Gizi Dalam Pembangunan:Distribusi Pendapatan dan Gizi

By : Suyatno, Ir. MKes

Office : Dept. of Public Health Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health

Diponegoro University, Semarang

Contact : 081-22815730 / 024-70251915

Blog : suyatno.blog.undip.ac.id

Dietary IntakeMacro-nutrientsMicro-nutrients

Health Status

Access to food

Household income/ expenditures on food

Maternal & child care practices

Quality & quantity of care

Health environment & services

Access & quality of health, sanitation & water

Policies that encourage

-food production-income generation-transfer food in-kind

Policies & programs that increase-caregivers access-caregivers resource control-caregivers knowledge, adoption & practice

Policies that improve

-adequate sanitation-safe water supply-health care availability-environmental safety/ shelter

Political & legal Institutions

Political commitment, legal structures for implementing food laws

Potential resources

Poverty/natural resources availability/ agricultural technology

Resource control, ownership, use

Resource use & pricing policies

Adult development and

Labor productivityImmediate

Causes

Underlying Causes

Basic Causes

Nutrition Security

Conceptual Framework of Linking Poverty & NutritionNutrition Security

Conceptual Framework of Linking Poverty & Nutrition

Keterkaitan Pendapatan & Gizi

�Pendapatan mempengaruhi konsumsi dan Gizi

�Besar pendapatan akan menentukan:

� akses pangan secara ekonomi

� data beli pangan

� jumlah dan kualitas pangan

�Distribusi pendapatan yang baik akan mengurangi kesenjangan ekonomi antar keluarga sehingga akan mengurangi kesenjangan gizi.

SOURCES OF FAMILY INCOME

�Gifts and assistance from abroad and from domestic source

�Dividends from investments� Imputed rental values of owner

occupied dwelling units � Interests, royalties�Rentals including landowner ’s

share of agricultural products�Pensions�Receipts from family sustenance

activities

�Salaries and Wages �Commissions/tips�Bonuses�Family and clothing allowances�Transportation and

representation allowances�Honoraria�Other forms of compensation�Net receipts/ profits derived

from operation of family operated enterprises/ activities and practice of profession or trade

Income from Other SourcesPrimary Sources of Income

Rp

FAMILY EXPENDITUREFAMILY EXPENDITUREFAMILY EXPENDITUREFAMILY EXPENDITURE

Food Non-Food� Food consumed at home

Cereals and cereal preparationsRoots and tubersFruits and vegetablesMeat and meat preparationsDairy products and rootsFish and marine productsCoffee, Cocoa and teaNon-alcoholic beveragesFood not elsewhere classified

� Food regularly consumed outside the home

� Alcoholic beverages� Tobacco

� Fuel, Light and Water� Transportation and communication� Household operation � Personal care and effects� Clothing, Footwear and other wear� Education� Recreation� Medical care� Non-durable furnishings� Durable furniture and equipment� Taxes� Housing, House Maintenance and

Minor Repairs� Miscellaneous expenditures

Special family occasionGifts and contributions to othersOther expenditures

� Other disbursements

National Statistics Office9

Pendapatan & Belanja Pangan

�Dalam ekonomi pangan, yang terpenting:� berapa jumlah/persentase untuk konsumsi/belanja pangan.

� bagaimana distribusi pendapatan dan pangan.

�Hukum Engel :

� “the proportion of a family’s budget devoted to food declines as the familiy’s income increase”

� the income elasticity of demand for food is less than one.

� Penyebab berlakunya hukum Engel adalah:“the limited capacity of human stamach”

�Hukum Bennett :

� the ‘starchy staple ratio’ declines as houshold income increase as the consumer diversifies the food consumption bundle to include higher-priced calories.

� Argumentasi:

� Karena pangan pokok berpati jumlah substitusinya sedikit dan jumlah konsumsinya terbatas disebabkan oleh kemampuan manusia terbatas secara fisiologis

� Karena adanya keinginan manusia yang universal untuk memperoleh bahan makanan yang bervariasi dan berprotein tinggi, serta permintaan gula

The figure is drawn in logarithms to illustrate elasticities:(log) Food Quality = (log) food expenditure – (log) food quantity

Food ConsumptionFood expenditure

(Engel’s low)

Food quantity(calories)(Bennet’s low)

Food Quality

Starchy staples

(calories)

Household income

Hukum Houthakker : “the average quality of food calories (measured by

prices) rises with incomes”

HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENDAPATAN DENGAN KONSUMSI KALORI

Note: Solid lines indicate consumption patterns before a subsidy on dried cassava; dotted lines indicate consumption patterns after a subsidy on dried cassava. The shaded areas indicate increases incalorie intake after the subsidy.

Pengukuran Distribusi Income dan Gizi

Lorenz Curve:

• A curve showing the proportion of totalincome earned by a given percentage of the population.

• e.g what proportion of total income is earned by the top 10% of the population?

Lorenz Curve% of National Income

Percentage of Population

This line represents the situation if income was distributed equally. The poorest 10% would earn 10% of national income, the poorest 30% would earn 30% of national income.

