.

After selecting a topic or issue, the activities to be carried out must be clearly defined before moving from the planning stage to the action and evaluation stages.

A possible strategy is that students define specific tasks for themselves, either individually or as members of groups, and investigate various aspects of the chosen topic. At this stage, if the project is to be experimentally based, apparatus should be specified so that there is no delay in carrying out the action stage. Contact with other schools, if a joint venture has been agreed, is an important consideration at this time.

ActionThis stage should last around six hours and may be carried out over one or two weeks in normal scheduled class time. Alternatively, a whole day could be set aside if, for example, the project involves fieldwork.

• Students should investigate the topic in mixed-subject groups or single-subject groups.

• There should be collaboration during the action stage; findings of investigations should be shared with other students within the mixed/single-subject group. During this stage, in any practically-based activity, it is important to pay attention to safety, ethical and environmental considerations.

Note: Students studying two group 4 subjects are not required to do two separate action phases.

EvaluationThe emphasis during this stage, for which two hours are probably necessary, is on students sharing their findings, both successes and failures, with other students. How this is achieved can be decided by the teachers, the students or jointly.

• One solution is to devote a morning, afternoon or evening to a symposium where all the students, as individuals or as groups, give brief presentations.

• Alternatively, the presentation could be more informal and take the form of a science fair where students circulate around displays summarizing the activities of each group.

The symposium or science fair could also be attended by parents, members of the school board and the press. This would be especially pertinent if some issue of local importance has been researched. Some of the findings might influence the way the school interacts with its environment or local community.

Addressing aims 7 and 8Aim 7: “develop and apply 21st century communication skills in the study of science.”

Aim 7 may be partly addressed at the planning stage by using electronic communication within and between schools. It may be that technology (for example, data logging, spreadsheets, databases and so on) will be used in the action phase and certainly in the presentation/evaluation stage (for example, use of digital images, presentation software, websites, digital video and so on).

Aim 8: “become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology.”

The group 4 project

Physics guide 151

Addressing the international dimensionThere are also possibilities in the choice of topic to illustrate the international nature of the scientific endeavour and the increasing cooperation required to tackle global issues involving science and technology. An alternative way to bring an international dimension to the project is to collaborate with a school in another region.

Types of projectWhile addressing aims 7, 8 and 10 the project must be based on science or its applications. The project may have a hands-on practical action phase or one involving purely theoretical aspects. It could be undertaken in a wide range of ways:

• designing and carrying out a laboratory investigation or fieldwork

• carrying out a comparative study (experimental or otherwise) in collaboration with another school

• collating, manipulating and analysing data from other sources, such as scientif ic journals, environmental organizations, science and technology industries and government reports

• designing and using a model or simulation

• contributing to a long-term project organized by the school.

Logistical strategiesThe logistical organization of the group 4 project is often a challenge to schools. The following models illustrate possible ways in which the project may be implemented.

Models A, B and C apply within a single school, and model D relates to a project involving collaboration between schools.

Model A: mixed-subject groups and one topic

Schools may adopt mixed subject groups and choose one common topic. The number of groups will depend on the number of students.

Model B: mixed-subject groups adopting more than one topic

Schools with large numbers of students may choose to do more than one topic.

Model C: single-subject groups

For logistical reasons some schools may opt for single subject groups, with one or more topics in the action phase. This model is less desirable as it does not show the mixed subject collaboration in which many scientists are involved.

Model D: collaboration with another school

The collaborative model is open to any school. To this end, the IB provides an electronic collaboration board on the OCC where schools can post their project ideas and invite collaboration from other schools. This could range from merely sharing evaluations for a common topic to a full-scale collaborative venture at all stages.

The group 4 project

Physics guide152

For schools with few Diploma Programme (course) students it is possible to work with non-Diploma Programme or non-group 4 students or undertake the project once every two years. However, these schools are encouraged to collaborate with another school. This strategy is also recommended for individual students who may not have participated in the project, for example, through illness or because they have transferred to a new school where the project has already taken place.

TimingThe 10 hours that the IB recommends be allocated to the project may be spread over a number of weeks. The distribution of these hours needs to be taken into account when selecting the optimum time to carry out the project. However, it is possible for a group to dedicate a period of time exclusively to project work if all/most other schoolwork is suspended.

