Gamer's Guide to Diplomacy

8/12/2019 Gamer's Guide to Diplomacy

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THE AVALON HILL G M COMPANY Baltimore Maryland Printed in US


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LE OF CONTENTSBiographical NoteA Note on AbbreviationsDedication

I INTRODUCTION Page 3The Development of DIPLOMACYThe Nature of DIPLOMACYObjectives in DIPLOMACYWhen and How?Country SelectionGood DIPLOMACY

II. ELEMENTS OF THE GAME Page 5Element I-CommunicationsElement 2-Alliance and TreacheryElement 3-Aggression and DefenseElement 4-CheatingElement 5-StalematesElement 6 The Small TimeElement 7 The Convoyed AttackElement 8-Some Other Little Tricks of the TradeIII. PLAYING THE GAME (The Strategy Tactics of DIPLOMACY) Page 1I. The DIPLOMACY Board

2 The Strategy of Position3 Stages of the Game4 Basic Style5 The Great Powers6. Playing Austr ia7 Playing England8 Playing France9 Playing Germany

1 Playing ItalyII . Playing Russia12 Playing Turkey12a. Playing Possum13 A Little Guide to Terminology14 Statistics on the Constellation of Powers15 The Geopolitics of DIPLOMACYIV. A SAMPLE GAME Page 22

V POSTAL DIPLOMACy Page 28I Origins2 How the Posta l Hobby Works3 A Word of Caution4 Replacements5 Hobby Institutions6 Rating Systems7 DIPLOMACY WORLD8 Conventions9 Communication in Postal Play .

VI. DIPLOMACY VARIANTS Page 31958 DIPLOMACYNapoleonic DIPLOMACYBid DIPLOMACYTh e Great WarTwin-Earths DIPLOMACY

VII. CLUBS AND TOURNAMENTS Page 32Part I-ClubsPart 2 TournamentsPart 3-Publishing a Club Bulletin

VIII. QUESTIONS ANSWERS Page 34

Author: Rod WalkerEditing and Layout: C Milligan

Biographical oteThe author has played DIPLOMACYsince 1961 and has been involved in postal

DIPLOMACY since 1966. From 1966 to1976 he published a postal DIPLOMACYpublication, EREHWON, as well as severalother titles. In all, he has edited andpublished more than 600 items relat ing toDIPLOMACY. In addition, his art icles onthe game have been widely printed in otherpublications. He was Boardman NumberCustodian from 1969 to 1972, while a t thesame time under taking several other projects. During 1970-1971 he was a member ofthe ad hoc committee which assisted inrewriting the Rulebook. From 196 8 to 1971he wrote a regular column on DIPLOMACY for the professional wargaming journalStrategy Tactics He is presently co-editorof Diplomacy WorldMr. Walker holds degrees in both historyand political science. He has specialized inthe foreign relations and diplomatic historyof the United States and the Soviet Union.He currently resides in southern Californiawith his dogs and his cat. He helps manage aboarding kennel, works for the County ofSan Diego, and is a free-lance writerspecializing in fantasy and science fiction.His work has appeared in the pages ofGalaxy The Augustan and The AmericanGenealogist He also teaches creative writing. When asked if he has time to playDIPLOMACY these days, he just laughs.Hysterically.

A Note on AbbreviationsIn order to conserve space, themovementorders shown in examples, stalemate posi

tions, and the samplegamewill use abbreviations for all spaces. The three-letter abbreviations specified in the Rulebook (Rule VII.7)will be used. In addition, the following(frequently used in postal play) will be usedto avoid any possible confusion:Bot - Gulf of Bothniayo - Gulf of LyonTrl - TyroliaTyn - Tyrrhenian Seapl - Liverpoolvn - Livonia

DEDICATION( we cannot dedicate . . . )[A. Lincoln]

Notwithstanding, this work is dedicatedto three great DIPLOMACY players, primemovers in DIPLOMACY fandom, and goodfriends:Allan Calhamer, who has never stabbedme. We have never played in the samegame.Wal ter Buchanan, who has stabbed meonly three times. We have played in onegame.Conrad von Metzke, who has stabbed me1289 times in 206 games


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. . Allan B Calhamer, 1974Bringing a game of DIPLOMACY to this sort

of peak, get ting the most enjoyment out of it,demands that it be played well. That' s not easyDIPLOMACY is full of subtleties and nuances. . . in strategy, in tactics, in negotiations, and inthe many relationships that will exist between theplayers. This Guide is intended to help sort manyof these out. Because there are even legal ways tocheat at DIPLOMACY, we'll suggest some of themethods for doing that, too. We have tried, withinthe limits of available space, to cover al l of themost important aspects of this classic game.The first section will be a sor t of overview ofDIPLOMACY. Strategy and tactics will come

It's called DIPLOMACY, but excitement ise name of the game. The movement and strugglemilitary action are combined with elements of, intrigue, and treachery. The result ame which is virtually unique: your skill as ais equally on the lme with your skillsnegotiation and deception. The challenge thusis endlessly fascinating: it is war, yes; butis also political policy, apphed economiCS, andical psychology; it is DIPLOMACY.A well-played DIPLOMACY game can besuspenseful. Will your diplomacy succeed mersuading others? If so, will the militarympaign succeed in its objective? Will yourmies believe your lies? How Will your alliesep their agreements? Everything depends on theinions and actions of other players not onie rolls, probability tables, or the vaganes of

DIPLOMACY is much less a mechanisticame and far more an intensely human one.There is high drama in DIPLOMACY asayers combine and recombine into new allianceterns, each seeking both to wm and to prevents from winning. EXCitement mtense as therviving players form a last-ditch combination totop the frontrunner. The game's inventorscribes such a moment:Cooperation must be created amongplayers who have been fighting one

another and who have set their hearts ono ther dbjectives; they must admit thatgoals they have pursued all game long,which are now within their grasp, haveJustlost their value, and may even be destructive. Frequently they are out of position forthe new encounter , better posi tioned tofight each other. They must form a linetogether, exposing their territories to eachother. This is not the cooperatIOn of bemgmerely assigned to the same team. This isVerdun.

INTRO U TION

next. After that, we'll move on to other aspects ofDIPLOMACY: playing by mail, variants, and theRules.The evelopment ofDIPLOM CY

Europe before World War I was a kaleidoscope of international intrigue. The Great Powersattempted to manipulate each other, usmg deceitand t reachery as their main weapons. Militaryforce was used (usually) with caution. Theoutbreak of World War I may rightly be blamednot so much on the diplomatic situation as on thefailure of diplomacy.In 1953 Allan Calhamer, inspired by booksand courses on European diplomacy, set about todesign a game which would reproduce that kind ofsituation in its original setting. It would bea gamewhich no player could hope to win without alliesan d enemies. There would also be this paradox:the more effectively all the players tried to win, themore difficult victory would be for any of them.The most perfect game of DIPLOMACY is one inwhich there is no s ta lemate and yet nobody canwin (see Sections II and III).After five years of development and playtesting, the first commercial version of DIPLOMACY appeared (1958). This game differs in manyways from the one we now have. There were morespaces and several different rules. Later m thisGuide the original version of DIPLOMACY Willbe reproduced (see Section VI). .A revised version appeared in 1959, and thiSwas essentially the same game played today. It wasrevised slightly in 1966 to provide a pair ofexamples and change the rules for five and sixplayers. . .By 1970 it was clear that several ambigUities mthe Rulebook needed clarification. Mr. Calhamerdecided to produce a complete revision. He wasassisted by an ad hoc committee of postal players(see Section V on pos ta l play). The revised anddefinitive Rulebook appeared in 1971. It actuallychanged very little, but was much more specific onunclear points. The victory criterion was alteredfrom a majority of the pieces on the board to 18supply centers.The Nature o f DIPLOM CY

DIPLOMACY is a game of intense competition. It is not a nice game that is it is a gamewhere some vices become virtues. In real life wedon t lie to our friends, nor betraytrust, nor attackwithout warning. Wedo in DIPLOMACY. Often.The First Commandment in DIPLOMACY is,Thou shalt covet they neighbor's supply centers.A player must always remember thatDIPLOMACY is only a game. He should realizethat the friend who stabs him in the back and ripsoffthree supply centers is not a terrible person: heisjust playing DIPLOMACY. And he is playing itvery well.

DIPLOMACY demands maturity: the abilityto distinguish between a game and reality. Appealsto friendship and past favors have no relevance tothe game. Neither do displays of bad temper.

Believe it or not, such things do happen in games;when they do they tend to spoil the experience foreveryone else.DIPLOMACY is not a game for everybody. Ifyou find that you'remade uptight by what goes on,try some other game.DIPLOMACY offers a great challenge to thewargamer. It dispenses with the clutter of dozens

of different units and a vast playing area. It offersthe player an oppor tuni ty to test his ability tothink in terms of grand strategy-and it presentsfascinating tactical problems. In addition, aplayer's ability to persuade others is mostimportant. People who do really well atDIPLOMACY could probably sell sand to theArabs.

DIPLOMACY is today a best seller. Its ruleshave been translated into several languages,including French, German, Italian, and Portuguese. I t is widely dist ributed in Canada, theUnited States, the United Kingdom, WesternEurope, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere.Because of DIPLOMACY s unique quahtlesas a game, it is widely and frequently played bymail. A large community of active DIPLOMACYfans has grown up, centere around the postalhobby. Annual DIPLOMACY conventions havebeen held since 1968, and a number of hobbygroups exist. More details on all this may be foundin Section V.Without question DIPLOMACY is one oftheworld's most popular adult board games. Eachyear more copies of the game have been sold thanthe year before. Fans of the game are dedicatedand vocal in fact, since 1963 DIPLOMACYhas generated several linear yards of printedmaterial (probably more than any other boardgame except chess).This game, which has appealed so strongly toso many people, deserves a closer look. We'll takeexactly that in the pages that follow.Objectives in DIPLOM CY

Everyone plays games to have fun. There aresome people who need to win to be amused , andDIPLOMACY is not a game for such persons.With seven players, anyone of them has a chanceof winning of about 14%. Not good odds for avictorioholic.There are other objectives and relatedplaying styles. These more realistically reflect thepotentials of the game.