10%

10%

30%

30%

Lorenz Curve

% of National Income

Percentage of Population

The Lorenz Curve will show the extent to which equality exists. The greater the gap between the line of equality and the curve the greater the degree of inequality.

30%

20%

In this example, the poorest 30% of the population earn 20% of the national income.

7%

In this second example, the Lorenz curve lies further below the line of equality. Now, the poorest 30% only earn 7% of the national income.

Gini Coefficient

• Enables more precise comparison of Lorenz Curves

• The proportion of the area taken up by the Lorenz Curve in relation to the overall area under the line of equality

Didasarkan pada kurva Laurenz

– Angka berkisar 0 - 1

– Kriteria kesenjangan:

• 0.50 – 0.70 = kesenjangan tinggi

• >0.35 – <0.5 = kesenjangan sedang

• 0.20 – 0.35 = kesenjangan rendah

– Perhitungan angka Gini ada 3 cara, yaitu: Gini ratio, Bilangan Gini dan Pendekatan Integral

Mengukur Kesenjangan:Metode Gabungan

Gini Coefficient% of National Income

Percentage of Population

The total area under the line of equalityThe area bounded by the Lorenz Curve

a. Gini Ratio (G)

Rumus: G = A’/A Dimana : A’ adalah area antara kurva Laurenz dan

garis kesamarataan

100 %

100 %

0 % Penerima

Pendapatan

Garis

kesamar

ataan

Kurva L

auren

zA’

A

b. Bilangan Gini (G)

Rumus (I) :

G = ∑ Pi . Ii+1 - ∑ Pi+1 . Ii

Dimana : Pi = persen komulatif penerima pendapatan

ke-iIi = persen komulatif pendapatan yang

diterima kelompok ke-Ik = kelompok penerima pendapatan

1 1

kk

No (k)Penerima

Pendapatan(% komulatif)

Pendapatan diterima (I) Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima

(Rp) (%) Kuantil Desil

1 60.000 0.6

2 (k-1) 10 90.000 0.9 1.5

3 130.000 1.3

4 (k-2) 20 180.000 1.8 4.6 4.6

5 210.000 2.1

6 (k-3) 30 230.000 2.3 9.0

7 250.000 2.5

8 (k-4) 40 270.000 2.7 14.2 14.2

9 280.000 2.8

10 (k-5) 50 300.000 3.0 20.0

11 330.000 3.3

12(k-6) 60 370.000 3.7 27.0 27.0

13 420.000 4.2

14(k-7) 70 500.000 5.0 36.2

15 590.000 5.9

16 (k-8) 80 700.000 7.0 49.1 49.1

17 1.040.000 10.4

18 (k-9) 90 1.200.000 12.0 71.5

19 1.350.000 13.5

20(k-10)

100 1.500.000 15.0 100 100

Jumlah 10.000.000 100

Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini I

∑ PPPPi i i i . I. I. I. Ii+1 i+1 i+1 i+1 ∑ PPPPi+1i+1i+1i+1 . I. I. I. Iiiii

• k1 ….. 0.1 x 0.046 = 0.0046 …… 0.2 x 0.015 = 0.003

• k2 ….. 0.2 x 0.09 = 0.018 …… 0.3 x 0.046 = 0.0138

• k3 ….. 0.3 x 0.142 = 0.0426 …… 0.4 x 0.09 = 0.036

• k4 ….. 0.4 x 0.2 = 0.08 …… 0.5 x 0.142 = 0.071

• k5 ….. 0.5 x 0.27 = 0.135 …… 0.6 x 0.2 = 0.12

• k6 ….. 0.6 x 0.362 = 0.2172 …… 0.7 x 0.27 = 0.189

• k7 ….. 0.7 x 0.491 = 0.3437 …… 0.8 x 0.362 = 0.2896

• k8 ….. 0.8 x 0.715 = 0.572 …… 0.9 x 0.491 = 0.4419

• k9 ….. 0.9 x 1.0 = 0.9 …… 1.0 x 0.715 = 0.715

• K10.... 1.0 x 0.0 = 0 .

G = 2.3131 - 1.8793

= 0.4338

Rumus (II) :

G = 1 - ∑ Pi (Ii +Ii -1)

Dimana :

Pi = persen penerima pendapatan kelompok ke-i

Ii = persen komulatif pendapatan yang diterima kelompok ke-I

k = kelompok penerima pendapatan

1

k

No (k)Penerima

Pendapatan(%)

Pendapatan diterima (I) Persentase Komulatif Pendapatan diterima

(Rp) (%) Kuantil Desil

1 60.000 0.6

2 (k-1) 10 90.000 0.9 1.5

3 130.000 1.3

4 (k-2) 10 180.000 1.8 4.6 4.6

5 210.000 2.1

6 (k-3) 10 230.000 2.3 9.0

7 250.000 2.5

8 (k-4) 10 270.000 2.7 14.2 14.2

9 280.000 2.8

10 (k-5) 10 300.000 3.0 20.0

11 330.000 3.3

12 (k-6) 10 370.000 3.7 27.0 27.0

13 420.000 4.2

14 (k-7) 10 500.000 5.0 36.2

15 590.000 5.9

16 (k-8) 10 700.000 7.0 49.1 49.1

17 1.040.000 10.4

18 (k-9) 10 1.200.000 12.0 71.5

19 1.350.000 13.5

20(k-10)