Year 1In the first year, students’ experience and skills may be limited and it would be inadvisable to start the project too soon in the course. However, doing the project in the final part of the first year may have the advantage of reducing pressure on students later on. This strategy provides time for solving unexpected problems.

Year 1–year 2The planning stage could start, the topic could be decided upon, and provisional discussion in individual subjects could take place at the end of the first year. Students could then use the vacation time to think about how they are going to tackle the project and would be ready to start work early in the second year.

Year 2Delaying the start of the project until some point in the second year, particularly if left too late, increases pressure on students in many ways: the schedule for finishing the work is much tighter than for the other options; the illness of any student or unexpected problems will present extra difficulties. Nevertheless, this choice does mean students know one another and their teachers by this time, have probably become accustomed to working in a team and will be more experienced in the relevant fields than in the first year.

Combined SL and HL

Where circumstances dictate that the project is only carried out every two years, HL beginners and more experienced SL students can be combined.

Selecting a topicStudents may choose the topic or propose possible topics and the teacher then decides which one is the most viable based on resources, staff availability and so on. Alternatively, the teacher selects the topic or proposes several topics from which students make a choice.

Student selection

Students are likely to display more enthusiasm and feel a greater sense of ownership for a topic that they have chosen themselves. A possible strategy for student selection of a topic, which also includes part of the planning stage, is outlined here. At this point, subject teachers may provide advice on the viability of proposed topics.

• Identify possible topics by using a questionnaire or a survey of students.

• Conduct an initial “brainstorming” session of potential topics or issues.

• Discuss, briefly, two or three topics that seem interesting.

The group 4 project

Physics guide 153

• Select one topic by consensus.

• Students make a list of potential investigations that could be carried out. All students then discuss issues such as possible overlap and collaborative investigations.

A reflective statement written by each student on their involvement in the group 4 project must be included on the cover sheet for each internal assessment investigation. See Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme for more details.

Physics guide154154

Glossary of command terms

Appendices

Command terms for physicsStudents should be familiar with the following key terms and phrases used in examination questions, which are to be understood as described below. Although these terms will be used frequently in examination questions, other terms may be used to direct students to present an argument in a specific way.

These command terms indicate the depth of treatment required.

Assessment objective 1

Command term Definition

Define Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.

Draw Represent by means of a labelled, accurate diagram or graph, using a pencil. A ruler (straight edge) should be used for straight lines. Diagrams should be drawn to scale. Graphs should have points correctly plotted (if appropriate) and joined in a straight line or smooth curve.

Label Add labels to a diagram.

List Give a sequence of brief answers with no explanation.

Measure Obtain a value for a quantity.

State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.

Write down Obtain the answer(s), usually by extracting information. Little or no calculation is required. Working does not need to be shown.



Annotate Add brief notes to a diagram or graph.

Apply Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given problem or issue.

Calculate Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working.

Describe Give a detailed account.

Distinguish Make clear the differences between two or more concepts or items.

Estimate Obtain an approximate value.

Formulate Express precisely and systematically the relevant concept(s) or argument(s).


Physics guide 155

Identify Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.

Outline Give a brief account or summary.

Plot Mark the position of points on a diagram.



Analyse Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.

Comment Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.

Compare Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Compareand contrast

Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Construct Display information in a diagrammatic or logical form.

Deduce Reach a conclusion from the information given.

Demonstrate Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or practical application.

Derive Manipulate a mathematical relationship to give a new equation or relationship.

Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.

Determine Obtain the only possible answer.

Discuss Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.

Evaluate Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.

Explain Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.

Hence Use the preceding work to obtain the required result.

Hence or otherwise It is suggested that the preceding work is used, but other methods could also receive credit.

Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to support an answer or conclusion.

Predict Give an expected result.

Show Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.

Show that Obtain the required result (possibly using information given) without the formality of proof. “Show that” questions do not generally require the use of a calculator.


Physics guide156

Sketch Represent by means of a diagram or graph (labelled as appropriate). The sketch should give a general idea of the required shape or relationship, and should include relevant features.

Solve Obtain the answer(s) using algebraic and/or numerical and/or graphical methods.

Suggest Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.


Appendices

Bibliography

This bibliography lists the principal works used to inform the curriculum review. It is not an exhaustive list and does not include all the literature available: judicious selection was made in order to better advise and guide teachers. This bibliography is not a list of recommended textbooks.

