From Celebration to Critical Investigation: Charting the

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From Celebration to Critical Investigation:

Charting the Course of Scholarship in Applied Learning

Roy SChwARtzmAn UniversityofNorthCarolinaatGreensboro

KeLLy BouAS henRy MissouriWesternStateUniversity

Applied learning refers to learning experiences that take place outside traditional class-room settings. Examples include study away, service-learning, undergraduate research, and internship/practica/clinical experiences. As these pedagogies have increased in fre-quency over the past twenty years, the number of outlets devoted to the publication of scholarly work related to them has not kept pace. The JournalofAppliedLearning inHigherEducation(JALHE) attempts to fill that gap, providing an outlet for research and theory that critically examines applied learning’s impact and purpose using multiple meth-odological and disciplinary approaches. The initial volume of JALHE showcases work in this vein from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds and highlights areas ripe for future research.

Nowisthetime,weconclude,tobuildbridgesacrossthedisciplines, andconnectthecampustothelargerworld.Societyitselfhasagreat stakeinhowscholarshipisdefined.(Boyer,1990,p.77) Ernest Boyer’s provocative epigraph captures much of what theJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education (JALHE)seekstoac-complish.Appliedlearningfiguresprominentlyinnationalhigheredu-cationreformefforts.Inanerawhenfew,ifany,ofhighereducation’s

JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall20093-23©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity

JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall20094

long-heldpresumptions,suchasthevalueoftheliberalartsandoftenuredprofessors,canbetakenforgranted,educational leadershavebecomemore responsive to the demands of various stakeholders—businesses,governingboards,legislatures,parents,communityorganizations,localresidents, regional accreditation agencies, and students. In particular,highereducationinstitutionsarelearningtousescarceresourcesmoreefficientlytoadapttomultiplelearningstylesandtoproducemeasurablelearningoutcomesthatmeettheneedsofindustryandsociety. Thereformofscholarlyresearchchartsasimilarpath.Boyer(1990)commentsthat“futurescholarsshouldbeaskedtothinkabouttheuse-fulness of knowledge, to reflect on the social consequences of theirwork,andinsodoinggainunderstandingofhowtheirownstudyrelatestotheworldbeyondthecampus”(p.69).Hegoesontopraisefieldworkexperiencesinvariousdisciplines“thatinvolvestudentsinclinicalex-perience and apprenticeships” (Boyer, 1990, p. 70). The evolution ofscholarshipclearlyinvolvesadeepeningconcernfortheexperientialas-pectsofeducation.ThisessaywillchartthecourseofJALHEbybrieflytracingitshistoricalandintellectuallineage,thenembarkonnavigatingitthroughtheongoingscholarlydialoguesrelatedtoeducationaltheoryandpractice.

ConCEPTuALToPoGRAPhyoFAPPLIEDLEARnInG Beforeproceeding,adefinitionofthecentralterminthisjournal’stitlerequiresclarification.“Appliedlearning”refersmoretoaspiritormovementineducationthantoadefinitivelyboundedsubjectmatter.Itdesignatesthekindsofpedagogicalprinciplesandpracticesassociatedwithengagedscholarship,communitiesofpractice,civicengagement,experientialeducation,andcriticalpedagogy.Diverseasappliedlearn-ingmayappear,allitsmanifestationssharecertaincharacteristics.Con-creteexperience,“learningbydoing,”liesatthecoreofappliedlearn-ing.Thispedagogyrepresentsactivelearningatitsmostliterallevel,theactivityofputtingintellectualprinciplesintopractice. Appliedlearningmaybecurricularorco-curricular,connectedwithcourseworkora learningexperience thatoccurs throughother institu-

AUTHOR NOTE: Roy Schwartzman, Ph.D., Department of Communica-tion Studies, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Kelly Bouas Henry, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Missouri Western State University, St. Joseph, MO. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Roy Schwartzman, Dept. of Communication Studies, 109 Ferguson Building, Uni-versity of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170; e-mail: [email protected]

Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 5

tionalmeans(suchasstudentserviceprojects).Thesepracticesalwayshave a central educational component that—as service-learning prac-titioners quicklyobserve—distinguishes them fromvolunteerismcon-ductedsolelyforitsintrinsicvalue.Althoughtheyextendbeyondcon-ventionalclassroomeducation,applied learningpracticescomplementratherthanreplaceotherpedagogicalmethods.Appliedlearningtypical-lybecomesmanifestinhighereducationasoneormoreofthefollowingkindsofpedagogicalpractices:studyaway(inanoff-siteenvironment,such as studying abroador community-based learning), service-learn-ing,independentresearch,andinternships/practica/clinicalexperiences.Thesepracticesalwayshaveacentraleducationalcomponentwhichdis-tinguishes them fromout-of-class activities conducted solely for theirintrinsichumanitarianvalue. Thedistinctionbetweenappliedlearningandmoreabstracttheoreti-calknowledgeisarticulatedmostcrisplybyphilosopherGilbertRyle.AccordingtoRyle(1949),intelligencemeldstwokindsofknowledge,whichhelabeled“knowingthat”and“knowinghow.”“Knowingthat”encompasses theoretical understanding, the propositional knowledgetypically reflected inmasteryof factsandprinciples.“Knowinghow”involvesthedemonstrationofskillinperformingatask.Theintegrationofthesetwotypesofknowledgeprovescrucialinwhatcountsasintel-ligence.Imaginesomeonelearninghowtoplayagame.The“knowingthat”componentdealswith internalizingtherules toenableplay.The“knowinghow”aspectreferstotheabilitytoexecutemovesinthegame.Scholarship on applied learning investigates this relationship betweenintellectualunderstanding(comprehendingtherules,knowingthesys-tem)andskillfulpractice(takingappropriateaction). Theoretical knowledge without practical application creates theIvoryTowerintellectualincompetenttofacetheeverydaychallengesoflife.InthefilmDefiance (2008),aJewishrefugeewhocannothammeranaildescribeshisvocationas“anintellectual,”whichgeneratesthepuz-zledreplyfromhiscomrade:“Thisisajob?”Ontheotherhand,practicalskillwithout theoreticalunderstandingcannotgeneratedesired resultsconsistently.Theswiftestrunnercannotwintheracewithoutknowingwhichdirectiontorun.Ryle(1949)suggeststhatblendingtheorywithpracticeenablesalearnertotranscendmeretrainingandmovetowardinitiatingtheself-disciplinethatcharacterizeslifelonglearning:“Tobeintelligentisnotmerelytosatisfycriteria,buttoapplythem;toregulateone’sactionsandnotmerelytobewell-regulated”(p.28). The concepts of applied learning often infused the educational lit-erature indiscussionsofvocationaleducation.Researchersnoted thataknowledge-basedeconomywouldrequiretheflexibilitytoapplyknowl-edgetoavarietyoftasks,andthisversatilitycouldariseonlythroughput-tingtheoryintopracticebyengaginginconcreteactivitiesbeyondthecon-


finesofthetraditionalclassroom(Kolde,1991).Ongoingcallsforgreaterrelevanceofhighereducationhavehelpedtoacceleratethepaceofappliedlearningandextenditbeyondjobtraining.Formostofsocietybeyondaca-demia,thetruetestofknowledgeliesinitsconnectiontolivedexperience.