10 1.500.000 15.0 100 100

Jumlah 10.000.000 100

Contoh: Perhitungan Bilangan Gini II

G = 1 - ∑ Pi (Ii +Ii -1)

• k1 ….. 0.1 (0.015 + 0 ) • k2 ….. 0.1 (0.046 + 0.015) • k3 ….. 0.1 (0.09 + 0.046) • k4 ….. 0.1 (0.142 + 0.09)• k5 ….. 0.1 (0.2 + 0.142) • k6 ….. 0.1 (0.27 + 0.2 )• k7 ….. 0.1 (0.362 + 0.27) • k8 ….. 0.1 (0.491 + 0.362) • k9 ….. 0.1 (0.715 + 0.491) • K10.... 0.1 (1.0 + 0.715)

G = 1 - 0.5662 = 0.4338

Kemiskinan (Poverty)

• Poverty is “welfare level below a reasonable minimum.”

• Poverty has various dimensions– Income poverty– Security poverty– Education poverty– Health – Nutrition Poverty– Multiple deprivation

• Poor people’s perception of poverty level

Beragam Makna dari “Poverty”

The primary focus is on individuals or groups suffe ring from multiple deprivations

Core Poor

Education poor

Health Poor

Security Poor

Income Poor

KEMISKINAN

Ekonomi

• Pendapatan

Perkapita rendah

• Tingkat

pengangguran

tinggi

• Ketergantungan

pada sektor

pertanian yang

tinggi sehingga

produktivitas

tenaga kerja

rendah

• Persentase

penduduk miskin

tinggi

• Investasi Rendah

• Topografi

wilayah

• Kondisi

geografis

• Kurangnya

sarana &

prasarana

Struktural

• Klimatologi tdk

mnguntungkan

• SDA yang

belum dapat

digunakan

secara optimal

Situasional

• Tingkat

Pendidikan &

Kesehatan

masih Rendah

• Rasio Beban

Tanggungan

yang tinggi

• Adat kebiasaan

• Berpikir & cara

pandang

miskin

• Kepercayaan

tradisional

Sosial

• Jauh dan

sulitnya

akses dari

sumber

kekuasaan

• Kurangnya

Partisipasi &

budaya

politik

Politik

The Vicious Circle of Poverty

Investasi Rendah

Kekurangan Modal

Tabungan Rendah

Produktivitas Rendah

Pendapatan Rendah

Akibat kemiskinan

Akses terhadap program promotif & preventif rendahSehingga pengetahuan kesehatan terbatas (ignoransi )Selanjutnya (juga) melemahnya akses terhadap pelayanan kuratif dasar , akses terhadap obat esensial ,pelayanan kedaruratan , terutama bagi kelompok resiko tinggi (bumil, balita dll)Dan dampaknya terhadap kehidupan sosial ekonomik yang sehat dan produktif

Rizanda, 2005; Ekowati, 2005; Tan 2003

Kemiskinan

Menurunnya:

• kualitas hidup

• produktivitas

• kemampuan belajar

• tabungan

Meningkatnya hutang,

dll

Meningkatnya

• faktor resiko personal &

lingkungan

• malnutrisi

Menurunnya :

• akses ke pengetahuan &

informasi

• kemampuan

mengakses pelayanan

Kesakitan

Indikator Kemiskinan

• Terdapat beberapa indikator kemiskinan yang biasa digunakan, yaitu indikator:– Kemiskinan relatif

– Kemiskinan absolut– Kemiskinan kultural, dan

– Kemiskinan struktural

Kemiskinan Relatif

• Seseorang dikatakan berada dalam kelompok kemiskinan relatif, jika pendapatannya berada di bawah pendapatan di sekitarnya, atau dalam kelompok masyarakat tersebut, ia berada di lapisan paling bawah.

• Bisa jadi meskipun pendapatannya cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok, namun karena dibanding masyarakat di sekitarnya, pendapatannya dinilai rendah, ia termasuk miskin.

• Amerika Serikat menggunakan indikator kemiskinan semacam ini.

Characteristics of the very poor

• Children don't go to school• Lack of food• Poor shelter - many people in one

room• Unemployed• Lack of clothes to wear• Beggar/ must hunt food/ hand outs• Big families• Don't meet families basic needs• Deserted by husbands• No source of income/ no-one else to

help• Struggles for food and shelter, no

thought of luxuries• Children are dirty

• No opportunities to achieve anything • Uncertainty eg. food for tomorrow• Works for other village people• Polygamous families• No assets• Unmarried daughters with children• Bad health• Many children to support• Pensioner with very big responsibilities• Christmas is like any other day• Get food by ploughing• Children steal from others - especially

food

Group 1:The very poor

Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal

Characteristics of the poor

• Casual labourers - farm/domestic• Pensioner with big responsibilities• Buy some food daily; not good food• Can't satisfy their needs - money