Win or Draw. A player can seek either towin or, at least, to deny victory to any other player.This demands an aggressive playing style, cunning, guile, and cold calcula tion. The m n ~ lobjective is reaching a stalemate line (see SectIOnII on stalemates).This objective can be sought with or without astrong ally (see 2 below), but players of thisschool are seldom steadfast in alliance. Morelikely the playing style favors alliances which areonly temporary and for very specific goals. Eachalliance is broken (usually with a stab) when It no longer of use.This is a powerful playing style when used by a

WILL Till: R i L WI.OMACYPL Y R PL s SIAM uP ?

Credit: WIL D N WOOLY#50, 16 April 1966.


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ery good and ruthless player. One who has theof playing this way will, however, findlies hard to get. he frequently becomes the early

of his neighbors. The reader is referred toghastly fate of the French player in the sample

2. Strong Second. A player can seek either toor finish no worse than second place. Hislosophical commitment is slightly differentn that of #1. He is willing to see somebodyelsein and is not strongly in favor of a drawn game.

is usually steadfast in alliance at least one ofThe best playing style for this objective is tond a strong ally. Pick one other player and makecomprehensive, game-long pact with him. Theof the pact is to eliminate all opposition, theo allies operating as a team. Once this ishieved, one goes on t o win, the o ther t akingcond. Who does which may be decided by atanic last battle, an advance agreement, flip of aor some othermethod. Theallies may wish toree to a draw. See Sect ion IVThis is an effective style. Players who favor itually seek each other as allies. Unfortunately,is style also makes for dull games when two oree such alliances appear at the same time.

3. Balance of Power. A player can seek toevent from winning (victory for himself wouldonly a secondary goal). The philosophy of thisof player is neither the grow fast of 1 nore strong alliance of#2. He is concerned that noayer, no alliance, will become strong enough toiminate any of the others particularlyof course.His style of play is to preserve the game's the Balance of Power.Hewill ally withe weaker side in every struggle. He will useplomacy to redress the balance where his unitsn't intervene. He may try to pick up enoughose centers each time hechanges sides in order ton himself. Usually, however, his own diplomacy

ill alert his neighbors to the dangers of size they'll turn on him, too, if he gets too large. Ofrse, it is his hope that they won't notice.For such a player, the stalemate line is a last

the game stalemates, it's effectively over.is goa l is t o keep it going by preserving theof the situation.This is the ideal playing style forConcentrating on the game as aole, rather than merely on winning it, willoduce this result. The game will then be full ofess variety, of twists and turns, and no victory.the other hand, it may then also go on forever.

4 What the Heck? This is the ult imateach to DIPLOMACY as a game. Simply failtake it seriously. It's onlya game, so why nottryange new strategies, weird new alliances, kinkyctics? This adds a wonderful element of pure

and hence pure fun, to the game.objective is to be absolutely unpredictable.players of the other three types will hate your it.(In one fascinating game, three players of thispe drew England, France, and Germany. Theymed a Triple Alliance the FEG Alliance ise jargon term for it. (On the other sideone oftennds the RATs, with poor Italy in the middle.) Inis arrangement, England was to attack Austria,ance was to attack Russia, and Germany was totack Turkey. The resulting tangle was and a seven-way drawand How?

DIPLOMACY is not really a casual game.re than two people are required to play it, so's not the sort of game which can be dragged out

when a few friends are over, on the spur of themoment. The game is most enjoyable when it isplanned out in advance. A little attention to detailwill make things much more fun.The physical setting is important. Thereshould beplenty of places several small rooms orcorners of a large one where the players can getoff by themselves to negotiate. There should be alarge table (for the playing board) and plenty ofchairs . A lot of paper will be necessary (3 x 5pads are best). Munchiesare almostindispensable.If possible, two playing sets should beavailable. Then there will be enough units of eachcolor. own three sets of pieces myself, so I'mnever caught short). It is also a good idea to haveplenty of conference maps on hand. Put them inplast ic sheet protectors and provide chinamarkers. The maps can then be used again andagain.Getting enough people for a full game is notalways easy but it is vital. DIPLOMACYcanbeplayed with fewer than seven persons, but thegame is never quite as satisfactory. Even the bestsuch game, for 5 players, has serious problems ofbalance and playability (see Section VI). an eighth person is available, a Gamesmaster(GM) will make the game run more smoothly. Hecollects and reads all orders, interprets the

Rulebook, and keeps time limits. He shouldenforce the rule against negoti ations beforeretreats and adjustments. He should be fair, firm,and impartial.Allow plenty of time for a game. Five to sixhours are about the minimum. Your group couldplay over an entire weekend, a day, o r on a verylong evening, or over two to three shorterconsecutive evenings.One way to provideenough time is to take eachseason's orders less frequently once a day, forinstance. you have a group of players at school

or work, you may be able to play during yourlunch hour. During that time players would beable to negotiate. At the end of the hour theseason's orders would be turned in and ad-judicated. (An hour would also be plenty of timefor a whole game-year, if the group wished tocomplete the game more rapidly.)Another method of play is by mail. See Section VCountry Selection

The Rulebook provides that the players areassigned their countries by lot. The usual methodis to place one army of each Great Power in a box(or hat or whatever) and have the players eachselect one without looking.

0 course DIPLOMACY s only a game I saidto him. Then I showed him the mortgage Jhold onhis house just so he wouldn t orget ourdeal. Credit: Adapted fromsTab #34, 12 July 1967

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The result of this method is oft en tha teverybody gets what he didn' t want. (Allowingthem to exchange countries is not a good idea).There is an alternative: the preference list.Each player writes out a list of the GreatPowers in the order of his preference, from mosttoleast. The first initial of each can be used (A E F GI R T). The lists are then compared. Unique firstchoices are automatically given. Ties are decidedby coin toss or lot . Those still without a countryare given their second choices if available,repeating the process used for first choices. Thisgoes on unt il all Great Powers a re assigned.Somebody may occasionally get his last choice,but chances are he'd have drawn something hedidn't like out of a hat, too.Here is a sample set of lists:Player I A E F R G T I2 EFTRIG3 TREFGI4 FERTI G5 EFGR IT

TI REFG7 ERTGFIPlayers I and 4 are Austria and France.Assume by coin toss, players 3 and 7 will beTurkey and England. we eliminate the assignedcountries and players, the remaining lists (readingfrom 2nd place) appear this way:Player 2 X X RIG X5 XGRXIX

IXRXXGPlayer 6 will be Italy. Reading down to thirdchoices, player 5 will be Germany. That leavesRussia for player 2 Using this system, none ofthese players has received anything worse than hisfourth choice.Good DIPLOMACY

Anyone who has played the game for a whilewill be anxious to offer advice on how to playagood game. Advice is usually worth about whatyou paid for it, so it 's always a good idea to lookthe gratis kind in the mouth. Most people whowant to tell you how to play DIPLOMACYhave some sort of axe to grind. So you may as wellhave mine.The ideal DIPLOMACY game, according toitsdesigner, is onein which the Balance of Power ispreserved. Whenever any player gets too large, hisneighbors combine to cut him down. He in turnjoins in the alliance to bring down the nextleader and so on and on. An actua l game ofDIPLOMACY seldom meets that ideal.A good DIPLOMACY game is somethingquite different.It is a game inwhichall the playersenjoy themselves. Much o f t ha t has to do withwhere and how the game is set up.

Attitude will have a strong effect on fun. Thosewho worry t oo much about winning, or aboutplaying the right way, or about being a goodplayer, will interfere with their own enjoyment ofthe gaming experience. Taking the game tooseriously is a heavy mistake.On the other hand, there are strong players andweak ones. Players will make wise and foolishdecisions. Strong play and wise decisions arealways preferable. Regardless of playing style, thecompetition is always keener, more exciting, morefun, i f it is strong.An experienced player will know much more

about the game than can be covered in these fewpages. Even so, he will hopefully find a few thingshe hasn't thought of before. Our intention here isnot to tell the reader everything. We want togiveafew ideas about playing the game strongly andmaking wise decisions.The next three sections will be devoted to thataim. Section II discusses various elements of play:


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game in a general sense. Section III deals withGreat Powers, collectively and individually:game in a more specific sense. Section IV is aple game which illustrates many of the pointse earlier: a specific game experience.

II L M NTSOFTHE GAME

Each of the Great Powers has differenttentials and demands a different playing styleSection III). DIPLOMACY as a whole hasny elements, however, which remain the sameom game to game, posit ion to posit ion.DIPLOMACY may appear t o be a militaryme, but in many ways it is not. A grasp of tacticsill come with playing the game. For strategy, seenext section-but the player will rapidly pickthat concept as well. More important thanis a sense of style-your own and tha t of

hers. A conscious control and use of style willeld far better results than any amount of tacticalstrategic planning.l Communication

The name of the game is DIPLOMACY t World War I . Seeing the map and readinge Rulebook, the player may become overlyncerned with the military aspects of the game.real game of DIPLOMACY is played mostlyng the negotiation periods. The key to victorycommunication.Many players make one or more of thesestakes in communicating:l They negotiate only with close neighbors,

or2 Only with allies (and maybe neutrals), or3 Less as the game progresses.tricting negotiation is always a mistake.oach every situation and every player with anen mouth. Open ears, too.A player's nearest neighbors are of course ofe greatest interest to him. But he can't ignore the

What Turkey does may be vital toland, for instance; there is no part of the boardis so far away it can be ignored. Every effortould be made to talk with all the other players .y to influence their policies and actions.Distant players become near neighbors later ine game. As these shifts of position occur, so doiances. A climate offriendly o ~ e r n early in theame may lead to an alliance later, when it'seeded. The game is too unpredictable-don trlook any possibility, no matter how unlikely.t is a huge mistake to stop negotiating withemies. It frequently happens that two powersighting each other one season may form aofitable alliance the next. But they can't do thatthey stop speaking to each other . This is true

of the outcome of their struggle. Thus:l The enemy is losing. Offering him anliance may allow the use of units and supplynters which might otherwise have to be sharedith a th ird party. Junior partners are always a

elcome addit ion to a growing empire. Even ificy demands an enemy's destruction, offers ofrvival may cause him to misplay or lessen hisat a key point . This sor t of deception,hile rife with spiffli tude, can't be repeated too

2. The enemy is winning. He should be madeoffers which, hopefully, he can't refuse. No seasonshould pass without concrete attempts to surrender (and survive). Even if he appears totallyunmoved, he may be worn down by continuousverbal pressure. Show him, some way, that hestands to profit more from your continuedexistence than your destruction.3. The battle is even. The two sides could buttheads forever at that rate. An all iance againstanother power makes sense. Otherwise somebodyelse may get strong enough to stomp both of youto fudge.The later game requires somewhat lessnegotiating in the sense that there are fewerplayers. But the survivors must do more witheachother. There are allies t o reassure, neutrals tocajole, enemies to convert. Details of strategy andtactics are more and more the subject of jointact ion and often need to be carefully worked out.There will be times when fifteen minutes willnot be enough. But it's all you've got, so makeevery second count. In DIPLOMACY thesuccessful player never stops talking.Well, not exactly. The successful player alsolistens. He will hear much that will help him: goodideas from others, slips of the tongue, and so on.The careful listener is always rewarded.

