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God

Detail of Sistine Chapel frescoCreation of the Sun and Moon by

Michelangelo (c. 1512), a wellknown example of the depiction of

God the Father in Western art

God usually refers to the single deity in monotheism or the monist deity inpantheism.[1] God is often conceived of as the supernatural creator and overseerof humans and the universe. Theologians have ascribed a variety of attributes tothe many different conceptions of God. The most common among these includeomniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence(present everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity,and eternal and necessary existence.

God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being,the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1]

These attributes were supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christianand Muslim theologian philosophers. Many notable medieval philosophers andmodern philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence ofGod.[2]

There are many names for God, and different names are attached to differentcultural ideas about who God is and what attributes he possesses. In the HebrewBible "I Am that I Am", and the "Tetragrammaton" YHVH are used as names ofGod, while Yahweh, and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity asvocalizations of YHVH. In Arabic, the name Allah ("the God") is used, and because of the predominance of Islamamong Arab speakers, the name "Allah" has connotations with Islamic faith and culture. Muslims regard a multitudeof titular names for God, while in Judaism it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai. InHinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity.[3] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Bahain the Bahá'í Faith,[4] Waheguru in Sikhism,[5] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[6]

Etymology and usageThe earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[7]) comes from the 6thcentury Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. Mostlinguists agree that the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, whichmeant either "to call" or "to invoke".[8] The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to bothgenders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanicpaganism, the word became a masculine syntactic form.[9]

In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic"God" and "gods" in polytheism.[10][11] The English word "God" and its counterparts in other languages are normallyused for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains anEnglish translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name,the tetragrammaton (written YHWH), in origin the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In manytranslations of the Bible, when the word "LORD" is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents thetetragrammaton.[12] Allāh (Arabic: الله allāh) is the Arabic term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabicspeaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "ʾilāh" (Arabic: إله ellāh) is the term usedfor a deity or a god in general.[13][14][15] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduismwhich emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata orlater Vishnu and Hari.[16]

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General conceptions

God the Father by Cima da Conegliano, c. 1515

There is no clear consensus on the nature of God.[17] The Abrahamicconceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God inJudaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept ofGod. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views ofGod in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging frommonotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity was recognized bythe historical Buddha, particularly Śakra and Brahma. However, othersentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive rolein one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latterdevelopments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent placeto notions of the divine.

OnenessMonotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religionsunder different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, isespecially emphasized in Hinduism[18] and Sikhism.[19]

Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhīd (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the Qur'an as:"Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there isnone like unto Him."[20][21] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparingit to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations inany way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[22]

Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of otherdeities.[23]

Theism, deism and pantheismTheism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that Godcreated and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; personal and interacting with the universethrough for example religious experience and the prayers of humans.[24] It holds that God is both transcendent andimmanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[25] Not all theistssubscribe to all the above propositions, but usually a fair number of them, c.f., family resemblance.[24] Catholictheology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God isomnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil andsuffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence,omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omnisciencedoes not mean the deity can predict the future. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a godor gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[26][27]

Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what wasnecessary to create it.[25] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and does not literally answer prayers or causemiracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware ofhumanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefsdiscussed below.Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe; the distinctions between the two are subtle. It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church, Theosophy, some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism which believes in panentheism, Sikhism, some

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divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals withindenominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God — which has wideacceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov — but only as an addition to theJewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.

Other conceptsDystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or isfully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The BrothersKaramazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[28] Anotherexample would be Theistic Satanism.Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernaturalbeing. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theistsunderstand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. Others such as Richard Dawkins see the idea of Godas entirely pernicious. In his book, The God Delusion, Dawkins writes: "God, in the sense defined, is a delusion; andas later chapters will show, a pernicious one."In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. Thecontemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach anddefinition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[29]

God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation,and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish,Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[30] Augustine of Hippo,[30] and Al-Ghazali,[2]

respectively.

Existence of GodCountless arguments have been proposed in attempt to prove the existence of God.[31] Some of the most notablearguments are the 5 Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire proposed by C.S. Lewis, the Lord, Lunatic or LiarTrilemma also by C.S. Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm and Descartes.[32] Evenamong theists, these proofs are heavily debated. Some, such as the Ontological Argument, are highly controversialamong theists. Aquinas spends a section of his treatise on God refuting St. Anselm's proof.[33]

St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheistphilosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: “By God I understand a being absolutelyinfinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infiniteessence.” For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[34]

His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[35]

Renowned physicist Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, thatit is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely beendeflected to that of who created God. In this view it is accepted that some entity exists that needs no creator, and thatentity is called God. This is known as the first-cause argument for the existence of God. Both authors claim however,that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divinebeings.[36]

Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not aquestion than can be answered using the scientific method.[37][38] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that scienceand religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[39]

There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are nonspecific, while others can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical,

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inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around perceived holes in evolutionary theory and order andcomplexity in the world.Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusionsreached include views that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist"[40] (de factoatheism[41]); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[42]); "God exists, but this cannot be proven ordisproven" (weak theism); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism). There are numerousvariations on these positions.