doesn't last• Working but not earning enough• Have shelter - bit better than poorest• Poor clothes - but better than poorest• Problems sending children to school -

often don’t go beyond primary level• Small businesses

• Lot of credit• Don't have much; things only OK

when have job• Problems sending kids to school• Problems with emergencies• Lot of children to support• Deserted by husbands• Big families• Better house, but owner died/

redundant - so conditions have gone down

• Better clothes than the poorest• Better shelter - especially during

the rains

Group 2: Very poor, but a bit better than the poorest

Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal

Characteristics of the poor

Group 3: Poor

• Dreams of luxury• Can buy basic food and other

basic needs• Have businesses• Pensioner with little

responsibilities• Employed, but low salaries• Children go to school and have

uniforms, but can’t afford tertiary education

• Manage to support families• Employed, but low income• Poor income, but little

responsibilities• Better housing• Fewer children to support• Some clothes

Group 4: People who are not poor; better off; rich

• Professionals / Government workers• Have cars• Run businesses• Better housing• Good jobs/ secure jobs• Herds of cattle• Good food• Afford luxuries/ don't lack money• Good clothes• Can afford to educate to tertiary level• Hire other people for their business/ at

home• Everyone has a bed• Look after families with no hardships• Children go to better schools• Shop owners• Well off with little responsibilities• Taxi owners

Source: Small Enterprise Foundation/SEF & Univ of Natal

Kemiskinan Absolut

• Dilihat dari kemampuan pendapatan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok (sandang, pangan, pemukiman, pendidikan dan kesehatan).

• Jika pendapatan seseorang di bawah pendapatan minimal untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pokok, maka ia disebut miskin.

• Indonesia menggunakan indikator kemiskinan jenis ini.

Kemiskinan Kultural

• Dikaitkan dengan budaya masyarakat yang “menerima” kemiskinan yang terjadi pada dirinya, bahkan tidak merespons usaha-usaha pihak lain yang membantunya keluar dari kemiskinan tersebut.

Kemiskinan Struktural

• Kemiskinan yang disebabkan struktur dan sistem ekonomi yang timpang dan tidak berpihak pada si miskin, sehingga memunculkan masalah-masalah struktural ekonomi yang makin meminggirkan peranan orang miskin.

Starvation Line

• The present poverty line is a conveniently low threshold based largely on only caloric norms.

• In fact, it should be called the starvation line.

• It does not factor in norms for nutrition, health, clothing, housing, education etc.

• Even worse is that the Planning Commission recognizes this shortcoming and yet doesn’t do anything about it.

“starvation line” calculated:• The present line is based on the norm that the

average person :– In Indonesia 2100 kkal per capita per day– in urban India should consume 2400 calories a day

and a person from rural India should consume 2100 calories a day.

• The minimum cost of obtaining such nutrition was calculated when this line was formed:– Sajogyo : in rural 240 kg rice per capita a year, and in

urban 360 kg beras per capita a year in 1973– In India about 650 grams of grains in 1979

• All those who spent less than this amount on food were considered poor.

• Since then, this amount was periodically updated based on inflation.

Garis Kemiskinan ( Poverty Line)

• Garis yang membagi/menjadi batas penduduk miskin dan tidak miskin

• Gais kemiskinan: standar hidup minimum yang sesuai kondisi masyarakat

• Didasarkan pada 2 konsep,yaitu:

- Konsep Standar hidup

- Tingkat minimum yang cocok/dapat diterima (minimum acceptable level)

Indeks yang digunakan

• Indeks ganda (a multiple Index approach):

~ Didasarkan pada pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar yang berbeda-beda.

• Indeks tunggal (Head Count Index) :

~ Didasarkan pada perkiraan nilai pendapatan (nilai uang) yang didasarkan 2 pendekatan:

0 Menentukan keranjang barang-barang pokok yang terdiri dari makanan dan bukan makanan yang kemudian dihitung uang yang diperlukan untuk membelinya berdasarkan harga yang berlaku

0 Menentukan garis kemiskinan langsung berdasarkan kebutuhan makanan

Aksioma yang Harus dipenuhi oleh “poverty line”

Axiom 1: If a person A enjoys a higher standard of living than person B,then the real poverty line for person A cannot be higher than that of person B.

Axiom 2: The poverty line should be proportional to individual needs.

Axiom 3: If two persons A and B have the same needs and face the same prices, then person A should have higher poverty line than person B because person A has more expensive tastes than person B.