Element 2Alliance and TreacheryLoyalty is often a virtue, even in DIPLOMACY. So is deceit-and out-and-out backstabbing.Every player' s style should be some judic iouscombination of these elements. Deciding whomto trust , as the Rulebook states, is part of thegame.In the opening negotiations, there is nothingwrong in promising everyoneeverythingjust short

of the moon. One or two of them will receive thebusiness end of your knife, but that' s par t of thegame. Winning at DIPLOMACY usually involvessome degree of treachery. Each player must findsome way of avoiding the twin pitfalls of too littleand too much.On the other hand, one who scrupulouslyobserves every agreement he makes is no betteroff. He may find himself hemmed in by allies. Orhe will lose the element of surprise-anyone towhom he won't give at least assurances of

No. no, John; the game is called DIPLOMACY.That means you try to persuade the otherplayersto do what you want. You only use these tacticsafter 1905 or so.Credit: sTab 54,2 September 1968.

nonaggression will know in advance what he'splanning.The middle ground is hard to find. A game inwhich all the players are treacherous by reflex isusually a very excit ing game. t will be full ofaction and movement, close to the intent of thedesigner. A game in which the players keep theiragreements is usually dull. Both such types ofgame are rare. Most players attempt to avoid theextremes.One answer favors a single s trong alliance.Other agreements are regarded as made to bebroken if and when necessary, but The Alliancelasts until the end. In this way the player can betrustworthy to some degree and treacherous tosome degree.Another answer is to negotiate agreementswhich are fairly detailed and have an escapeclause . This clause might be a time limit or somespecific condition such as null and void if Russiabuilds a unit in Sevastopol. The former allycouldthen be attacked if a detail of the agreement isviolated, or if the escape clause came into effect. Isthis treachery? In a sense, it is; but it is justifiedtreachery, which is often regarded as less pernicious than the unjustified kind.The best rule for any s tab is this: will it yield adecisive advantage? f so, do it. Never practicetreachery for its own sake, but never refuse itifit sworth the price. Pity the poor player who won'ts tab for the last 2 or 3 centers he needs to win. Andpity the poor player who stabs an otherwiseexcel lent ally so he can grow from a mere 8 unitsall the way up to 9.In an ideal DIPLOMACY game, the playerswill stab each other often. Whenever one of themseems too far ahead, his neighbors will gang up tostop him.One of the reasons this does not occur moreoften is that factors other than self-interest enterinto the game. A player may become emotionallyattached to an alliance (I've stood with her thisfarand I won't betray her now ). There may also bethe motive of revenge( I'll neverforget that stab in19 I and I'll get that so-and-so i f it's the lastthing Ido. ). An effective player makes these motives andemotions in others par t of his arsenal of tricks.

The best answer to the treachery problem is tohave noanswer that is, to playdifferently fromgame to game. The player who always keeps hisagreements or who always breaks them ispredictable. His opponents will get his numberand act accordingly.It seems preferable to be unpredictable. Keepagreements carefully in one game, stab every backin sight in the next, have a strong allyin the third,and so on.In any event, always have a good reason orexplana tion for what you do. Players do notexpect consistency (although they will ask for it),but they do expect rationality. Sometimes anyexcuse will do. One very angry ex-ally once askedme, Why did you stab my back? Myanswer was,Because it was there.A player who keeps many agreements willacquire almost as good a reputation for trustworthiness as a player who keeps all of his. Onewho iswilling to s tab will have a repu ta tion for beingwilling to make a deal. Both are extremely handyin negotiations.Element -Aggression andDefense

Knowing when to attack and when to defend isimportant in DIPLOMACY. That seems easy, butin this game it frequently isn' t.

Part of the problem is playing style. Someplayers will be aggressive or defensive becausetheir personalities tend towards those directions.


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oing well in the game often means lettingof aggression or defense be decided bye situation, not personal feelings.

Another difficulty is misreading the situation.erhasty reactions have proved more than oneayer's undoing. It can 't be denied that DIgolden rule is, Do unto othersfore they do unto you. However, it is often atal mistake to pick the wrong other .This is especially true at the game's beginning.is not usually necessary to attack another playermediately. It is a great advantage, true, if aighbor can be caught off guard and decimatedfore he has a chance to expand. But it may turnthat the victim was not the at tacke r' s real

That s embarrassing and deadly.On the other hand, a player may find himselfth a diplomatic situation so firm and favorablehe can' t resist the chance to eliminate oneor early and get the jump on all the others.he's correct, his attack will probably succeedd put him in a s trong position. he's beenkered in well, the game's called DIPLOThe best thing is to have all available force ate war front. This leaves one's back quite naked,

That s a s trong temptation-an invitaeven-for a stab. It's a good idea to have areserve at the other front(s), not only tootect against a stab but also deliver an attack ife need or oppor tuni ty should arise. Havingough units for this purpose is not often easy.Examples are a lmost endless. England, exnding in the south, should have at least 2 fleetsthe north one of them in the North Sea.rmany moving east may want to keep at leaste insurance army in the west. And so on.One of the best rea rward defenses is theamic defense. Here, twoallied neighbors ordereir rearward units to attack each other or aspace. Some examples involving Eng

Allied with France. ENG. F Iri-Mid. FRA: F either unit is ordered t o d o something

se, the other slips into that vital area. Both unitsbe ordered to Eng. as well. Or two more

is often said, he who plays DIPLOMACYthoUl expecting be Slabbed isfoolish, But heexpecls be Slabbed, andplays anyway is noss foolish.

sTab 15,1 June 1966.

units could be added , Eng: F NIh, FRA F icboth ordered to Eng.Allied with Russia . ENG: F Nwy H, F NIh S FNwy. RUS: F StP (nc)-Nwy, F Swe SF StP nc -Nwy. This is dynamic only on the Russian side,but is usually satisfactory, England could substitute: F Bar-SIP (nc), F Nwy S F Bar-SIP(nc).A few other possibili ties are suggested inSection III . It is not always possible to spare twounits for such a defensive arrangement but it isvery advisable. Some allies balk at allowing it.This may be a reflection of future hostileintentions. Again, the game is DIPLOMACY.Convincing an ally to maintaina minimal defense,even to have none at all, is important if he is to bestabbed later on.Aggression can also be as effective as defense.A player whose position is under attack will loseground sooneror later ifhe can t force a stalemate.What good is caution in that situation?Because the enemy is probably expecting aseries of holds and supports, a strong attack maysucceed. As a general rule: in theSpring attackforposition; in the Fall, for supply centers.Most opponents will assume a defensiveposture means an attempt at static defense. Theirorders will be based on tha t assumption. Counterattack may catch an unwary foe off guard anddo real damage or it may make him more waryand therefore less aggressive. If his attack is thusslower in developing, there may be more time toobtain help or convince him to stop.One example : ENG: F Mar, F Lyo, F Wes FNAf

TUR: F ie F Tus, F Tyn, FTun, F, Ion.Against a static defense, Turkey must ultimatelypush the line back. Her initial attack may well be:F Tun- Wes F Tyn-Lyo, F Tus S F Tyn-Lyo, FIon-Tyn, F Pie-Mar. This provides a virtualguarantee that F Tyn-Lyo will succeed. Theultimate result is dramatically changed i f Englandorders: F Wes-Tun, F NAfS F Wes-Tun, F Lyo ie F Mar S F Lyo-Pie. In this instance FPie isannihilated and Turkey loses Tunis. England maystill be forced back to herbasicsouthern stalemateline (see 5, Stalemates: position 2)-but in themeantime, she has really bloodied theTurk s nose.As the game progresses and a player expands,he will discover he's facing two or more fronts andcan t t ransfe r uni ts quickly between them. Histactical problem may be simplystated: hedoes notwant a two-f ront war. In DIPLOMACY a GreatPower seldom has enough units to moveforwardin two directions at once.Element 4 Cheating

Well, why not? Cheating is hardly out of placein a game which makes a cardinal virtue ofdeception. Even so, there are some kinds ofcheating which are definitely out of place.Most people play DIPLOMACY in a regulargroup. The members come to know each other asplayers: strengths, weaknesses, style. dependability, and so on. This knowledge becomes part ofhow they play. There is nothing wrong in that; it ispart of real-life diplomacy, too. In 190 I, forinstance, the diplomacy of every nation with theRussian Empire had to take in to accoun t thepeculiar personality of the Tsar.On the o ther hand, there may be some whoseek to take unfair advantageof this. Onememberof a group may attempt to bully another into analliance he otherwise wouldn't want. Some mayattempt to negotiate on the basis of personalrelationships which exist outside the game. Or, inorganizing a game, one may call another and saysomething like, Let'splayDIPLOMACY tomorrow and you and I can be allies. These sorts oftact ics have no place in the game.

