DemokratiserinDemokratisering g

Kristian StokkeKristian Stokke kristian.stokke@sgeo.uio.nokristian.stokke@sgeo.uio.no

Institutt for sosiologi og Institutt for sosiologi og samfunnsgeografisamfunnsgeografi

Hva er liberalt demokrati?Hva er liberalt demokrati?

Den tredje demokratiseringsbølgenDen tredje demokratiseringsbølgen

31 31 %%

74 %74 %

DemokratiseringsbølgerDemokratiseringsbølger Første bølge (ca. 1800 - 1930)Første bølge (ca. 1800 - 1930)

– ””The Great Transformation” (Karl Polyani) fører til utvikling The Great Transformation” (Karl Polyani) fører til utvikling av liberalt demokrati ifm. Kapitalistisk utvikling, men også av liberalt demokrati ifm. Kapitalistisk utvikling, men også autoritære fascistiske og kommunistiske regimer og autoritære fascistiske og kommunistiske regimer og kolonisering i Asia og Afrikakolonisering i Asia og Afrika

Andre bølge (ca. 1945 - 1970)Andre bølge (ca. 1945 - 1970)– Regimeendringer i etterkant av økonomiske kriser, krig og Regimeendringer i etterkant av økonomiske kriser, krig og

politiske endringer i sentrum av verdenssystemetpolitiske endringer i sentrum av verdenssystemet– Demokratisering av aksemaktene etter 2. Verdenskrig Demokratisering av aksemaktene etter 2. Verdenskrig – Avkolonisering i Asia og AfrikaAvkolonisering i Asia og Afrika

Tredje bølge (1974 - idag)Tredje bølge (1974 - idag)– Demokratisering etter den kalde krigen og under Demokratisering etter den kalde krigen og under

globaliseringglobalisering– Sør-Europa, Latin-Amerika, Øst-Europa, AfrikaSør-Europa, Latin-Amerika, Øst-Europa, Afrika

Earlier theories of democratisationEarlier theories of democratisation Modernization theoryModernization theory

– Historical experience in the West as model for the Historical experience in the West as model for the restrest

– Spread of modernity: economic modernization and Spread of modernity: economic modernization and trickle-down; diffusion of modern values; spread of trickle-down; diffusion of modern values; spread of liberal democracyliberal democracy

Historical sociologyHistorical sociology– Changing relationship between the state and classes Changing relationship between the state and classes

shape the political system, i.e. a macrohistory of shape the political system, i.e. a macrohistory of class structures, collective actors and class conflict. class structures, collective actors and class conflict.

– Barrington MooreBarrington Moore: political outcome of interaction : political outcome of interaction between three between three classesclasses: the peasantry, the landed : the peasantry, the landed upper classes and the bourgeoisie. Three upper classes and the bourgeoisie. Three routesroutes to to modernity: a bourgeois revolution leading to modernity: a bourgeois revolution leading to capitalism and democracy; a revolution from above capitalism and democracy; a revolution from above leading to industrialization and fascism; a revolution leading to industrialization and fascism; a revolution from below leading to communism.from below leading to communism.

Political elites and democratic Political elites and democratic transitionstransitions

Transition theoryTransition theory

– Democracy crafted by conscious, committed actors, not economic Democracy crafted by conscious, committed actors, not economic conditions. Pact-making within the political elite (politicians, party conditions. Pact-making within the political elite (politicians, party officials, bureaucrats and office-holders). Separation of political officials, bureaucrats and office-holders). Separation of political elite negotiations from economic circumstances and from popular elite negotiations from economic circumstances and from popular forces. forces.

Formal and substantive Formal and substantive democracydemocracy Formal democracyFormal democracy

– Democratization as the regular holding of clean Democratization as the regular holding of clean electionselections and and the introduction of basic norms (e.g. an absence of the introduction of basic norms (e.g. an absence of intimidation, competition from at least two political parties, intimidation, competition from at least two political parties, and an inclusive suffrage) that make free elections possible. A and an inclusive suffrage) that make free elections possible. A slightly more inclusive definition demands the introduction of slightly more inclusive definition demands the introduction of liberal individualliberal individual rights rights (freedom of assembly, religious (freedom of assembly, religious freedom, a free press, freedom to stand for public office, etc.) freedom, a free press, freedom to stand for public office, etc.) or the creation of a or the creation of a polyarchic orderpolyarchic order. (Grugel 2002, p. 5). (Grugel 2002, p. 5)

Substantive democracySubstantive democracy– Democratization is the introduction and extension of Democratization is the introduction and extension of

citizenship rights and the creation of a democratic state. citizenship rights and the creation of a democratic state. Another way to think of this is a Another way to think of this is a rights-based or ’substantive’ rights-based or ’substantive’ democratizationdemocratization, in contrast to ’formal’ democratization. The , in contrast to ’formal’ democratization. The litmus-test for democracy is not whether rights exist on paper litmus-test for democracy is not whether rights exist on paper but, rather, whether they have but, rather, whether they have real meaning for peoplereal meaning for people. . Inevitably, this implies a redistribution of power. (Grugel 2002, Inevitably, this implies a redistribution of power. (Grugel 2002, p. 5)p. 5)

Political spacePolitical space

Extensive formal Extensive formal rightsrights

Institutional reforms Institutional reforms towards participationtowards participation

Political channels: Political channels: tripartite alliance of tripartite alliance of ANC, SACP, COSATUANC, SACP, COSATU