Axiom 4: A person on poverty line in period t, denoted by zt should have exactly the same standard of living as the person on the poverty line in period t’, denoted by zt’

Poverty Lines and Poverty Measurement

• Two Issues in Generating Poverty Estimates– Fixing a poverty line: Identification

– Measuring poverty: Aggregation

Read Sources: Suresh Babu,International Food Policy Research Institute

Methods of Fixing Poverty Lines

• Cost-of-basic-needs method (Food-share method)– Cost of basic food needs– Cost of basic non-food needs

• Food-energy method– Expenditure level that meets the food energy

requirement– Based on calorie-income relationships– Fitting and tracing calorie-expenditure graph

Cost-of-Basic-Needs Method

Total Poverty Line = Z

Z=ZF + ZN

ZF = Food Poverty LineZN=Non-food Poverty Line

How to calculate the Food Poverty Line

1. Calculate average household (HH) size2. Find minimum requirement of daily per-capita calories for

WHO3. Find the typical food bundle of the relative poor HH4. Calculate the calories of this food bundle

5. Determine the cost of this food bundle

WHO’s average minimumZF = calorie requirement

calories in average food bundle for relatively poor HH

Cost of the average food bundle

*

How to Calculate the Non-food Poverty Line

1. Find typical Household (HH) on the food poverty line.2. Calculate the non-food expenditures of the HH.

xF = per capita expenditures on food XN = per capita expenditure on non-foodX = total per capita expenditure

ZN = E {XN|xF= ZF} for the poor(Non-food poverty line is the per capita non-food expenditure level when the per capita food expenditure level is equal to the food poverty line)

ZN = E {XN|x= ZF} for the ultra (extreme) poor(The non-food poverty line is given by the per capita non-food expenditure

when the total expenditure is equal to the food poverty line. The food poverty line in essence becomes the total poverty line for the ultra poor)

Z = ZF + ZN

Minimum daily caloric requirements by sector and genderUrban Rural

Age categories Male Female Male Female0 to 1 year 820 820 820 820>1 to 2 years 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,150>2 to 3 years 1,350 1,350 1,350 1,350>3 to 5 years 1,550 1,550 1,550 1,550>5 to 7 years 1,850 1,750 1,850 1,750>7 to 10 years 2,100 1,800 2,100 1,800>10 to 12 years 2,200 1,950 2,200 1,950>12 to 14 years 2,400 2,100 2,400 2,100>14 to 16 years 2,600 2,150 2,600 2,150>16 to 18 years 2,850 2,150 2,850 2,150>18 to 30 years 3,150 2,500 3,500 2,750>30 to 60 years 3,050 2,450 3,400 2,750>60 years 2,600 2,200 2,850 2,450

Source: Caloric requirements are from WHO (1985, Tables 42 to 49).Notes: Requirements used are for men weighing 70 kilograms and for women weighing 60 kilograms. Urban

individuals are assumed to need 1.8 times the basal metabolic rate (BMR), while rural individuals are assumed

to need 2.0 times the average BMR. Children under one year of age are assigned the average caloric need of

children either 3–6, 6–9, or 9–12 months old.

Poverty lines and spatial price indexes by region

Region

Food poverty

line

Reference poverty

line

Ultrapoverty

line

Relative priceindex

Metropolitan 50.18 129.19 75.36 1.000

Lower urban 45.94 101.72 67.52 0.787

Lower rural 44.29 85.38 64.71 0.661

Upper urban 45.19 67.51 0.785

Upper rural 40.36 53.37 0.641

101.36

82.81

Notes: Poverty lines are monthly, per capita figures in Egyptian pounds. The Metropolitan poverty line is used as abase line to create the relative price index, which is simply the ratio of each region's reference poverty line tothe base line.

Issues in the Poverty Line

• Does a poverty line exists?

• Can it be used & is it well accepted?• Are international standards for setting poverty

lines accepted in all countries?• Can we use the same poverty line throughout a

country?

• Can the nutritional basket underlying the poverty line be derived from surveys?

Measures of Poverty

• Incidence of Poverty: poverty rate– Use the headcount rate to calculate the poverty rate

of the % of population below the poverty line

• Depth of Poverty – how far a person is below the poverty line

• Poverty Gap – aggregation of depth of poverty• Poverty Severity – aggregation with weights

Head-count Index of Poverty • Proportion of population whose consumption

(y) is less than the poverty line ZY1, Y2,..…Z, ..…Yn

q

H =q/n

H = Head-count indexq = number of poorn = size of the population

Eg: if n=100; q=50 then H=0.5 or 50%

• Problems– Insensitive to the depth of poverty– H will not change when a poor persons welfare

changes if he/she remains below the poverty line

Example of the Head-count Index Calculation

Income of 4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4

Poverty Line Z = 3.0

H = q/n =3/4 = 0.75 or 75%

+ food energy method * BSS 1991 and BSS 1995 54

Year Sector BBS Graph* Fitting Method +

Ahmed et al. (1991)+

Ravallion & Sen (1994)

Rahman & Haque (1988)

Hossain & Sen (1992)

Sen & Islam (1993)

Muqtada (1986)

1973/1974

Rural

Urban

82.9

81.4 (5.6)

- - 65.3

62.5

71.3

n.a.

n.a.

63.2

55.9

37.8

1981/1982

Rural

Urban

73.8

66.0

71.8

65.3

- 79.1

50.7

65.3

n.a

n.a.

48.4

-

1983/1984

Rural

Urban

57.0

66.0

n.a.

n.a.

53.8

40.9

49.8

39.5

50.0

n.a.

n.a.

42.6

-

1985/1986

Rural

Urban

51.0

56.0

51.6

66.8

45.9

30.8

47.1

29.1

41.3

n.a.

n.a.

30.6

-

1988/1989

Rural

Urban

48.0

44.0

- 49.7

35.9

- 43.8

n.a.

n.a.