Another widespread problem is the playerwhoforgets that treachery is a vital part of the game.Such players place far too much emphasis onhonesty and keeping agreements. They tend toally only with o thers they feel they can t rust .That is, they mostly ally only with each other. Thisusually results in dull, static games with littleaction and less fun. Such an attitude towardDIPLOMACY violates the very spirit of thegameby denying one of its fundamental aspects: thestab.If there are wrong methods of cheating,which make the games less lively and less fun,there are also right kinds. These are thingsplayers can do on occasion, which are not againstthe Rules, in order to gain an advantage.Espionage. The Rulebook specifies thatplayers may try to overhear the conversations ofothers. a group has more than seven people at agame (or more than eight if there is a Gamesmaster), or if some players have been eliminated, theseextra persons may wind up being spies . A playermay chose to trust the information given him by aspy, or not, as he wishes.Espionage need not be limited to eavesdropping. Trying to read the orders of others isperfectly legitimate. One group of players used torequire that orders be placed on the gaming table,and had to be there at the end of the negotiationperiod in order to be valid (but see Rule XlV.l onthis). Players frequently had to stand guard overtheir orders to prevent their being read. Intercepting and snatching of orders has been done onthe other hand, that sometimes leads to physicalroughhousing. Most groups develop rules againstcarrying espionage to such extremes.Sabotage. The purpose of sabotage is, primarily, to prevent a set of orders from being read.Stealing them after they have been turned in is theusual method.There have been cases of forgery. One playerwho wrote hisorders in pencil discovered, on a keymove, that they had been changed while hisattention had been distracted. This sort of thing isharder to do if the group has a Gamesmaster. running things.The Flying Dutchman . This is an extra unit.which has been slipped onto the board whilenobody was looking. (I t might also be an armyexchanged for a fleet, or vice versa.) So long asnobody notices the addi tion or exchange, thedeception is not illegal. Once it is detected, it mustof course be rectified if possible. If for instance,afleet has been turned into an army and has sincemoved inland, it will have to remain an army forthe rest of the game.)In one game, an Anglo-German allianceslipped an ex tra German a rmy into Denmark,which was being threa tened by a Russian fleet.This as not noticed and the army was laterconvoyed into Livonia, eventually captur ingMoscow. At this point it was noticed thatGermany had one more uni t than he should havehad. Since nobody could rememberwhich was thesupernumary, the Ge rman player blithely removed a useless fleet.This ploy should not be used too often;otherwise people will catch on. (Casting suspicionon someone else by adding one of his units to theboard,and then detecting the deception, is also auseful trick.)And So On: Craftiness and sneakiness areimportant parts of every DIPLOMACY player'sarsenal . S itua tions will a rise in every game inwhich a player may be able to cheat and get awaywith it.

Miswriting his own orders may help onoccasion. He may be forced to promise to move aunit he has no desire to move. He can alwaysforget to write that order or he can write anorder which appears to complywith his agreement


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t which is illegal or admits of two meanings.ee Austr ia s Fal l 1910 orders in the Sampleme for an example of this.)One English player promised to move his fleett of the English Channel. Hethen wrote F Engas his first order and F Eng-Nih as his laster. The players all agreed that F Eng could not

both orders simultaneously and therefored to hold. England pleaded confus ion to his. On the next turn, he used F Eng in an effectivePlayers should always be pr epared to take

of any local rules theirgroup may have.player used the local rule, already mentioned,orders in place on the gaming table at the endnegotiations were valid. He had written threeof phoney orders to deceive other players.ey insisted on plac ing those sets on the tableemselves, with theirown orders. Meanwhile, thest player s ally had his real orders. These were

at the bottom of a bowl of popcorn whichas placed on the table . This set declared all thehers invalid. Since it was also on the table ine, it had to be used.Cheating is of course no substitute fororough negot ia tions and sound strategy andctics. It is a technique which will help on rarecasion and should be used with great restraint.5-Stalemates

A stalemate is a position on the board whichrevents further advance by the enemy. Thete line is a line of units, none of which candislodged by any combination of attacks andpports. In this Guide, a stalemate line is alsofined as follows:I. The line has not more than 17 units, holdingt more than 17 centers (and not fewer centersunits).2. The line is held by one or more playersan alliance of two or more players (whould then control 17 or more centers and units).

3. There are no enemy units behind the lined the enemy has no capacity fo r building anych unit.

ow I've followed the old lady's instructionsorrectly, this should make h im forget my pasllabs, befuddle him so Ihal he won't suspec t myand also make him paranoid enough elieve I'm his only friend. Hmmm what the1 /1 pUI in a lil lie arsenic to make sure hisment goes InlO civil disorder aboul 1904.

Credit: sTab 52,3 August 1968.

The first known stalemate positions werepublished in WILD N WOOLY in 1966. Sincethat time several dozen such lines have beendiscovered and published. Six basic positions andsome of their variants are discussed below.In many instances, the position will workwhether a given unit is an army or a fleet. In thesecases, the abbreviation u (for unit )will beusedinstead of A or P .

Position l . A Sev S A Ukr, A Ukr S A Gal, AGal, S A Ukr, A Bud S A Gal A Bah S A GalATrl S A Bah, F Pie S Lyo, F Lyo S F Wes, FWes S Lyo, F NAfS F Wes.Discovered by Conrad von Metzke in 1966,this position uses only 10 units to hold nearly halfthe board (15 centers). The a rmy in Budapestcould jus t as easily be in Vienna or Rumania.However, to reduce the numberof centers coveredrequires, paradoxically, an increase in the numberof units. There are some 13- and 14-unit positionswhich can be held: see Position 4.Position lao A variant of this position requiresonly 3 fleets: F NAj, F Wes and F Tyn. F Piebecomes A Pie; add A Tus. New orders: F Wes H,F NAfS F Wes F Tyn S F Wes, A Pie H, A TusSA Pie Here II uni ts still hold 15 centers.In these positions, the East holds all of Italy. Ithas been asserted that an Eastern stalemate isimpossible without all of Italy (John Beshara,1971), but that is a mistake. Karl Pettis and othershave since noted positions holding only part ofItaly the re are possible lines holding onlyVenice, or only Naples, or Venice/ Rome, Naples/ Rome, or Venice/Naples. See Posit ion 6 for anEastern stalemate which holds no Italian centersat all.

Posit ion 2. F Mid H, F Par SF Mid, F NA t SF Mid. This was first noted by John McCallum in1966. I t uses three units to blockade the exit fromthe Mediterranean. It holds four centers (England Portugal). F NAt cou ld be in Iri or Eng.England (or a Power that holds England) canmaintain this position under certain circumstances. The enemy is a southern Power (Austria,Italy, or Turkey). The Atlantic Powers (France,Germany, Russia) have been e liminated or areallied. It is not impossible to see a game stalematedlike this: two southern Powers haw overrun theboard. Their armies occupy all of Europe.However, their fleets are bottled inside theMediterranean and they can t get out. They hold30 centers 15 each or perhaps 14-16 or 13-17).Neither canwin without stabbing theother. This isa powerful weapon in England s hands.

l osition 2a. In a variant of this position,England can hold 8 centers with 6 units. HereRussia can still be in the game, so longas shehasno fleets in the north. In the south, this is as inPosit ion I. In the nor th: VDen H, V SIP H, F BarS V SIP.This posit ion leaves England with two extraunits with which to harass the enemy, contemplateexpansion, or take advantage ofstabs on the otherside. It can be expanded to include France, Iberia,Belgium, Holland, and parts of Germany. A largenumber of resulting positions cover 14 to 16centers. Many of these take into account enemyfleets in the north. See Position 5bfor an example.

Posit ion 3. V Arm H, V Can H, V NAfH, VSpa H, V Par S V Spa, F Wes S V Spa. Thisunusual position holds 6 centers (Turkey, Iberia,Tunis). The enemy is presumably an AngloGerman alliance that has swept the rest of theboard. It will not hold if there is an enemy fleet inthe Black Sea or the Mediterranean.

Posit ion 4. V Arm H, V Rum H, A Bul [o r F

Bul (ec)) S V Rum, F Bla S V Rum, A Bud H, ASer S A Bud, A Trl H, A Tri S A Trl A Ven S ATrl F Wes H, F NAfF S Wes F Lyo H, F PieS FLyo.This is Position I reduced to 13 centers (Italy,Turkey, Balkans, Tri Bud, Tun). There arevariants in which Vie or Sev could be added for 14centers, and one which adds both and omits Tun.In thelast case, the position around Italy becomes:Position 4a. F Ion H, F Gre SF Ion, V Rom H,V Nap S V Rom, V Ven H, V ApuS V Ven, F Adr

S V Ven. With a few adjustments, including V VenS A Tri the East could hold Vienna and Budapestwithout holding Tyrolia, Bohemia, or Galicia.Posit ion 5. V Nwy H, V Swe S U Nwy, F NAIH, F Iri H, V Bre H, F Eng S U Bre, V Bur H, APar S U Bur, A Bel S V Bur, V Kie H, U Ruh S U

Kie.This position holds II centers against anysouthern power. There can be no enemy fleets inthe nort h, which means that Russia has beeneliminated.Position Sa. If Russia is still active, there is an

II-unit position which holds 12 centers. RemoveV Swe and add V Stp. Then: V SIP H, V Nwy S USIP. There are several variations of this position.

Position 5b. V Nwy H, F Bar S V Nwy, F SkaS U Nwy, VKie H, V HolS V Kie, A Ruh S V Kie,V Den H, F Hel S V Den, A Bur H, F Lyo H, FMarS F Lyo, F WesS F Lyo, V Tun H, VNAfSVTun.This typical northern position holds 14centers. The opposition could have fleets in StP,Swe, Bal, and/ or Ber without being able to breakout. Tunis must be held or the Mediterraneanwould eventually be lost. Variants of this positionrun up to 17 centers.