RATIonALE:WhyThISJouRnAL?WhynoW? Thedevelopmentofanynewscholarlyjournalrespondstoanintel-lectualneed,theproverbial“gapintheliterature”recognizedineverythesis or dissertation. The need for this journal is both profound andpersistent.Appliedlearningprogramshaveproliferatedfarmorerapidlythan the scholarly tools to examine themeritsof theirdesignand themeasuresoftheireffectiveness.WhilethepopularityofappliedlearninggeneratescelebrationthattheIvoryTowerisbecomingpartofthesur-roundingneighborhood,italsotriggersconsternation.Asmushroomingnumbersofindividualcasestudiesaccumulate,thespeedofimplement-ingvariousappliedlearningpracticeshasoutpacedtheabilitytodeter-minesystematicallywhatworksbest,when,andwhy(Densmore,2000;Eyler,2002). ThechronologicalhistoryofthisjournalbeginswiththeConferenceon Applied Learning in Higher Education (CALHE), developed andhostedbyMissouriWesternStateUniversityinSt.Joseph.Theconfer-encewasbornoutofWestern’sstatewidemissionasMissouri’s“appliedlearning” institution, a designation that became official in 2005. Likemanyuniversities,Westernalreadyhadinstitutionalizedmanyformsofapplied learningexperiences.Beyondsimplypracticingapplied learn-ing,theuniversitysoughttoimplementitsmissionbyprovidingavenuetopromotebestpracticesofappliedlearningthatcouldservethestate,region,andnation.Theconferenceemergedasawaytomeldtheoftenabstractrealmofinstitutionalmissionstatementswiththeoftenunder-theorizedandunder-analyzedpracticeofappliedlearning.CALHEof-fered to bring state-of-the-art training, research, and analysis throughthetopexpertsinvariousareasofappliedlearning—therebyputtingtheuniversity’s mission into practice through scholarship and intellectualdialogue. ShortlyafterthefirstCALHEin2006,webegantoseethatarelatedwaytosupporttheuniversity’smissionandtodeepentheconversationsregardingapplied learningwas todevelopapeer-reviewedoutlet thatfacultyandpractitionerscouldturntoasawaytoengageinscholarlydiscussionsrelatedtoappliedlearning.Theconferencewasbecomingaprovocativeavenueforsharingideasaboutappliedlearningacrossvari-ousdisciplines.Unfortunately, itwas limitedby theephemeralnatureofsuchevents.Energeticexchangesofideasoccur,stimulatingfurtherreflection, and then those exciting conversations gradually fade aftertheconferenceconcludes.Thenarcoticeverydayroutineofpaperwork


andothermundanetasksquellsthemomentumbuiltatthemeeting.Thejournaloffersanongoing,permanentresourceforrestoringandsustain-ingvibrantintellectualdiscourse. Thejournalalsoaddressesanissuethathasemergedonmanycollegeanduniversitycampuses.CALHEemergedatatimewhenhighereduca-tionwas(andstillis)embroiledinoneofmanydilemmasthatpittra-ditionalacademicperceptionagainstcurrentacademicpractice.Ononehand,therealitiesofacademiclifeatalllevelsplaceincreasingdemandsonfacultytoserveandteach.Thechronicshortageofpersonnelwillingtoengageingovernanceandleadershipmeansthatabroaderrangeoftheseadministrativedutiesfiltersintotheeverydaydutiesoffacultyandstaff. Increasingteachingandservice loadsdrivenbydemandsforef-ficiencytranslatetomorestudentsandmoretaskswithfewerresources.Time fordiscipline-based researchmayerode in the faceof thesede-mands,especiallyinasocialclimatewhereonlyclassroominstructionisconceivedas“genuine”academic labor.Ontheotherhand,promo-tionandtenurecommitteesstilltendtoprioritizescholarship,especiallyat research-oriented institutions. How can these competing demandsbereconciled? Applied learning often falls through the cracks of faculty evalua-tion and reward systems in higher education. If understood solely asa pedagogical practice, it remains segregated in the “teaching” realmofevaluation.Theconferenceandthe journal treat theboundariesbe-tween teaching, research, and service as permeable. Too often, espe-ciallyatresearch-orienteduniversities,teachingandserviceoccupydis-tinctlylowerlevelsintheevaluativehierarchy.TheJournal of AppliedLearning in Higher Education isdedicated todemonstrating thatped-agogical practice—much of which involves service—and rigorousresearch are not only compatible, but symbiotic. The nature of thejournalreflects themutualfertilizationamongthefour typesofschol-arship Boyer (1990) articulates: scholarship of discovery, scholarshipof integration, scholarshipof teaching,andscholarshipofapplication.Withinthepagesofthisjournal,thepracticesandprinciplesofdifferentdisciplinesareintegratedbytheirsharedgoal: toprobethetheoreticalgrounds, best practices, and implicationsof applied learning in all itsforms.Thisjournalalsoprovidesascholarlyforumforconductingthescholarshipofengagement(Boyer,1996),theexaminationofpedagogi-calpracticesthatimplementthetraditionalinstitutionalmissiontoserveits communityandconstituencies.This scholarlyapproach to service-relatedactivitiesreunitesthepublicserviceactivitiesofhighereducationwiththecriticalanalysisthatconstitutesthecoreofacademicresearch. Some excellent peer-reviewed journals currently address differentaspectsofappliedlearning,butfewscholarlyavenueshaveprovidedasingleforumtoengagemultipledisciplinesindiscussionsofallaspects