Rhoton, J. 2010. Science Education Leadership: Best Practices for the New Century. Arlington, Virginia, USA. National Science Teachers Association Press.

Masood, E. 2009. Science & Islam: A History. London, UK. Icon Books.

Roberts, B. 2009. Educating for Global Citizenship: A Practical Guide for Schools. Cardiff, UK. International Baccalaureate Organization.

Martin, J. 2006. The Meaning of the 21st Century: A vital blueprint for ensuring our future. London, UK. Eden Project Books.

Gerzon, M. 2010. Global Citizens: How our vision of the world is outdated, and what we can do about it. London, UK. Rider Books.

Haydon, G. 2006. Education, Philosophy & the Ethical Environment. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.

Anderson, LW et al. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, USA. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Hattie, J. 2009. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.

Petty, G. 2009. Evidence-based Teaching: A practical approach. (2nd edition). Cheltenham, UK. Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Andain, I and Murphy, G. 2008. Creating Lifelong Learners: Challenges for Education in the 21st Century. Cardiff, UK. International Baccalaureate Organization.

Jewkes, J, Sawers, D and Stillerman, R. 1969. The Sources of Invention. (2nd edition). New York, USA. W.W. Norton & Co.

Lawson, B. 2005. How Designers Think: The design process demystified. (4th edition). Oxford, UK. Architectural Press.

Douglas, H. 2009. Science, Policy, and the Value-Free Ideal. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. University of Pittsburgh Press.

Aikenhead, G and Michell, H. 2011. Bridging Cultures: Indigenous and Scientific Ways of Knowing Nature. Toronto, Canada. Pearson Canada.

Winston, M and Edelbach, R. 2012. Society, Ethics, and Technology. (4th edition). Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning.

Brian Arthur, W. 2009. The Nature of Technology. London, UK. Penguin Books.

Headrick, D. 2009. Technology: A World History. Oxford, UK. Oxford University Press.

Bibliography

Physics guide158

Popper, KR. 1980. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. (4th revised edition). London, UK. Hutchinson.

Trefil, J. 2008. Why Science?. New York/Arlington, USA. NSTA Press & Teachers College Press.

Kuhn, TS. 1996. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (3rd edition). Chicago, Illinois, USA. The University of Chicago Press.

Khine, MS, (ed.). 2012. Advances in Nature of Science Research: Concepts and Methodologies. Bahrain. Springer.

Spier, F. 2010. Big History and the Future of Humanity. Chichester, UK. Wiley-Blackwell.

Stokes Brown, C. 2007. Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New York, USA. The New Press.

Swain, H, (ed.). 2002. Big Questions in Sciences. London, UK. Vintage.

Roberts, RM. 1989. Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. Chichester, UK. Wiley Science Editions.

Ehrlich, R. 2001. Nine crazy ideas in science. Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Princeton University Press.

Lloyd, C. 2012. What on Earth Happened?: The Complete Story of the Planet, Life and People from the Big Bang to the Present Day. London, UK. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Trefil, J and Hazen, RM. 2010. Sciences: An integrated Approach. (6th edition). Chichester, UK. Wiley.

ICASE. 2010. Innovation in Science & Technology Education: Research, Policy, Practice. Tartu, Estonia. ICASE/UNESCO/University of Tartu.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1990. Science for all Americans online. Washington, USA. http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/sfaatoc.htm.

The Geological Society of America. 2012. Nature of Science and the Scientific Method. Boulder, Colorado, USA. http://www.geosociety.org/educate/naturescience.pdf.

Big History Project. 2011. Big History: An Introduction to Everything. http://www.bighistoryproject.com.

Nuffield Foundation. 2012. How science works. London, UK. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/how-science-works

Understanding Science. 1 February 2013. http://www.understandingscience.org.

Collins, S, Osborne, J, Ratcliffe, M, Millar, R, and Duschl, R. 2012. What ‘ideas-about-science’ should be taught in school science? A Delphi study of the ‘expert’ community. St Louis, Missouri, USA. National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST).

TIMSS (The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). 1 February 2013. http://timssandpirls.bc.edu.

PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment). 1 February 2013. http://www.oecd.org/pisa.

ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education). 1 February 2013. http://roseproject.no/.

Documents

ibcompanion.comibcompanion.com/resources/Physics/Subject guide.pdf · IB mission statement The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young