Posit ion 6. V Den H, A StP* S A Lvn, F MidH, F Par S F Mid, F Nal** S F Mid, V Can H, FBla*** S V Can, V Can, V Smy H, V Syr S VSmy, A Ukr H, A Mas S A Ukr, A Sev S A Ukr.Notes: *Could be F StP (sc), F Bot, or FBal.**Could be F Iri or F Eng.***Could be V Ank.This position is one in which Russia (minusWarsaw) can stalemate with 13 centers. Russia isthe one Power which could eliminate bothEngland and Turkey and have fleets in both northand south an essential prerequisite for thisposition. This could also expand (into Warsaw orBulgaria and Rumania), or it could contrac t in anumber of ways.

Posit ion 6a. F Mid H, F Par S Mid, FNAt[or Iri or Eng] S F Mid, F Aeg H, F Can S F Aeg,F Eas S Aeg, V Arm H.This is the minimum contraction of Position 6.One of the 4 southern units is supplied by a centerin the north. Although Russia is virtually the onlyPower which can achieve this configuration, it isnow centered entirely on the two corner powers.Of course, there can beno fleets inthe north nor inthe Black Sea. (This means that the coalitionRussia is facing would be Austria/ Italy.)The Use of Stalemates. Lists of stalemateposit ions are tedious reading, at best. One istempted to ask, what good is all this? The answermay be that a stalemate is the best alternative ifyou can t win . . . and maybe it isn t. Everyindividual game has its own character. A player sdecision as to whether he is even interested in astalemate depends on how he feels about the gameas a whole and about the other players. Perhaps hewill prefer to come in second. Perhaps he will even


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efer to be eliminated in order to help achieve aticular result. It is silly to insist that there is anyngle best goal in DIPLOMACY. Everyone hass own priorities and t rying to fit them all intoe 's own mold is small-minded.However, an awareness of s ta lema tes ist o s tr ong play. A st al emate line is aerful position and the threat of a stalemate is ad iplomat ic weapon. On one hand, ainning alliance can be broken up by anosition which can force a stalemate.

On the other hand, a smal l power can use herition to bargain with. A strategic situation mayen mean achievement of stalemate to one sidebreakthrough to t he other. Each should beil ling to pay a high price for an alliance. A smallwer which controls thekeyposition maybe ablebargain quite well for herself.Stalemates are frequently hard to set up andre often tactically complex (if an alliance isvolved on the defensive side). Fo r these reasons,layers may be t emp ted to spend more time onthan they are worth. A stalemate is, after all,so rt of last refuge. It is the final resort of a largethat can t win o ro f one or more players

can t stop an impending victory any otherCompared to a free-wheeling game where the

is flexible, a s ta lema te is dull andnteresting. In the last analysis, it represents thetimate failure and breakdown of diplomacy.t il l, a sta lemate is sometimes better than anyilable alternative. An alert DIPLOMACYayer should be ready to use his knowledge ofmates whenever necessary. 6 The Small Time

There are some players who will quit playing if,n the later game, they have only2 or 3 units left onhe board. They may place a high premium onwell , which they interpret ashaving a lotofat the end of the game.Quitting the game is an act ofpoor sportsmanip. In many cases it is also an act of negligence.en the smallest power may inf luence the f inalutcome. It may help make a d raw or stalemate

or play kingmaker by helping toermine the winner.Only an immatur e player throws away ajust because it doesn't have enough unitssuit him, or because it doesn t have the potentialor a win or draw. A minor it y position maytually be very excit ing to play.

Total elimination is not inevitable until itppens. In one game on record, a replacement(see RuleXIV.3) took over Austria in a veryecarious posit ion. A Russo-Turkish all ianceas victorious in the east. Austria's last army haden dislodged from Vienna inthe Spring and hadto Bohemia. The player negotiated withsia and Turkey and got the former to stabe latter. Austria regained Vienna that Fall. Ate end of the game Turkey had been eliminatedAustria was in'second place. (Needless to say,ssia won.)I f tha t posit ion could be salvaged, it followsthere is almost no such thing as a hopelesstuation. A variety of techniques can be used inrying to make something of very lit tle. Insow's ears often become silkThe Broadcast Offer . This may work for theyer who is being attacked by a strong alliancehich is al ready very large. An announcement

hould be made to them-openly or secretly,or separately. Ifthey intend to stay alliedd draw, let's just end the game now whyste time reaching the inevitable?However, if one of them intends to betray the

Tactical skilland cunning aren't the onlyfactorsto consider in DIPLOMACY . . . reputation isimportant , too. I may not be the best strategist,but since those first few, no one has dared todo)./ble-cross meCredit: sTab #13,7 May 1966.other, why not do it now? The player will promiseto join in absolute alliance with whichever enemyis the first to accept his offer (or makes the bestoffer to him, or whatever) . Ideally, the playershould be able to provide ei ther of his enemieswith the margin he wo'uld need to defeat hiserstwhile ally.The right way to handle this depends oncircumstances. But if it is done right, the strongalliance will disintegrate. The objective of theoriginal offer is to incite enough jealousy andsuspicion to break the rapport between the twoallies. It is usually more effective if you have 4-6units, but may still work i f you have 2-3. I t neverht;rts to try.

The Puppet Ploy. This is somewhat similar tothe preceding, but involves an offer made (usually)only to one larger power. In return for survival,the player offers his complete surrender andobedience. The strong and growing player whoneeds some quick additional support maytake theoffer.However, puppet s do not always keep theirstrings. t he vassal turns on his over lordsuccessfully, it may becomea whole new ballgame.Never be afraid to use this technique on theenemywho is busily des troy ing you. This way he getscontrol of everything you have with less work andwithout having to share . Each takes a chance: hemight destroy his new vassal anyway or he mighthave accepted a viper to his bosom. But if youcan t t ake chances in a game, where can you?The Leadership Ploy . It frequently happensthat some small and medium powers are beingground down by one or two large ones. Unitedthey could oppose the common enemy, but theymay be squabbling among themselves or unable tofind a single common leader.The small player's line here is, Trust me. I 'malmost f inished anyway. All I want is to help getth e guys who did me in. we don t hang togethernow they'll win and we'll be destroyed. Trust me.his offer is accepted, he'll have an interestingtime. He may even improve his position to'such anextent that he may become the threat.We should add here that there is at least onegame on record in which a power ground down to2 units laterwent on to win. It was Italy, too sonothing is impossible.Every player's f irst aim is always survival.When a smal l fish pays a large one, the price is atwo-edged sword. The large becomes dependent

8

on the small as well as vice versa. Once thathappens, the small player can make moredemands upon the large. these are made in smallincrements, he will pay rather than take time andeffort to destroy his increasingly less dependentpuppet .

In addit ion, it is always possible to connivewith the enemy , par ticularly in the role of spyIn playing a minor power, always rememberthe old American political motto: You can t foolal l the people all the time, but if you can do it justonce, i t lasts for four years.Element 7The Convoyed Attack

The convoy is the most powerful move inDIPLOMACY. Even the threat of it is likely tosend an enemy into fits. Depending on circumstances the convoyed attack s power is derivedfrom one or more of four factors: I it providesrapid reinforcement, (2) it is flexible, (3) it may beunexpected, and (4) it is more secure.1. Speed. The convoy is the only method inthegame whereby armies may pass through morethan one space in a season. It is, for instance,theoretically possible to convoy an army fromSyria to St. Petersburg in a single move (but asFibber's wife Molly used to say, Tain t likely,Magee, ). More realistic long-range convoys canand do occur.

France is expanding into the Balkans, forinstance , she could use a convoy cha in throughLyo, Tyn, and Ion. This can take an a rmy fromMarseilles to Albania, putting it at the scene of theaction immediately. The reverse is also true: aconvoy can bring home armies suddenly neededfor defense.2. Flexibility. Convoys keep the enemyguessing. The fleet which can convoy an army to aspace can itself attack the same space ifit does notconvoy. This ability to play three roles (attack orconvoy or support) gives the fleet its greatflexibility. The convoy role allows it to inject a unitinto a coastal space that has inland capacity. I fEngl and orders F Eng-Bre, that is a powerfulmove against France. But i f she orders instead ALon-Bre, F Eng C A Lon-Bre, the unit in Brest ismuch more power fu l because (a) it can then besupported by the fleet in holding and (b) itthreatens Paris directly.

Another element of the flexibility inherent inthe convoyed attack is the rapidity with which itcan be developed. Consider the following Frenchpos it ion, for ins tance: F Mid, F Wes, A Mar.France is attacking Italy, you say? Not soSpring XX: F Mid NAT F Wes-Mid, Mar-Gas.Fall XX: Gas-Cly, F Mid F NATC Gas-Cly.This is a classic French stab of England. It placesan army in position to threaten two English homecenters and leaves the fleets free to molest otherEnglish positions.