Specific attributes

EpithetaIt is difficult to distinguish between proper names and epitheta of God. Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Biblethere are many names for God that portray his nature and character. One of them is elohim,[43][44] (which is actuallya plural word). Another one is El Shaddai, meaning “God Almighty”.[45] A third notable name is El Elyon, whichmeans “The Most High God”.[46]

God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common beingAl-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God inIslam).[47]

Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.

GenderThe gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in Classical westernphilosophy, transcends bodily form.[48][49] In polytheistic religions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexualgenders which would enable them to interact with each other, and even with humans, in a sexual way. In mostmonotheistic religions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal gender-based way. Thus, inClassical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement ofhow humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelationwhich corresponds to the active (as opposed to feminine receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[50]

God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources, except: female in  Genesis 1:26-27,[51][52]  Psalm 123:2-3,and  Luke 15:8-10; a mother in  Hosea 11:3-4,  Deuteronomy 32:18,  Isaiah 66:13,  Isaiah 49:15,  Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2; a mother eagle in  Deuteronomy 32:11-12; and a mother hen in  Matthew 23:37 and  Luke 13:34.

Relationship with creationChristian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral tothe Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirmthe divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specificpoint in the universe."[53] Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[54][55] He is viewed as apersonal God and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. A reciprocal nature is mentioned in thehadith qudsi, "I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am".[56]

Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief

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that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, whereeverybody is seen as equally right; an example in Christianity is universalism: the doctrine that salvation iseventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from differentreligions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

Theological approaches

The Name of God written in Arabic calligraphyby 17th century Ottoman artist Hâfız Osman. InIslam, it is considered a sin to anthropomorphize

God.

Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes toGod, including omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfectgoodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. Godhas been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of allmoral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[1] Theseattributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish,Christian and Muslim scholars, including St Augustine,[30]

Al-Ghazali,[57] and Maimonides.[30]

Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for the existence ofGod,[2] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications ofGod's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generatedimportant philosophical problems and debates. For example, God'somniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents willchoose to act. If God does know this, their apparent free will might beillusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination; and if Goddoes not know it, God may not be omniscient.[58]

However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectlypredicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to thatwill, combined with perfect-infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience isdefined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised bysuch philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument frommorality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, like Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic";or to take, like Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[59] Some theists agree that none of the arguments forGod's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be norisk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up byPascal as: "The heart has reasons which reason knows not of."[60]

Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day existences. Manybelievers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints,djinns, demons, and devas.[61][62][63][64][65]

Non-theistic views of GodThe nineteenth century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say "There is no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[66] he said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian God. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical

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footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the naturalworld.[67]

Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the groundsthat "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be ascientific difference."[40] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove ordisprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator would bethe discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[68]

AnthropomorphismPascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general,supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of thebest known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modernsoap opera than other religious systems.[69] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate throughformalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observableentities as intermediaries.[70] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features ontonon-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested thatgod concepts are projections of one's father.[71]

Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life toinclude supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humansbegan living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups,morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforcemorality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods andspirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[72]

Distribution of belief in God

The percentage of population in European countries who respondedin a 2005 survey that they "believe there is a God". Countries with

Roman Catholic (e.g.: Poland, Portugal), Eastern Orthodox (Greece,Romania, Cyprus) or Muslim (Turkey, Cyprus) majorities tend to

poll highest.

As of 2000, approximately 53% of the world'spopulation identified with one of the three primaryAbrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, <1%Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6%with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various otherreligions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most ofthese religious beliefs involve a god or gods.[73]

Abrahamic religions beyond Christianity, Islam andJudaism include Baha'i, Samaritanism, the Rastafarimovement, Yazidism, and the Unification Church.

Notes[1] Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford

Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995.[2] Platinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the Existence of",

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.[3][3] Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity - Page 136,

Michael P. Levine - 2002[4] A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God : ... -

Page x, Baháʾuʾlláh, Joyce Watanabe - 2006[5][5] Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism - Page ix, Kartar Singh Duggal - 1988

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[6][6] The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cultured class, David S. Kidder,Noah D. Oppenheim, page 364

[7] "'God' in Merriam-Webster (online)" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ god). Merriam-Webster, Inc.. . Retrieved 2012-07-19.[8] The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba" implies as its

preTeut-type either "*ghodho-m" or "*ghodto-m". The former does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut.pple. of a root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr."hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr "hu", Gr. χεηi;ν, OE "geotàn" Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267

[9] Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words, page 323.HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7

[10] Webster's New World Dictionary; "God n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sanshavaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairsof people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. aperson or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded aseternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty"

[11] Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ God); "God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of theuniverse. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity,presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God ofmercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of adeity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. thespectators in this part of the balcony."