ofappliedlearning.Byprovidingsuchavenue,thisjournalbroadensthereachofscholarshipbeyonddisciplinaryrestrictions(therebyfosteringintegration)andaddsdepthtoscholarshipofteachingbycoveringmul-tiple pedagogical practices (not only undergraduate research, service-learning, etc.). In many ways, the movement of engaging students inexperientiallearninghasgrownupinsiloform,withdifferentformsofapplied learninghaving their ownorganizations and emphasizingdif-ferences between disciplines and practices rather than seeking sharedconcernswiththenatureandpracticeofappliedlearningperse. Thedifferent formsofapplied learningcan informeachotherandneednot remain segregated in separate journals.Forexample, facultywhohaveformanyyearsengagedinundergraduateresearchhaveusedcritical reflection to further student learning (though often such workwascouchedinanalysisofmethodologicaldesignandstatisticalinfer-ence).Practitionersofservice-learningwhowishtogobeyondreflectionbasedonsharingreactions tomoreanalytical reflectivepracticecouldprobablylearnagreatdealfromtheworkofundergraduateresearchdi-rectorsandpractitionersonhowtointegratethatsortofcriticalreflec-tionintoaservice-learningproject.Inaddition,undergraduateresearchdirectorsmightbepushedbyfacultywhothinkalotaboutfindinggoodinternshipsitestoconsiderwaystointegrateundergraduateresearchintointernshipexperiencethatrelatestheresearchtopotentialemployment. In its fetal stages, CALHE began as an internal, single-institutionposter session with fewer than ten poster presentations. In 2009, theconferencehadmore than200 registrants from 17statesandAustra-lia.ThroughJALHE,thosewhoarecommittedtoappliedlearning,andthe scholarshipof teachingandapplication,will haveaway todocu-ment and disseminate their work. The journal’s promotion of deeperdiscoursebetween thedifferent formsof applied learning canbuild afoundationforunderstandingandfurtheringbestpracticesinallformsofexperientialeducation.

ThEoRETICALMILIEuoFAPPLIEDLEARnInGRESEARCh

Many years of reviewing conference papers, journal manuscripts,and grant proposals reveal a narrative structure that has become toocommoninthescholarshiponappliedlearning.Thestructureconstituteswhatcouldbecalledthecheerleadingmodelofself-advocacy.Toomanysubmittalstoconferences,journals,andgrantreviewboardsuseaposi-tiveexperiencewithaparticularappliedlearningexperiencetomakeagenericargumentinfavorofappliedlearningperse.Theseself-congrat-ulatorynarrativesofunqualifiedsuccessinvitereaderstoworshipatthealtarofappliedlearning.Thescholarshiponappliedlearning,however,