Political discourses on Political discourses on post-apartheid justicepost-apartheid justice

Political Political mobilisationmobilisation

Past experiences: Past experiences: conscientisation and conscientisation and mobilisation through mobilisation through anti-apartheid anti-apartheid strugglestruggle

Organisations: civics, Organisations: civics, SANCO, unions, NGOsSANCO, unions, NGOs

Well-organised civil Well-organised civil societysociety

South AfricaSouth Africa: : Promising preconditions for real Promising preconditions for real democratisationdemocratisation

… … but also real constraintsbut also real constraints

Persistent and probably increasing relative Persistent and probably increasing relative and absolute poverty, i.e. problematic and absolute poverty, i.e. problematic implementation of social rightsimplementation of social rights

Cooptation and depoliticisation of popular Cooptation and depoliticisation of popular forces, i.e. problematic forces, i.e. problematic popular political popular political participationparticipation

Local developmental states but limited Local developmental states but limited political autonomy and capacity, i.e. political autonomy and capacity, i.e. problematic problematic construction of local governanceconstruction of local governance

In short: impressive formal democratisation In short: impressive formal democratisation but also real constraints on real but also real constraints on real democratisationdemocratisation

South African social movementsSouth African social movements

Treatment Action Treatment Action CampaignCampaign Constitutional right to health servicesConstitutional right to health services

– HIV/AIDS-treatment (nevirapine) for pregnant womenHIV/AIDS-treatment (nevirapine) for pregnant women

Pretoria High Court ---> Constitutional CourtPretoria High Court ---> Constitutional Court– Ruled against the government and gave a Ruled against the government and gave a

mandatory order for a comprehensive plan HIV/AIDS mandatory order for a comprehensive plan HIV/AIDS treatmenttreatment

– State claim: Interference in government policy-State claim: Interference in government policy-makingmaking

Legal struggle for social rightsLegal struggle for social rights– Problematic field mainly due to resource issues (both Problematic field mainly due to resource issues (both

for civil society actors and government)for civil society actors and government)– Can budget and distribution questions be decided by Can budget and distribution questions be decided by

the courts? What is reasonable use of state the courts? What is reasonable use of state resources?resources?

– Siri Gloppen in ”Mennesker & Rettigheter” 2003, no. 1Siri Gloppen in ”Mennesker & Rettigheter” 2003, no. 1

South African Homeless South African Homeless People’s FederationPeople’s Federation

Realising the right to shelter for poor people in Realising the right to shelter for poor people in urban areasurban areas

Community mobilisationCommunity mobilisation– Savings groups and housing constructionSavings groups and housing construction– Alliance with People’s DialogueAlliance with People’s Dialogue

Political mobilisationPolitical mobilisation– Non-partisan, but flexible political alliancesNon-partisan, but flexible political alliances– Resource mobilisation (housing subsidies, Resource mobilisation (housing subsidies,

uTshani)uTshani)– State housing strategy (”people-driven housing State housing strategy (”people-driven housing

process”)process”)

Location Location in political in political terrainterrain

Empowered Participatory Governance Empowered Participatory Governance

• Archon Fung & Erik Olin Wright (2003). Deepening Democracy. Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance. London: Verso.

Practical orientation• Emphasis on concrete everyday socio-economic

development needs

Bottom-up participation• Institutionalisation of new arenas for direct democratic

participation

Deliberative solution generation• Policy-decisions based on fora-based discussions

Design properties of EPGDesign properties of EPG Devolution

– Devolution of financial resources and decision making regarding resource resource allocationallocation

– KeralaKerala: Devolution of 40% of planning funds to : Devolution of 40% of planning funds to Panchayat Village Planning Panchayat Village Planning Councils.Councils. Grama sab Grama sabhas - assemblies of ward- or panchayat-based residents, inputs to higher-level planning/decision-making

Centralised supervision and coordination– Requirements regarding organisation of the decision-making process– Kerala: rules regarding organisations of meetings (4 grama sabhas per

year) participation (women, scheduled castes) and allocation of resources (40-50% for economic development, 40% for social development, max 30% for road construction and at least 10% on women)

State-centered (not voluntaristic)– Civil society activism may seek to influence policy making processes but

leave intact the basic institutions of state governance– EPG, in contrast, transforms the mechanisms of state power. Such

transformations happen in close cooperation with ”state agents”

Critical pointsCritical points

Political and economic elites do not give up power Ordinary people do not really participate In short: continued domination rather than participatory

deliberation

Political deficit: From institutional design for deliberation to ”What makes it happen?”

Rebecca Abers: EPG requires a dual process of commitment-building among state and society actors

Elite actors: Elite actors: PB as alternative political strategyPB as alternative political strategy

PB became a central strategy for re-election for PT (Workers Party)

PB responded to demands of neighborhood leaders, who would otherwise rely on the populist-clientelist opposition party

PB benefitted a key sector of the economic elite (construction companies)

PB gained support from the middle classes by delivering clean government

PB facilitated government co-ordination

Popular actors:Popular actors: Participation as worth the effortParticipation as worth the effort

PB mobilised poor people to participate because it addressed their prioritised needs

PB utilised activists from neighborhood movements From competitive participation (based on self-interest)

to deliberation, - deliberation as a learning process PB utilised and generated, rather than undermined civil

society activism. In contrast to Tharakan’s account of party-politicisation of civil society and problems of mobilising amrginalised groups