3. Surpr ise. Well, the moves we just discussedno doubt surprised the English. The convoy maybe a surpr ise in other ways. Because it brings intoplaya unit which may be far from the front, theenemy may not notice the threat. In the situationjust above, England may have prepared for a navalassault without being aware that the army inGascony could debark for her shores. Convoyingan army into Clyde (or Wales or Yorkshire) isoften the best way to attack England: thearmy noton ly threa tens two supply- cen ters , it may alsocatch the English player off guard.Another classic surprise attack via convoyoccurs when England shifts ground from war withRussia to warwith Germany. It oftenhappens thatEngland will have A Nwy F Nth. If she can get


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ussia to agree to peace, she then orders A NwyF Nth C A Nwy-Hol. The German playeray be caught completely flatfooted-and notnly does this a ttack capture a supply center , ithreatens Kiel while leaving the fleet free tonance Denmark.4 Security. It is the unique featureofaconvoyat it allows one unit to move through the spaceby another Fo r some technical difficules connected with this provision of the Rules, seection VII, Questions 6-9). This situation oftenrovides addit ional defensive secur ity to thetacker' s line. There are two reasons for this.First, the convoy means less shifting of units.sider this typical early-game situation: Engand has A Edi, F Nth. while Germany's fleet is innmark. England could order F Nth-Nwy, butt hazards the chance that Germany will sneakto the North Sea. Fa r better is A Edi-Nwy, F NthA Edi-Nwy. England can thus attack a supplyenter while ma intaining intact her defensesst Teutonic perfidy.Second, the convoy allows a player to attackhrough a space which may itself be under attack.Here is a situation related to Example in theRulebook:FRANCE: A Spa-Nap, F Wes C A Spa-Nap,F Tyn C A Spa-Nap, A Rom S A Spa-Nap, F Lyo Tyn.TURKEY: F Nap-Tyn, F Ion S F Nap-Tyn.Even though the Turkish fleet in Naples isattacking with support, the fleet in theTyrrhenianis supported in place and is not dislodged.Consequently, A Spa-Nap succeeds and F Napmust retreat.*It should be noted that ifF Lyo doesnot support F Tyn, the Turki sh at tack willsucceed, disrupting the convoy (see Rule XII.5).*

[*Note: These are the rulings of the game'sinventor. It is also the ruling usually madethroughout the DIPLOMACY hobby. However,this type of situation has over the years been thesubject ofabstruse analysis. Forreasons which arevery technical and not really relevant to a basicunderstanding of the game, I disagree with Mr.Calhamer. I would rule both situations as standoffs.]Element 8-Some Other LittleTricks of the Trade

Situations will arise where technicalities of theRules can be used to advantage. A few of these arediscussed in the following paragraphs. It should beemphasized that tactical niceties of these sorts areno substitute for sound play of the game throughout , but they sometimes help in squeaky s ituations.t The Unwanted Support. t sometimes

happens that a player has more space to cover thanhe has units to cover them. Th e self-standoff isfrequently used then. However, if the enemysupports one of the units involved in moving, theresult can be disastrous.Consider this typical Fall 1901 positionbetween Austria and Russia: AUSTRIA, A Ser A Vie; RUSSIA, A Gal Austr ia must coverBudapest and Vienna while retaining the army inSerbia in orde r to gain that center. His normalorder is A Vie-Bud Ser-Bud for the selfstandoff. However, if Russia orders A Gal SAUSTRIAN A Ser-Bud, that movewill take placeand Austria loses the build.A similar Fall 1901 s ituation can occurbetween France, Germany, and Italy (the last twoallied against the first). FRANCE has A Bur ASpa; GERMANY, A Mun; ITALY, A Pie. France tries to cover all the bases with A Bur-Mar A Spa-Mar, Italy has an interesting choice. Shecan support A Spa-Mar, in which case Franceloses a build. Or she can support A Bur-Mar while

Germany orders A Mun-Bur, in which case theFrench position is in serious trouble.2 The Indirect Support. A Unit ordered tomove can't be supported in place. This isinconvenient if it is stood off and at the same timeattacked with suppor t. How can its position bedefended? The answer is often a supported attackon that space from the rear. Your support attackwill fail if your front-l ine unit fails to move, butwill s tand off an enemy attack which has equalsupport.Conside r this position, where France andGermany are allied against Austria and Italy:AUSTRIA: A Boh, A Trl

FRANCE: F Lyo, A Mar.GERMANY: A Mun, A Ber, A Ruh.ITALY: A Pie.France wishes to dislodge A Pie and wantsGermany to order A Mun-Trl to cut the possiblesupport. But what i f Austria attacks Munich withsupport instead? Germany's solution: A Mun-Trl,A Ruh-Mun, A Ber S A Ruh-Mun. France'sattack will succeed, and Germany's posit ion atMunich be held, regardless of what Austria andItaly do.

(It should be noted that the result wouldbe thesame if the unit in Ruh were French, although thenGermany would prefer to order A Ber-Mun withFrance's support. However, if France had A Burand A Ruh, and used them for a supported attackon Munich, the German army would be dislodgedunless Austria also attacked Munich with equalsupport.)

3. Rapid Retreat Home. t sometimes happensthat a player will need to build a unit at home butcan t gain a supply center that year. This usuallymeans that he is under attack from an unexpecteddirection. As an example, suppose that France haseliminated England and Germany, in alliance withRussia. and is now attacking Italy. Suddenly

You will meet a dark, portly man. He will offeryou the moon. You willget Scandinavia. You willoffer him Germany. He will take Germany,Austria, and Turkey. He will offer you a draw.You will accept. Then he will o ff er you secondplace. You will accept. Then he will offer to helpyou in some other game instead. You willaccept.Then he will eliminate you. Tough luck, stupidCredit: sTab #51,13 July 1968.

9

Russia builds F St P(nc) and A War Thefollowing Spring, Russia begins to movewestwardin force. Even if France can patch things up withItaly-likely since Russia is a threat to themboth-she still needs more units in the north, andfast. She might be able to arrange for Italy todislodge one or two of her southern fleets in theFall. She may then refuse to retreat the dislodgedunit(s) [see Rule Xl ] Assuming that she has lostno centers, she could then rebuild at home (say, FBre A Par) to meet the Tsar' s threat.

4 The Offensive Retreat. Very rarely, theopportunity will arise to attack by retreating. Hereis an example first noted by Eric Verheiden in1973. Germany an d Italy are allied against Franceand the position is:

FRANCE: A Gas A Mar, A Spa.GERMANY: A Mun, A Ruh.ITALY: A Bur, F Lyo. A Pie.France must lose a center if the allies order:GERMANY: A Ruh-Bur, A Mun S A RuhBur.ITALY: A Bur-Mar, F Lyo A Pie SA BurMar.

France does not support Marseilles, it falls. France orders A Mar H, A Gas A Spa S A Mar,then the Italian A Bur is islodged an d may retreatto Paris5. The Phoney Stab. There are timeswhen youand your ally will wish to make the opposi tionbelieve you are at war. This could be accomplishedby an attack and counterat tack that result in astandoff, or an a tt ac k a nd counterattack thatresult in an exchange of centers, or an attack inwhich one ally takes a center f rom the other butdoes not actually harm his position.There are three typical occasions where thistechnique can be used. First , in the opening twoallies may a ttack each other in o rde r to lull thesuspicions of their intended victim. Russia andTurkey often engage in a prearranged stand-offinthe Black Sea for that purpose. See also Italy'sopening 4 inSection III: here the orderA Ven- Triis followed by a move to Serbia or Albania, andthe intent is to bring an additional army in againstTurkey. The init ial order could be played up as astab to set Turkey up, too. (Of course, Austriatakes a big risk that it really will turn ou t to be astab.)The second situation may occur in themidgame, where two allies have eliminated a thirdplayer. They in tend to remain allied and need al itt le t ime to get into posit ion against their nextvictim. A phoney war may do the trick. Thistechnique often works for France and Germanyafter they have eliminated England if they wish toattack Russia next. The war can be used to gettheir northern fleets, in particular, into positionfor an effective strike n or th a n d east.The third situation is in the endgame. t oftenhappens here that a major, expanding alliance canbe held up or stalemated by another alliance or alarge third Power. there is no military solutionto the problem, there may be a diplomatic one.The allies p robably have enough extra unitsbehind the hnes to engagein a mock war. Each canthen apply diplomatic pressure to the oppositionto ally with him. he (they) falls for the bait, thelogjam or stalemate may then be broken by adecisive concerted attack by the allies. (It shouldbe observedhere that the illusion of the mock war

is very difficult to maintain. Many times it willfailto convince the enemy. The great challenge is tohave a realistic war without breaking the unityof the front line. If the frontline breaks, the enemymay be able to take advantage of a ruse that wassupposed to be his downfall. This trick is at itsmost dangerous when the opposition is larger thaneither of the individual allies).


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Remember that the stab or war is anon. As such it must seem as real as possible.illusion must be sustained by appropriateby the allies. They will have to stagencing emotional reactions: anger, surprise,ats, recriminations, the works. If the illusions not convince, it will not work. This is one ofmost difficult feats to bring off,and, of course,more it is used, the less it will succeed. Planfor it and use it sparingly.

P YINGTHE G ME

The Strategy Tactics ofDIPLOMACY

The DIPLOMACY BoardThe playing board is deceptively simpIe. Thereonly 75 spaces on it 56 provinces and 19

of water. No more than 34 units mayupy these spaces at anyone time. The nearestrepeatedly made by fans as well asthe designer-is to chess. There, 32 piecesupy a board of 64 spaces. Mr. Calhamer' sinal intent was to create a game with thedimensions of chess. DIPLOMACYwever, a far r icher and more complex gameuse the number of strategic options has beently increased.DIPLOMACY may seem overly abstract to amer who is used to moving dozens of piecesa finely meshed grid. (In DIPLOMACY, theical complexity of the Schlieffen Plan reducesA Ruh-Be/, A Mun-Bur, followed by A Bel

Despite its physical simplicity, DIPLOMACYquite complex. This is partly due to themerablecombinations of units possible on theIt is also due to the varied personalities ofseven players, as well as the different playinges needed by the Great Powers . In mili taryDIPLOMACY is above all a game of

The Strategy of PositionHere we need to consider three factors: I theof the board, 2 the corners, and (3) theShape . Although it appears square, the

board is actually round. That is, itfrequently quicker to move around the edgeto go through the center. Keeping to the edge,nit can go from Syria to Norway in 5 moveson the east side. On thest side, it takes 8 moves Eas-Ion- Tun-NAf

Through the cente r, howr, it takes II moves Smy-Con-Bul-Ser-TriConvoys helpke the areas at or near the edge even morepor tant . With a line of fleets the move fromia to Norway (or even St. Petersburg) can bemplished in a single season. Access to the edgethe board is therefore an important strategic