mustmovefromlovefesttoknowledgequest.Aproductivefirststepinthisdirectionistorecognizeanddiscussthepitfallsofprojects,thelim-itsofexperientiallearning,andmorenuancedwaystoevaluatequalityofoutcomes.Forexample,theproblemsassociatedwithteachingabouttheHolocaustviasimulatedstarvationdietsandmockpersecutionshasledtheAnti-DefamationLeague(2006)toissueastatementcondemn-ing simulation-based Holocaust education. Research on best practicesshould offer insight about what to avoid as well as what to emulate.Ratherthanofferaone-shotcasestudywiththenarrativepattern“Lo,wedidit,andbehold:itwasgood,”researchmustprobetherationalefor the results it reports. How does a particular project fit within thebroaderintellectualconversationregardinghowtostructure,administer,andassessappliedlearning?Anotherwaytoposethisquestionwouldbetoinquire,alongthelinesofFink(2003),abouthowaspecificstudyisdrivenbyandexpandsupontherelevantpedagogicalanddisciplinarytheories. Part of this larger conversation concerns the role applied learningcanplayinthediscourseregardinghighereducation.Severalexamplesillustratetheintriguingissuesstudiesofappliedlearningmightconfront.One issue involves equipping students to become more independent,lifelonglearners.Earlyexposuretoadirectedresearchexperiencemightenablestudentswhoareconditionedtobecomereceivedknowers—pas-sivelyandobedientlyrespondingtoauthoritybutnotinitiatingideas—toacquire greater ownership over their ideas. Guided research activitiescouldreconditionstudentstobecomemoreindependentthinkersbypri-oritizinginventionoverretention.Ratherthanimplementamasterplanof“pleasetheteacher”byrepeatingwhatevertheauthorityfigurewantstohear,researchcouldguidethecapacityforcreativerisk-taking,akeyfactor in critical thinking and problem solving. Future studies mightinvestigate the connection between such research experiences andinnovativestudentachievementsbeyondtheclassroom. Apprehensionaboutthecompetingforcesofefficiencyandeffective-nessloomsoverthehighereducationlandscape.Thenarrowconstraintsofcommodificationhavepositionedstudentsasconsumerstobeplacat-ed,butascheaplyandquicklyaspossible(McMillan&Cheney,1996;Schwartzman,1995;Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Thisdiscourseofefficiencyclasheswiththecompetingpressuresofdemonstrableeffec-tiveness. The result: paradoxical mandates to increase class sizes butalsoincrease“customerservice”toeachstudent,orbroadenaccesstohigher education but improve standardized test scores and accelerategraduationrates.Thelistcouldcontinueindefinitely.Appliedlearning,however,offerspedagogicalpracticesthathavenavigatedthecontrast-ingdemandsofhighereducationandexternalconstituencies.Forexam-ple,what lessons fromsustainablecampus-communitypartnerships in


service-learningprojectsmightgeneralizetocampus-corporateadminis-trationofinternships?Howdoesappliedlearningdemonstratethepracti-calrelevanceofeducationalexperience(asine qua non ofcommodifica-tion)whilealsoimprovingfield-specificintellectualexpertise(theessenceofacademe)?

METhoDoLoGyMATTERS

Thusfar,wehavediscussedthe“what,”“when,”and“why”ofschol-arshiponappliedlearningbytracingitstheoreticalparameters,intellec-tualhistory,andsocialjustification.Attentionnowturnstothe“how,”whichconstitutesthemodesofconductingresearchrelatingtoappliedlearning. Much scholarship on applied learning relies on self-reports,especiallyfromstudentparticipants,asamajorsourceforevidenceoflearningoutcomesandsocialeffects.Suchself-reports,especiallywhenusedasthesoledatapoints,raisesignificantmethodologicalconcerns.These challenges should generate further scholarly reflection on howself-reportsareusedandshouldstimulateresearcherstoemploymultiplemethodsthatcanproducemorediversedocumentationofappliedlearn-ingexperiences.Thefollowingconcernsshouldurgescholarstoemployavarietyofevaluativemeasureswhenseekingtodeterminethevalueofappliedlearning. Eyler(2002)notesthatself-reportsfromstudentparticipantsdonotconstitutesufficientevidenceofsuccessfuleducationaloutcomesorso-cialimpact.Sheraisesthefundamentalissueofvalidity:anecdotalself-reportscannotconsistentlyorsystematically linkexperiential learninginputs(e.g.,programdesign,studentdemographics,natureofthelearn-ingexperience)withpersonalorsocietalbenefits.Schwartzman(2002)detailssomeofthemethodologicalchallengeswhenheexpressescon-cernsovertheheavyrelianceonself-reportsintheservice-learninglit-erature.First,manysurveyinstrumentsmeasureattitudesregardingtheappliedlearningexperience.Itbecomesdifficulttocorrelateattitudinaltendencieswithbehavioraloutcomes,especiallywhenthedesiredout-comesincludelong-rangeorongoingbehavioralchanges.Forexample,studiesmayattempt to showaproject increasedcivicengagementbyreportingasignificantincreaseinlikelihoodtoparticipateinactivitiesassociatedwithresponsiblecitizenship,suchasvoting.Yet,howmanyofthesestudiesactuallytrackwhetherparticipantseventuallyengageinthedesiredactivities?Morestudiesofobservableeffectsthroughdirectobservationandlongitudinaldatacollectioncandocumentnotonlytheimmediatesuccessbutthelong-termstayingpowerofappliedlearning. Excessive reliance on self-reports also invites systematic bias.Gelmon(2003)observesthatcommunitypartnersarelikelytooverem-phasizepositiveservice-learningexperiencesandunderplayanydraw-