[12] Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4286-1575-X.[13] "God" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithgod. html). Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. . Retrieved 2010-12-18.[14] "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.[15] L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.[16][16] Hastings 2003, p. 540[17] "DOES GOD MATTER? A Social-Science Critique" (http:/ / www. hds. harvard. edu/ news/ bulletin/ articles/ does_god_matter. html). by

Paul Froese and Christopher Bader. . Retrieved 2007-05-28.[18] See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1[19] "Sri Guru Granth Sahib" (http:/ / www. srigranth. org/ servlet/ gurbani. gurbani?Action=Page& Param=1350& english=t& id=57718). Sri

Granth. . Retrieved 2011-06-30.[20] Qur'an 112:1–4[21] D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.[22] Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...Can There Be Common Ground?. p. 117. ISBN 1-4627-1262-2.[23] Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:Longmans, Green and

Co.[24] Smart, Jack; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism. Blackwell Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 0-631-23259-1.[25] Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval Essay in Philosophical Theology. Lexington Books. p. 34. ISBN 0-7391-0250-8.[26] "Philosophy of Religion.info – Glossary – Theism, Atheism, and Agonisticism" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080424071443/ http:/ /

www. philosophyofreligion. info/ definitions. html). Philosophy of Religion.info. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.philosophyofreligion. info/ definitions. html) on 2008-04-24. . Retrieved 2008-07-16.

[27] "Theism – definition of theism by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ theism).TheFreeDictionary. . Retrieved 2008-07-16.

[28] The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoyevsky (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 28054/ 28054-h/28054-h. html) pp259-261

[29] Henry, Michel (2003). I am the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Stanford University Press.ISBN 0-8047-3780-0.

[30] Edwards, Paul. "God and the philosophers" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995.ISBN=978-1-61592-446-2.

[31] Kreeft, Peter (1990). Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. p. 63.[32] Kreeft, Peter (1990). Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 65–69.[33] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ summa/ ). Part 1, Question 2, Article 3. .[34] Curley, Edwin M. (1985). The Collected Works of Spinoza. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07222-7.[35] Nadler, Steven, "Baruch Spinoza", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/spinoza/>.[36] Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). The Grand Design. Bantam Books. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-553-80537-6.[37] Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God: genes, memes, and the meaning of life (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V9dr6167AJ8C).

Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2539-0. .[38] Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical Christian Theology: Examining the Great Doctrines of the Faith (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=Jb5aRB7OxWsC). Kregel Academic. ISBN 978-0-8254-2380-2. .

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[39] Gould, Stephen J. (1998). Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms. Jonathan Cape. p. 274. ISBN 0-224-05043-5.[40] Dawkins, Richard. "Why There Almost Certainly Is No God" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ richard-dawkins/

why-there-almost-certainl_b_32164. html). The Huffington Post. . Retrieved 2007-01-10.[41] The phrase atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος (atheos), meaning "without god(s)".[42] Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, was the first to come up with the word agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas (2008). Science and

Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-929551-7. However, earlier authors andpublished works have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher. "The InternetEncyclopedia of Philosophy - Protagoras (c. 490 - c. 420 BCE)" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ p/ protagor. htm). Archived (http:/ / web.archive. org/ web/ 20081014181706/ http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ p/ protagor. htm) from the original on 2008-10-14. . Retrieved 2008-10-06."While the pious might wish to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment,that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventionalepic accounts of the gods. Protagoras' prose treatise about the gods began 'Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether theyexist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.'"

[43][43] Isa. 45:18; 54:5; Jer. 32:27; Gen. 1:1; Deut. 5:23; 8:15; Ps. 68:7[44] "Bible Gateway, http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ " (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Isa. 54:5& version=31).

Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-06-30.[45][45] Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2[46][46] Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25[47] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library.