33.4

-

1991/1992

Rural

Urban

50.0

46.8

- 52.9

33.6

- - - -

Head-count of Absolute Poverty for Bangladesh

Poverty Gap Index (PGI)

• Aggregate short-fall of the poor relative to the poverty line Z

Y1, Y2,…, Yq; Yq ≤ ZPoorest Least poor

q

PG = 1/n Σ [(Z-Yi)/Z] = mean proportionatei=1 poverty gap across the

whole population (zero gap for the non=poor)

Example of Poverty Gap Calculation

Income of4 individuals in a sample: 1,2,3,4

Poverty line = Z = 3; n=4

PG = [(3-1)/3 + (3-2)/3]/4= [(2/3) + (1/3)]/4= [(3/3)/4]= ¼ or 0.25

Poverty gap index does not capture differences in severity of poverty.

Why?

Region A = (1,2,3,4)

Region B = (2,2,2,4)

Poverty line = Z = 3HA = 0.75 HB = 0.75PGA = 0.25 PGB = 0.25

Poverty gap will be unaffected by an income transfer from a poor person to another poor person who remains below the poverty line

Squared Poverty Gap Index (SPG)

• Mean of the squared proportionate poverty gap• Reflects severity of poverty• Sensitive to the distribution among the poor

q

SPG = 1/n Σ [(Z-Yi)/Z]2i=1

Eg: Region A = (1,2,3,4) Region B = (2,2,2,4) with Z=3SPGA = 0.14 SPGB = 0.08

Poverty in region A > Poverty in region B

Poverty AnalysisIncome/Consumption Poverty Profile

• Correlates poverty with:– Gender– Age– Residential location– Ethnic characteristics– Income source– Employment sources– Share of food/ non food consumption– Education outcomes– Malnutrition outcomes

Qualitative Analysis of Poverty

• Role of informal sector?• Social analysis of poverty?• Institutional analysis of poverty reducing

institutions• Intra-household distribution of resources

Use of Qualitative Methods

• Subjective meaning of poverty• Intra-household dimensions of poverty

• Poor people’s priorities for action• Social, political, and cultural factors, gender roles,

and traditional beliefs

• Participants help in designing household surveys• Assess the validity of HHS results at local level

Income or Consumption?

• Consumption reflects income as well as past savings, access to credit markets, and seasonal variation in income

• No records of income or seasonal fluctuations

• Large informal sectors• Consumption data helps in deriving the

poverty line

Measuring Income/ Consumption Poverty

• Household data availability – tools• Measurement of income poverty• Quantitative analysis tools• Qualitative analysis tools• Income poverty dynamics – tools

Data Needs for Poverty Analysis

• National level data– National accounts – GDP, consumption,

savings, investment, imports, exports, etc.– Ministry of Finance, Central Statistical Agency

– Budgets, price surveys, and data collection– Monthly, quarterly, and yearly

Data Needs for Poverty Analysis cont.

• Local level data– Consumer and producer prices, climatic data,

availability and use of markets and services

– CSA, local service providers, regional departments

– Price and market surveys

– Monthly, yearly

Data Needs for Poverty Analysis cont.

• Household – Individual level data– Household income, consumption,

employment, assets, production, demography, etc.

– CSA, sectoral ministries, NGOs, academics

– Household survey, rapid assessments, monitoring and evaluation

– Yearly, 2-3 years, every 5 years

Data Sources for Poverty Analysis

• Administrative data• Population Census• Household surveys• Qualitative and Participatory Assessments

– ethnographic, village studies, beneficiary assessments, etc.

Types of Household Surveys

• Single-topic surveys• Multi-topic surveys• Census data• Poverty monitoring surveys• Times series data• Panel data sets

Garis Kemiskinan BPS:

• Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) mengukur garis kemiskinan dengan pendekatan konsumsi sejalan dengan pendekatan Bank Dunia.

• Garis kemiskinan tersebut diukur dari kemampuan membeli bahan makanan ekuivalen dengan 2100 kkal per kapita per hari dan biaya untuk memperoleh kebutuhan minimal akan barang/jasa, pakaian, perumahan, kesehatan, transportasi, dan pendidikan.

Kriteria BPS (2007):1. Sangat miskin :

kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi setara atau kurang dari 1900 kalori per orang perhari dan pengeluaran Non Makanan atau senilai Rp120 000 per bulan.

2. Miskin :kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi antara 1900-2100 kalori perorang dan pengeluaran non makanan atau senilai Rp 150 000 perorang bulan.

3. Mendekati Miskin:kemampuan minimal untuk memenuhi konsumsi antara 2100-2300 kalori perorang perhari dan pengeluaran Non makanan atau senilai Rp 175 000 perorang bulan.

Garis Kemiskinan VV. Bhanoji Rao

• Rao menghitung garis kemiskinan dengan memperhitungkan kebutuhan kalori per hari minimum yang diperlukan seseorang untuk hidup layak sebagai dasar, kemudian diambah lagi dengan keperluan untuk kehidupan dasar yang sifatnya sosial, misalnya untuk pemeliharaan kesehatan, sekolah, dsb.

