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Multi-scale and Diffuse Governance
Market Hierarchy Community
Global
National State
LocalDecentralisation
Pri
vati
sati
on
Civ
il so
ciety
Internationalisation
The Washington Consensus
Early state-led development models Market failure interventionist states Public enterprises, protective regulation
Market liberalisation (”structural adjustment” Problems of bureaucratisation, state monopoly, state
intervention creating inefficiencies and undermining markets
State failure economic liberalisation ”Rolling back the state” through privatisation
Denationalisation of publix enterprises, sub-contracting, self-management, deregulation
Political conditionalities by donors/IFIs in regard to loans and aid
State/Market-Relations in Development
Debates about NICs: Market-led or state-led development
Wrong question: Not state or market-led development, but what kind of state (Peter Evans and others)
Parasitic states: controlled by and used for self-interest og state elites (corruption and clientelism). Inefficient bureaucracy with limited administrative capacity. Weak states with limited capacity and accountability.
Developmental states: weak states that have become strong through governance arrangements
Such states are characterised by ”Embedded autonomy” (Evans) Autonomy: strong bureaucracy with substantive autonomy in Autonomy: strong bureaucracy with substantive autonomy in
regard to specific interestsregard to specific interests Embedded: governance through networks with market actorsEmbedded: governance through networks with market actors Division of labor between market and enabling state institutionsDivision of labor between market and enabling state institutions
Post-Washington Consensus
From ”Less Government” to ”Good Governance”
Role of state
Division of labor between state, market and civil society
State enabling market-led development
Accountable and efficient state institutions
Not how much but what kind of state
New State Roles
Provision of public goods (for example enforcement of contracts, defence)
Provision of some merit goods (for example education and health)
Development of transportation, communication and power systems
Dissemination of economic information Institution of a ’transparent’ and flexible regulatory
framework Promotion of scientific and technological research Provision of a safety net for low-income groups
Turner & Hulme p. 185
Elements of Good Governance
Legal framework for development providing a basis of stable rules, enforcement and dispute resolution
Efficiency in public sector management through appropriate budgeting, accounting and reporting systems
Transparency in public sector management through access to information about handling of resources
Accountability of both political and official side of government, mechanisms for holding individuals and institutions to account
Decentralisation
PrivatisationPrivatisation Transfer of functions from state to marketTransfer of functions from state to market
Deconcentration (administrative decentralisation)Deconcentration (administrative decentralisation) Transfer of functions from national to local Transfer of functions from national to local
institutions for public administrationinstitutions for public administration
Devolution (democratic decentralisation)Devolution (democratic decentralisation) Transfer of functions and authority (decision-Transfer of functions and authority (decision-
making) to local governmentmaking) to local government
Periods of Decentralisation in Africa
Golden Age of Local Government (1945 - early 60s)Golden Age of Local Government (1945 - early 60s)
Indirect rule (Mamdani: decentralised despotism)Indirect rule (Mamdani: decentralised despotism)
Decolonisation & state building (early 60s - late 70s)Decolonisation & state building (early 60s - late 70s)
State, party and nation-building. Centralised development State, party and nation-building. Centralised development planningplanning
Liberalisation & decentralisation (late 70s - late 80s)Liberalisation & decentralisation (late 70s - late 80s)
Privatisation and administrative decentralisation in Privatisation and administrative decentralisation in context of structural adjustmentcontext of structural adjustment
Democratisation & good governance (1990s - present)Democratisation & good governance (1990s - present)
Discourse and attempts at democratic decentralisation Discourse and attempts at democratic decentralisation (participation in ’good governance’)(participation in ’good governance’)
Local Elite Capture (Local Bossism)
Decentralisation may lead to local substantive democracy, but also Decentralisation may lead to local substantive democracy, but also decentralised despotism: local bosses capturing local political power decentralised despotism: local bosses capturing local political power and control over public resourcesand control over public resources
John Sidel on ”local bossism”John Sidel on ”local bossism” Local strongmen are created as much by the nature of the state as by Local strongmen are created as much by the nature of the state as by
that of society (i.e. not simply a local ’tradition’)that of society (i.e. not simply a local ’tradition’) Bossism reflects the subordination of the state apparatus to Bossism reflects the subordination of the state apparatus to electedelected
officials in the context of officials in the context of primitive accumulationprimitive accumulation Primitive accumulation; loss of control over means of production/ Primitive accumulation; loss of control over means of production/
subsistence, prevalence of economic insecurity (scarcity of wage subsistence, prevalence of economic insecurity (scarcity of wage work), considerable economic resources within the ”public domain”work), considerable economic resources within the ”public domain”
This makes voters susceptible to clientelism in a situation where state This makes voters susceptible to clientelism in a situation where state offices are crucial for capital accumulationoffices are crucial for capital accumulation
Key factors: nature of public affairs, nature of decentralisation, Key factors: nature of public affairs, nature of decentralisation, nature of local civil societynature of local civil society
Democratic Decentralisation
Experiments in institutionalized local popular democracy: decentralized planning in Kerala (India) and participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre (Brazil)
Common characteristics Extensive popular participation, enabled through
devolution of policy-making and institutionalization of new arenas for democratic participation.
Policy-making within these new local arenas is based on deliberative processes.
A strong ‘practical orientation’ with an emphasis on concrete socio-economic development needs.
Politics of Democratic Decentralisation
How do such institutional arrangements for local deliberative democracy come about?
Existing literature tends to focus on institutional design and ignore the political interests, strategies and relative strengths of state, elite and popular forces involved in the making of local popular democracy
Participatory budgeting has functioned as a successful political strategy for PT in Porto Alegre (Rebecca Abers):
(i) by responding to demands from neighborhood leaders who would otherwise rely on clientelistic networks within the opposition party
(ii) by politically mobilizing and integrating activists from popular movements
(iii) by delivering accountable and efficient local government that especially appeals to the middle classes
(iv) by strengthening local state capacity and coordination in the interest of the bureaucracy
(v) by addressing the prioritized needs of poor people.
The Role of Civil Society
Civil society as an intermediate sphere of Civil society as an intermediate sphere of associational life between the family and the stateassociational life between the family and the state
Civil society increasingly seen as a key arena for Civil society increasingly seen as a key arena for developmentdevelopment
Economic development fostered by local Economic development fostered by local participation and resource mobilisationparticipation and resource mobilisation
Good governance Good governance (accountability/transparency) fostered (accountability/transparency) fostered through civic engagement through civic engagement
Civil society operationalised as Civil society operationalised as non-governmental non-governmental organisationsorganisations or alternatively as or alternatively as social capitalsocial capital
Diversity of the ’Third Sector’
Some critical issues
State/society-relations (service delivery or political advocacy)
NGO/community-relations (participation, transparency, accountability)
NGO/CBO-relations (mutuality or dependence)
General Points
New form of public administration in developing New form of public administration in developing countries, generally referred to as (good) governancecountries, generally referred to as (good) governance
Presented and promoted – not the least by international Presented and promoted – not the least by international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the financial institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF – as a universal solution for developmentIMF – as a universal solution for development
But development administration are not simply technical But development administration are not simply technical solutions: ”There are no universal principles of solutions: ”There are no universal principles of management and no universal management tool kits” management and no universal management tool kits” (Turner & Hulme, p. 3)(Turner & Hulme, p. 3)
Development administration takes place in political Development administration takes place in political contexts and reflect political forces and dynamicscontexts and reflect political forces and dynamics
Institutions are not simply acted upon (designed) but Institutions are not simply acted upon (designed) but also influence their environment (structure politics)also influence their environment (structure politics)