Corners. The northeast corner (around St.and the southwest corner (around thetlantic) represent important flanking posi-

tions. A western power (England or France) mustget through and past StP as quickly as possible ifshe is to attack an eastern or central power fromthe flank or rear. Conversely, a Medi te rraneanpower (Italy or Turkey) must get fleets on theother side of Gibraltar in orde r t o a ttack thewestern powers from the flank or rear.The nor thwest and southeast corners a resomething else entirely. They are occupied by twoof the Great Powers. This more secure posit ionmakes them very powerful. Allan Calhamer yearsago observed that England was the WickedWitch of the North while Turkey was theWicked Witch of the South . It is the WickedWitches who are at the cores of virtually all knownstalemate positions (see Section II, 5). They arethe most difficult to attack or destroy and the mostdifficult to defeat once they have grown to a goodsize (about 10 units). Playing DIPLOMACYwithout giving due consideration to the power andpotential of the Wicked Witches is tantamount tosuicide.Center. the corners and edges are important,it should also be noted that the game cannot bewon without the center. As in chess, don t neglectthe middle of the board.The middlemay beconsidered twoways. First:an army in either Munich or Tyrolia is capable ofreaching 10 supply centers within one or twoseasons.Many spaces border directly on 3 or 4 centers,but Bulgaria, Serbia, and the Black Sea eachborders on 5, while the North Sea borders on 6.These spaces define, in the first instance, thecenter of the boardand, in the second instance, theapproximate limits of its middle.Most s talemate posi tions cut through themiddle of the board. There are two lines of emptyspaces in this area which tend to cut the board intotwo nearly equal halves. They are: Mid-Gas-BurSwitzerland-Trl-Boh-Ga/- Ukr and Ion-Tyn- TusPie-Trl-Boh-Sil-Pru-Lvn. These may be taken asthe west-east and south-north center lines. Wherethey intersect Trl-Boh is the exact center of theboard.

The pivot-point of these lines is the impassablespace of Switzerland. Attacks moving from oneside of the empty-space lines to the other must goaround that space. It therefore makes campaignsto get across the neutral zone more difficult byforcing them to be divided into two wings.3 Stages of the Game

There are roughly four stages to a DIPLOMACY game. We will refer to these aga in when theplay of the individual Great Powers is discussed.Negotiations. These should continue throughout the game, of course. Of primary concern herewill be the initial diplomacy-that first half-hourwhen everyone talks with (hopefully) everyoneelse. The plans and expectations which lie in backof the early diplomacy will also be touched on.The initial negotiations may range fromexpressions of good will to p robing debates onlong- and short-term strategy, division of thespoils, deployment tactics, and similar specifics.Much of the mood and progress oftheentiregamewill be determined during this period.Opening. As in chess, the opening is basic tohow the rest of the game will develop. This isusually the first three to five exchanges in chess; inDIPLOMACY it is usually the first seasonsometimes the first game-year.Determining an appropriate opening is extremely important. Compare, for ins tance , thesuggested openings for the Great Powers withthose used in the samplegame(Section IV), whichwas played more than a decade ago. In nearlyevery case there is known to be a more efficientmethod of usingunits than that employed by those

players. You only have 3 units at the outset, andyou want everyone of them to havethe maximumeffect.Midgame. What this is depends on your pointof view. you are looking at the game as a whole,the midgame may be said to begin when the firstone or two Great Powers are eliminated.From the point of view of any single GreatPower, the midgame begins when she hasdi spatched her first victim. It is to a player'sadvantage to reach his midgame as fast aspossible.Some games never have an elimination. In anideal game, strong players will help weak ones in

order to preserve the Balance of Power. Themidgame here may be said to begin when two orthree Great Powers are reduced to vir tual impotence.In the midgame, four or five Great Powersprobably have a chance at winning. It is at thispoint that major shifts of alliances often take placewhile the larger powers are seeking to growfrom arange of about 7-10 units to 11-16.Endgame. Overall there may be three or fourGreat Powers left-or in the running to win-atthis point. For an individual player, this stage isreached when he has eliminated his second victim

or has reached a size somewhere over 10 units.Here he is large enough to be a threat to nearlyeverybody. He can think seriously about winningor forming a stalemate line by himself. An alhancewhich has about 18 units or so may also be said tohave reached its endgame.As the endgame approaches, players begin tothink in specifics about how they might win ordeny victory to another . The exact 18 centersneeded for victory should now be more closelyconsidered. It's important to know where you(or your enemies) are going.4 Basic Style

Our discussion of Great Power strategy will bemostly limited to one particularplaying style. Thisis the Strong Ally style already mentioned.Other alliances may be made and broken, but allare subsidiary to The Alliance. This implies thatthe Ally is stabbed, if at all, only at the end of thegame and only to secure a victory which wouldhave been impossible otherwise.In emphasizing this style of play, we don tmean to deny tha t o ther styles exist and areeffective (see Section I . Some players contract astrong Triple Alliance on much the same terms asour Dual Alliance. Otherplayers make and breakall all iances with some frequency. The object ofthat style is to promote consistent growth whilekeeping one's rivals small.It is of course, entirely possibleto change one'sStrong Ally during the progress of the game.The advantage of the Dual Alliance style isthat it creates great strength and is more likely toovercome its opponents quickly. It is also easy tomanage. Its d isadvantages have al ready beenment ioned: it makes the game a lot less flexibleand creates massive stalemates when two DualAlliances come at each other.We use this style as our prime example forseveral reasons. It is the s imples t to use and todiscuss. Other styles involve too many imponderables to fit into our present scope. In addition, theDual Alliance style is the one most frequentlyadopted by beginning players. It remains part ofaplayer's arsenal no matter how long he has playedthe game. Also, most other styles have manypoints in common with this one, at least fo r th.eshort run. Finally, agreeing to such an alhance ISoften the price of getting any alliance at all.DIPLOMACY players, treacherous lot thoughthey be, do not value treachery in others.


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The Great PowersEach Great Power has a potent ia l which hasbeen measured in terms of past performance. Ourknowledge of this comes primarily from therecords of hundreds of postal games (see SectionV Statistics now suggest that three clumps ofPowers exist: Fra-Rus-Eng-Tur, Ger-Aus, andIta. However, earlier statistics suggested a slightlydifferent arrangement, and this is confirmed bythe potential of the powers as described in the

opinions of experienced players and the game sdesigner. We will start with that grouping, but atthe end of th is section we ll go back to the actualstatistical record (see Tables I-III). The clumps ,then, are:1. ENG TUR RUS. The two Wicked Witchesand the eastern colossus are the most potentdangers. Their positions enable them to expect todo well. Russia s capac ity to expand rap id ly isgreat , while the Wicked Witches have excel lentdefensive situations. Russia may be between thetwo Witches, but that is frequently an asset ratherthan a liabili ty,2. FRA GER. France is not usually considered

to be quit e the threa t the first three are. Even so,she has an enviable position, bordering theAtlantic and Mediterranean at the same time. Heroffensive prospects are also excellent. Germany sposition in both respects is poorer.3. ITA-AUS. Opinion nearly always placesAustria and Italy in the cellar, where they aresometimes joined by Germany. This situation isusually blamed on a combination of poOl erdefensive and offensive prospects. One ofthe mainreasons for that opinion is t he bad record theycompiled in the early years of postal play. In recentyears both have been doing much bet ter.There are many exceptions to the overallrecord of postal games. In the United Kingdom,for example, the Wicked Witch of the North wasfor a long time near the bottom of the heap. Thiswas because one of the most popular all iancesamong U.K. players was the Franco-German, andEngland was their first victim. During 1969-1972,particularly, the Bri tish recorded England as acreampuff while she was thought of as the mostWicked of the Witches in the Nor th Amer icanarena. Another s tr iking exception occurred inSeattle. There a gaming group which keptextensive records had Italy as the strongest power.I ta li an players apparen tly combined a s trongplaying style with a policy of preserving theBalance of Power. I ta ly would play the hostileEaste rn and Western camps against each o therand win going down the middle.The truth is that every Great Power has aboutan equal chance of winning. The playing styledemanded of each is different, and some are not soeasy to master as others. Turkey is probably theeasies t country to play, and Italy is perhaps themost difficult. Most players of broad experienceclaim there is little or no difference; that eachGreat Power can win.Every Great Power has problems and potentials. Let s explore these one at a time.

6 Playing AustriaAustria s great strength is in supply centers.First , each of her home centers borders on the

other two. Second, she has the most openaccess tothe knot of Balkan centers. Her defensiveposture is improved by the emptyzone of spacesnor th and west Trl-Goh-Gal . Yet Austria iseliminated more often than any other country: infact, she has been annihilated in more than half thepostal games on record.Austria s great weakness is in locat ion. Onehome center, Trieste, borders Italy at Venice. TheTrieste fleet is needed elsewhere and is thereforemuch less potent than the Italian army at Venice.Even F Tri- Ven succeeds by surprise in Spring1901, it has pretty much exhausted its attackpossibili ties for the moment. However, Italybrings of f A Ven-Tri, it const itutues a terriblethreat. The concentration of supply centers in andaround Austria is a temptation few can resist.Alone of al l the powers, Austr ia has only onecoastal home center. Furthermore, each fleet builtthere must wiggle its way out through theAdriaticor Albania. Austria is therefore the only power forwhich a naval s trategy is not usually a realisticoption.Once the seven Balkan centers are gobbled,Austria s offensive posture is more limited thanthat ofany other Powerwith 7 centers. Getting outthrough the empty zone against resistance is asdifficult as getting in.Despite these limitat ions, Aus tr ia has wonmore games than any power save Russia. For theDual Monarchy, DIPLOMACY is very much ado-or-die proposition.Negotiations

ENGLAND. England is frequently of littleinteres t to Austr ia early in the game. She may beasked to distract a hostile Russia (or, lessfrequently, Germany), but England is not motivated to do much for Austria that is not to her owninterest. However, Austria may find a way topretend (at least) to be England s friend. I t neverhurts to be nice.