Indikator Kemiskinan Prof Sayoga

• Dibedakan antara daerah perkotaan dan pedesaan.

• Garis kemiskinan untuk pedesaan setara dengan 240 kg beras per kapita per tahun, sedangkan untuk perkotaan setara dengan 360 kg beras per kapita per tahun.

• Garis kemiskinan ditetapkan setelah survei di seluruh Indonesia pada 1973.

Pergeseran Pengertian Kemiskinan

• Pergerseran pengertian kemiskinan dengan tidak melihat aspek pendapatan dan konsumsi saja, tetapi juga melihat masalah ketergantungan, harga diri, kontinuitas pendapatan dsb.

SMERU

• Mengartikan kemiskinan dengan melihat berbagai dimensi:– Ketidakmampuan memenuhi kebutuhan konsumsi

dasar (sandang, pangan, papan);– Tidak adanya akses terhadap kebutuhan hidup dasar

lainnya (kesehatan, pendidikan, sanitasi, air bersih, dan transportasi)

– Tidak adanya jaminan masa depan (karena tidak adanya investasi untuk pendidikan dan keluarga)

– Kerentanan terhadap goncangan yang bersifat individual maupun massal.

SMERU-lanj.

– Rendahnya kualitas sumber daya manusia dan keterbatasan sumber daya alam;

– Tidak dilibatkan dalam kegiatan sosial masyarakat;– Tidak adanya akses terhadap lapangan kerja dan

mata pencaharian yang berkesinambungan;– Ketidakmampuan berusaha karena cacat fisik

maupun mental;– Ketidakmampuan dan ketidakberuntungan sosial

(anak-anak terlantar, wanita korban kekerasan rumah tangga, janda miskin, kelompok marjinal dan terpencil)

Bank Dunia:

o Miskin (absolut) jika pendapatan kurang dari 1 $ per day -- dijadikan acuan BPS

o Miskin (relatif) jika pendapatan kurang dari 2 $ per day -- dijadikan acuan World Bank

Kemiskinan Indonesia

• Masalah kemiskinan memang telah lama ada sejak dahulu kala.

• Pada masa lalu umumnya masyarakat menjadi miskin bukan karena kurang pangan, tetapi miskin dalam bentuk minimnya kemudahan atau materi.

• Belum ada kesepakatan yang mantap dan general antar negara dalam mendefinisikan kemiskinan (e.g : Bank Dunia dengan PPP US $ 2/hari, Indonesia dengan US$ 1/hari)

Gambaran Perubahan

• Tingkat kemiskinan mutlak menurun drastis dalam dua dasawarsa sebelum krisis ekonomi 1997;– Jumlah penduduk miskin pada 1976 mencapai 54,2

juta jiwa (40,1 %), – menurun menjadi 40,6 juta jiwa (26,9 %) pada tahun

1981, – 35 juta jiwa (21,64 %) pada tahun 1984, – 27,2 juta jiwa (15,1 %) pada tahun 1990, dan – 22,5 juta jiwa (11,3) pada 1996.

Angka Kemiskinan Indonesia

Persebaran Penduduk Miskin (2004)

�Near poor :

• Kelompok nyaris miskin

• Rata-rata pengeluaran lebih 20 % dari garis kemiskinan

�Transient poverty :

• Rentan Miskin /kemiskinan sementara

• Kelompok near poor mudah masuk dan keluar dlm perangkap kemiskinan ini dlm waktu singkat

• Suatu kenaikan besar jumlah penduduk miskin sebagai dampak suatu fluktuasi yang cepat dan mendadak pd harga kebt pokok dan pendapatan

• Mengatasi relatif mudah, al: Stabilisasi harga komoditas dasar

Near Poor & Trasient Poverty

Transient Poverty

• Lebih di kenal nyaris miskin (based on tingkat pendapatan)

• Hampir 42 persen dari seluruh rakyat Indonesia hidup di antara garis kemiskinan AS$1- dan AS$2-per hari

• hasil survei Bank Dunia tahun 2004 menunjukkan hanya 16,7 persen penduduk Indonesia yang tergolong miskin, lebih dari 59 persen dari mereka pernah jatuh miskindalam periode satu tahun sebelum survei dilaksanakan.

• Data terakhir juga mengindikasikan tingkat pergerakantinggi (masuk dan keluar) kemiskinan selama periode tersebut, lebih dari 38 persen rumah tangga miskin pada tahun2004 tidak miskin pada tahun 2003.