ISBN 0-87808-299-9.[48] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ summa/ 1003. htm). Part 1, Question 3, Article 1. .[49] of Hippo, Augustine (~397). Confessions. Book 7.[50] Lang, David (2002). Why Matter Matters: Philosophical and Scriptural Reflections on the Sacraments. Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?:

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Finkelstein, J.delanoy, J04n, JASpencer, JCIV, JDIAZ001, JFKFC, JForget, JHMM13, JR98664, JRM, JWSchmidt, JYolkowski, JZCL, JaGa, Jacek Kendysz, Jack turnip, JackWarren, Jackjackjackjackjack, Jackslap22, Jacob.jose, Jacquerie27, Jag123, Jake77, JakeDHS07, Jakeasaurous rex, Jakub Sedlák, JamShady, James McNally, James29th, JamesWeb, Jamesday, Jamesing, Jamie jca, Jamiecole, Jamiejojesus, Jamyskis, Janus Shadowsong, Jaranda, Jaredsmith0, Jariola, JarlaxleArtemis, Jaschastarwars, Jason Calzone, Jason Quinn, Jason18235, Jasonschnarr, JasperAvi, Jasperdoomen, Java7837, Jaxl, Jaybo33, Jayjg, Jayriz, JazMc, Jcbos, Jcw69, Jdcollins13, Jdeetaurus, Jdforrester, JeMa, Jed, Jedidiesel, Jeff G., Jeffro77, Jehan UK, Jeheffiner, JemmaBrossel, Jengira, Jennica, Jennifer62896, JeremyA, Jeremyb, Jeremygbyrne, Jeronimo, Jersyko, Jessmudie14, Jesus69420, Jesvane, Jezabelda, Jfdwolff, Jgritz, Jhenderson777, Jiang, Jim Douglas, Jim1138, Jim62sch, JimWae, Jimbojackass, Jimothytrotter, Jimp, Jiohdi, Jklin, Jljordanjl@aol.com, Jni, Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo-Jo, JoanneB, Jobe6, Joe Mean, JoeCool1000, Joelmull, John Carter, John Quincy Adding Machine, John Reaves, John Stattic, John handcock, Johnleemk, Johnstone, Jojit fb, Jok S Trap, Jokerdecay, Jon Awbrey, Jon Cates, Jon Harald Søby, JonMoore, Jonathan Tweet, Jonathan.s.kt, Jonathan321, Jonathanbrickman0000, Jonathon Bolster, Jonathunder, Jonrudder, Jontrevino, Jony200, Jordan Schulz, JordanBarrett, Jordanblue, Jorfer, Joshbuddy, Joshua Issac, Joshua david57, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Joyonicity, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jredmond, Jsalims8, Jschuess, Jschwa1, Jsemmens, Jsorr, JuJube, Julius von Sammaël, Juman, Jungty, Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Jusdafax, Justin Eiler, Juıf, Jwissick, Jwrosenzweig, K, K kisses, K1Bond007, KBi, KHM03, KIERANEVANS, KJJ, KSUster, KSmrq, Kafziel, Kahn, KaibabsquirreI, Kajasudhakarababu, Kaji13, Kalmalid, Kamaldevjhalli, KamikazeArchon, Kamisamanou, Kandi panties, Kane5187, Kanon6996, Karaku, Karatloz, Karkikailash, Karl-Henner, KarlStocker16, Karlhahn, Karnak666, Karthikutd, Kathrynsteele.wanadoo.co.uk, Katieh5584, Katz104327, Kavehmz, Kazak, Kazuba, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Kcornwall, Keahapana, Kecik, Keeves, Keith0422, KeithWaclena, Kel-nage, Kelly Martin, Kemiv, Kennercat, Kennethduncan, Kenny sh, Kesuari, Kevin, Kevin B12, Kevin Baas, Kevvy9, Kevyn, KeyStroke, Kfedder, Khalid Mahmood, Khaosinfire, Khoikhoi, Kiatdd, KillerChihuahua, Kimse, King Vegita, King of Hearts, Kingal86, Kingpetey, Kiwipeel, Kizor, Kkawohl, Klafubra, Klaksonn, Kmarinas86, Kmeuse, KnightsHFU, KnowledgeBased, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knucmo2, Knverma, Koavf, Konstable, Konsu, Kooo, Kotjze, Kozuch, Kpwa gok, Kralizec!, Krayzie, Krhuske, Kribbeh, Krich, Kris Schnee, Kudohasanunderbite, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kurieeto, Kuru, Kusma, Kwbagwel, KyjL, Kyle1278, KyleAshcraft, Kylests, Kzollman, L joo, LASIBILLA, LOL, Lachoneus, Lacrimosus, Laddiebuck, Lairor, Lakers, Lammio94, Lamols, Lanceb89, Lancevance101, Lancombz, Landon1980, Lanoitarus, Lapinmies, Larry Sanger, Laticss, Laug, LauraHale, Leaf117, LeatherEngine, Lectonar, Ledmonkey, Lee Daniel Crocker, Lee820120, Legend II, LegolasGreenleaf, Lemonflash, Lenny222, Leo vocals, Leondumontfollower, Lessthanthree, Letsbespooked, LeviathanMist, Lid, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Lilfujidog, Lindsay G. 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