FRANCE. Austria usually has a stronginteres t in keeping France out of Italy. Frenchfleets in the Mediterranean are not to Austria s

;

;

liking. If at all possible, convince her to attackEngland or Germany. The door should be leftopen for a midgame alliance. P romise F ranceanything to keep her pointed north and northeast.GERMANY. From Germany, Austria mostdesires neutrality: and that is not hard to get. AGerman attack is unlikely (and usually unexpected and almost always devastatingfor that reason).A firm and friendly understanding with the Reichis imperative at t he outse t. Germany may wanthelp against Russia. This should be explored andshe should not be discouraged; but make no firmcommitment until Austrian policy regarding Italy

and Turkey is settled.ITALY Even war with Italy is contemplated, a guarantee ofItalian friendship and neutralityis essential. Only a surprise attack will work. Italyis Austria s biggest worry, best ally in thebeginning, and possibly worst enemy in theendgame. A lot of contact and negotiation will beessential here. Nine times out of ten, attackingItaly is an act of extreme folly.

RUSSIA. The first aim of Austrian diplomacyis to prevent a Russo-Turkish alliance. Not only isit one of the most powerful on the board, its firstvictim is Austria. Even with Italian help, Austriacan barely defend herself from that awfulonslaught. It is therefore imperative to achieveRussia s neutrality at the worst (she would thenattack England or Turkey). At best, an allianceagainst the Ottoman is the goal.

TURKEY. While friendship with Turkey isnot impossible, it is unlikely. For that reason, itsunexpected nature makes it doubly potent. ThereIS never any harm in offering such an arrangement.Incite dis trus t of Russia. Always encourageTurkey to open F Ank-Bla. In a lliance withTurkey, Austria permits her ally to captureGreece, and helps her obtain Naples. This allowsTurkey clear access to the western Mediterranean.Still , the whole situation is cramped. Austria isl ike a nut in Turkish pliers, as Turkish units movewest through Greece and northwest throughWarsaw. Defending against a Turkish stab won tbe easy and stabbling Turkey won t be, either.Openings1. A Bud-Ser, F Tri-Alb, and:lao A Vie-Gal


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A Vie-Trie. A Vie HA Vie-Trl F Tri-Adr A Bud-TriA Bud-Rum F Tri-Alb A Vie Triol This is virtually the opening for Austria. It isllowed by F Alb-Gre A Ser S F Alb-Grening two centers. Austria should make no otherening without sound and sufficient reason.re the burden of defense is left mostly to A Vie.hat t he Aust ri an player does with that unit

on whom he distrusts most.lao Here the object of distrust is Russia. Theve defends against A War-Gal (which wouldeaten Vienna and Budapest). If A Vie-Galceeds, it may still defend Vienna or Budapest (ifly slips into Trieste). More importantly, itfers the anti-Russian option of A Gal-Rum AS A Gal-Rum. fTurkey is friendly, F Alb-Grey still succeed. Austria thus has the possibility3 builds The Fall 19 1 move A Gal-Ukr is alsossible. It's devastating for 1902.lb Here the object of distrust is I taly. A Trin stil l defend against Russia if she moves tolicia. As in Ia, however, the defense is primarilyguessing game.Ie. This non-move may keep everybodyappy, but it is very passive and not recomnded. It a llows the defense of A Vie-Bud A

if Russia has ordered A War-Gal.owever, if Russia then orders A Gal SA Ser-Bud the result could be only Ior none, in 19 I

[A Vie Trl isnot recommended: itmakeshomefense very difficult. there is an alliance withaly A Ven-Trl is much berrer. A Vie-Boh isi Russia is absolutely friendly and is definitely an Anglo-German allianceinst France it provides good options. It willlp preserve the Balance of Power in the west.]

2. This seemingly suicidal set of orders has onre. occasion given good results. If it succeeds,mce falls and Italy is crippled. (Italy's A VenA Rom Ven would save Venice, however.)hese orders might be used in the special

that Austria is allied with Russia andrkey. The all iance strategy would call for theid destruction of Italy in order to hit F ranced break into the Atlantic. Even so, Austr ia isally foolish to give up Serbia.3. This pecul ia r opening can be used whenis allied with Turkey, Italy is neutral, ande target is Russia. One of the allies should getmania (at least it will be denied to Russia). Aand F Alb-Gre in Fall 19 1 yield twouilds for Austria. Greece would howeverentually be transferred to Turkey when u s t r i ~came compensated elsewhere for its loss.GERMANY Germany is England's second

est ally, and many players prefer t he Angloman alliance to the Anglo-French. Its advanis two-fold. First , Germany does not need awerful navy, eliminating a threat that Franceoses, however distantly. Second, England canld the Mid-Atlantic herself, an arrangement sheld prefer. The disadvantage is the requirementEngland to divide her naval power into twongs. She will thus build fewer armies: but directcess to the Continent will be severely limited byinterests in any event. [Note: Because anliance with England is usuallypreferred 10 a warth England she can use this to negotiate the bestssible deal with France or Germany.]ITALY England's attitude toward Italypends on what she has going with France . Asance' s ally, England should cajole or evenin order to keep Italy neutral and/ orinted east. As France's enemy, England should

an Italian attack on Marseilles. Always

hold out the possiblity of a midgamealliance. Thisis not unreasonable, so long as England is willingto give up Spa in and Portugal in order to get it.RUSSIA Whethe r her targe t is France orGermany, England does not want war in Scandinavia. Securing a nonaggression pact with Russiais vital. However, there are times when Englandwill want to hit Russia hard and early. This usuallymeans having an alliance with both France andGermany. Then, too , England wants Russia tohave minimum force in the north. f she communicates nothing else, she should communicatesmiles, reassurances, and warm fuzzies.TURKEY The other Wicked Witch is in someways England' s good friend. The lines shouldalways be kept open. England may wish todissuade Turkey from a naval policy or persuadeTurkey to attack Russia. England does not wantTurkey destroyed. Hemmed in, yes; but notdestroyed.

OpeningsI Edi-Nrg Lon-Nth Lpl-Edi.2 F Lon-Eng F Edi-Nth A Lpl-Wal.l This is England's best opening, sometimescalled the Churchill Opening (af ter Sir Wins ton' s p lan to invade Norway in World War II).The army is sometimes sta tioned in Yorkshire(part ly to guard London in the case of Frenchperfidy). If so, its offensive role is then much morelimited. From Edinburgh it can be convoyed byeither fleet. It t hus has the choice of going toNorway or to the Continent. It can also beconvoyed to Norway byone fleet and supported inby the other . This opening is viewed as primarilyanti-Russian. It can also be ant i-German. Onepowerful Fall move is A Edi-Nwy F Nth C F EdiNwy F Nrg-Bar threatening Russia even moredirectly.2. This is blatantly anti-French. The threat is AWal-Bre F Eng C A Wal-Bre. f France moved FBre-Mid she is probably faced with the choice ofgiv ing up e ithe r Spain or Portugal in order toprotect Brest. England may also allow her to slipback into the home cente r while convoying thearmy to Belgium instead. Meanwhile F Nth caneither support the army into Belgium or takeNorway. It is generally pretty silly for England topass up the Norwegian center.

MidgameThe direction of England's midgame dependson whe ther her main ally is France or Germany.Ally: France. At this point England maycontrol Hol-Kie-Den-Nwy. Depending on circumstances, she may wish to drive Russia out ofSwe-StP. f she has not doneso already, that is thenext important objective. England must insurethere is no other naval power in the north. (EvenwIth a strong alliance with Russia, England is welladvised to find a way to get rid of that northernRussian fleet.)England will begin to build armies and use herfleets to convoy them into northern Germany andRussia. From there they will march towardSevastopol and Budapest.Ally: Germany. England' s holdings shouldinclude Bre-Por-Spa. She hopes to restrict Italy'sshare of t he spoils (if any) to Marseilles (sheshould only be so lucky ). If she has not put fleetsinto the Mediterranean, she should delay nolonger. Her strategy is to drive through Italy,securing Nap- Tun-Ion.In the north, England should hold StP.

Further expansion will riot be possible becauseGermany will claim Mos- War. England must nowjudge how many units to leave behind forprotection (and possible stab) against Germany.There can never be too many such units. However,

the southern campaign and German diplomaticpressure will necessarily limit England's options.Endgame

England and her ally will now be drivingagainst one or more powers occupying Austria,the Balkans, and Turkey. This is one of the mostdifficult positions to c rack . England will findherself tempted to win by stabbing her ally. Theally will feel a similar temptation. This position,England/ France (or Germany) vs. Turkey, is oneof the most common stalemate positions. If onewestern ally stabs the other, the eastern Powerwillpick up enough centers to win. If not, there isusually a draw. These are the usual parameters ofEngland's endgame. How the situation resolvesitself depends on who stabs whom, when, and howthoroughly.

MidgameThis usually begins when Turkey is eliminated.The odd circumstance of a Tu rki sh allianceagainst Italy or Russia leaves Austria with ratherminimal gains and an awkward posit ion. Heroffensive posture is weak because she will have to

guard her back door.An Austro-Italian alliance now has threeobjectives: eliminating Russia, getting across theTrl-Boh-Gal line in force, and putting fleets in theAtlantic. Once Turkey and Sevastopol are clearedof Russian units, Austria should insist on acomplete withdrawal from the area. Italy shouldhave all her units west of Greece; all of Austria's,north of Bulgaria.

If this is done, Aust ria can more easily s tabItaly. The latter may therefore insist on keepingsome unites) in Turkey. There is a s tand-offposition that helps. f Italy owns Con, then: AUS:A Bul-Con; ITA: Con-Bul. If Austria owns Conthen: AUS: A Con-Smy; ITA: A Smy-Con.If Austria's main alliance is with Russia theRussian fleet(s) in the south should movehelping in the push toward Spain. The alliesemploy a stand-off technique around Turkey.Endgame

Austria is formidable when operating out ofher 7-center Balkan knot with her rear secure.With proper tactics and diplomacy, she canarrange it so that the only front on which she canbe attacked is exactly where she has her mainstrength.Assuming an alliance with Italy, it is at thist ime Austr ia must

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Gamer's Guide to Diplomacy