29,30%29,30%

52,32%52,32%

21,21%21,21%

43,86%43,86%

7,86%7,86%

20,76%20,76%

9,29%9,29%

27,89%27,89%

Noon PoorNoon Poor PoorPoor

Household without access to safe waterHousehold without access to safe water

Household without access to sanitationHousehold without access to sanitation

Household with children aged 12Household with children aged 12--15 not 15 not enolled in junior high schoolenolled in junior high school

Household with birth attended by Household with birth attended by traditional paramedicstraditional paramedics

0,00%0,00% 10,00%10,00% 20,00%20,00% 30,00%30,00% 40,00%40,00% 50,00%50,00% 60,00%60,00%

Source: SUSENAS 2002, BPSSource: SUSENAS 2002, BPS

Potret Kesenjangan Wilayah

• Kesenjangan KBI-KTI, Jawa-Luar Jawa, antara kota metropolitan-kota besar-kota menengah dan kecil, perkotaan-perdesaan

• Akar kesenjangan: – perbedaan potensi sumber daya alam, – letak geografis, – budaya– kebijakan pembangunan � orientasi

pembangunan

Poverty and Inequality 1978Poverty and Inequality 1978 --20042004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1978 1980 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2003 2004

Year

Per

cent

0

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

0,3

0,35

0,4

Inde

x G

ini

Poverty Gini Ratio

Income Distribution (Lower Middle, and Low Income)

$0

$500

$1,000

$1,500

$2,000

$2,500

$3,000

15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0

Gini Coefficient (0 = equitable, 100 = inequitable)

Per

-cap

ita T

rade

(U

S$)

Thailand

Lithuania

Fiji

Ukraine

Source: International Financial Statistics, International Monetary Fund, December 2001, and Measuring Income Inequality: A New Database, Deininger, Klaus, and Lyn Squire, World Bank, 2002

Ciri Kemiskinan Indonesia

• Lebih Banyak Penduduk yang rentan terhadap kemiskinan (US$1-2/hari)

• Kemiskinan pendapatan vs kemiskinan non-pendapatan (gizi, kesehatan, pendidikan, akses air bersih,dll)

• Kesenjangan antar wilayah (kota-desa, jawa-luar jawa, KTI-KBI)

Sebab-sebab Struktural Kemiskinan di Indonesia

• Ketidakmampuan mengelola sumber daya alam secara maksimal;

• Kebijakan ekonomi yang tidak berkomitmen terhadap penanggulangan kemiskinan dan semata-mata mengejar pertumbuhan ekonomi(trickle down effect tidak bekerja)– Kesalahan mendasar dalam asumsi perekonomian

Indonesia adalah pengangguran dan kemiskinan hanya mungkin diatasi jika ekonomi tumbuh minimal (misalnya) 6,5 %.

– Asumsi demikian salah, karena:• Yang dapat mengatasi pengangguran dan

kemiskinan adalah pertumbuhan ekonomi yang melibatkan kegiatan ekonomi rakyat yang pelakunya adalah masyarakat miskin.

• Pengangguran dan kemiskinan adalah dua hal berbeda. Orang yang menganggur belum tentu miskin.

– Ilustrasi: 1 % pertumbuhan diasumsikan mampu menampung 200.000-400.000 tenaga kerja baru, maka pertumbuhan 6.5 % hanya mampu mempekerjakan 1,3 juta-2,6 juta tenaga kerja dan tidak ada jaminan bagi penduduk miskin yang mencapai puluhan juta jiwa.

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan

• Masa Kolonial: ‘politik etis’ balas budi.• Masa Orde Baru: terkait dengan program pembangunan

nasional sejak Repelita I-V. Program sektoral yang pernah dilaksanakan: – BIMAS, INMAS, dan P4K (Departemen Pertanian), – UPPKS (BKKBN), – KUD dan Koperasi Simpan Pinjam (Departemen Koperasi), – UED-SP, BKD dan PKK (Departemen Dalam Negeri), – KUBE (Departemen Sosial) – Wajar 9 tahun (Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan) dan – pengembangan Puskesmas (Departemen Kesehatan)

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj.

• Mulai Repelita VI diluncurkan Inpres Desa Tertinggal (IDT), yang meliputi:

– Komponen bantuan langsung sebesar Rp 20 juta/desa sebagai dana bergulir selama 3 tahun;

– Bantuan pendampingan pokmas IDT oleh tenaga pendamping Sarjana Pendamping Purna Waktu (SP2W);

– Bantuan pembangunan sarana/prasarana• Untuk masyarakat miskin di kelurahan tidak

‘tertinggal’ diluncurkan program Takesra/Kukesra.

Kebijakan Pemerintah untuk Menanggulangi Kemiskinan-lanj.

• Ketika terjadi krisis ekonomi, jumlah penduduk miskin meningkat tajam karena merupakan gabungan dari penduduk miskin lama dan penduduk baru yang bersifat sementara (transient poverty).– Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, dikeluarkan program

Jaring Pengaman Sosial (JPS), yang dibagi dalam empat kelompok program, yaitu JPS Departemen teknis, JPS prioritas, JPS sektor-sektor pembangunan dan JPS monitoring

Beberapa Kelemahan dalam Program Penanggulangan Kemiskinan

1) Masih berorientasi pada pertumbuhan ekonomi makro daripada pemerataan;

2) Sentralisasi kebijakan daripada desentralisasi;3) Lebih bersifat karitatif daripada transformatif;4) Memposisikan masyarakat sebagai objek dan bukan

subjek;5) Cara pandang tentang penanggulangan kemiskinan

masih berorientasi pada ‘charity’ daripada ‘productivity’;

6) Asusmsi permasalahan dan solusi kemiskinan sering dipandang sama daripada pluralistis.