backs, because they fear that any negative feedback might jeopardizefuture supplies of labor. This concern could extend to other appliedlearningactivities.Hostuniversitiesmightbereluctanttoreportnegativeexperienceswithstudyabroadstudentsastheycouldendangerrecipro-calagreementswithinstitutionsthatsentthestudents.Sitesupervisorsofinternsmightofferoverlypositiveperformanceappraisalstoprotectthecontinuedinfusionoflow-costlabor. Self-reportsfromstudentsmaysufferfromdistortiononseverallev-els,includingsocialdesirabilitybias,self-justification,andreciprocity.Eachofthesedifficultiesdeservesfurtherreflection.Discussingresearchon service-learning, Pritchard (2001) identifies social desirability andself-justificationas factors thatmight taint results:“Whensurveysareusedtoevaluatethesuccessofaneffort,particularlyatitscompletion,therespondentsusuallyknowwhatanswerstheevaluatorswantandarealsopredisposedtorationalizingtheirowninvestmentoftimeandeffort”(p. 24). Most applied learning projects include a rather explicit state-mentofdesiredoutcomes.Evenwithoutapre-establishedoutcomeforthespecificproject,thesocialandeducationalgoalstendtobetranspar-ent:studyabroadincreasesculturalawareness,undergraduateresearchenables acquisition of discipline-specific knowledge, service-learningaidsclientsofcommunityorganizations,internshipsdevelopjob-relatedskills.End-of-projectsurveysalsoinvitefalseorexaggeratedpositivesaswaystoavoidcognitivedissonancethatmightarisefromadmittingfailuretoachievetheproject’sobjectives.Finally,reciprocityintroducespotentialdistortionsifrespondentsfeelmorallyobligatedto“returnthefavor”ofastakeholderbyskewingevaluationstowardthepositiveside.Evenwithproperlydesignedquestionnaires,astudyabroadstudentmayrankahostuniversity’sacademicprogramsasoutstandingbasedontheinstitution’shospitalityratherthanitsacademicquality.Infact,manyas-sessmentsofappliedlearningexperiencesmayrequiresubstantialrecon-siderationtoimprovetheirvalidity.Minimally,thetendencytogenerate“falsepositives”shouldraiseconcernsaboutreportingself-evaluationsabsent some type of comparative scales with control populations thatestablishevaluativenorms(Darby,2008). Anothermethodologicalchallengeliesindistinguishingsatisfactionfromlearningoutcomesandsocialimpact.Toooften,successofappliedlearning initiatives tends to be judged by measures of positive affect.Putmoredirectly,popularitypresumablyprovessuccess.Especiallyintimesofeconomicconstraint,appliedlearningmustpaymoretangibledividends than spreading happiness. Neil Postman (1984) has offeredongoingcautionsaboutconfusingentertainmentwitheducation,notingthathighlyengagedstudentsmaynothavelearnedmuchdespite theirexpressingdeepsatisfactionwithalearningexperience.


In fact, enthusiastic appreciation of applied learning needs to betempered by carefully determining which measures would suffice tosupportthepositiveimpactofanappliedlearningexperience.Thesup-port invokedhere refers towhatwouldcount as evidence forvariousconstituencies,includinglegislatorsandfundingagencies.Frankly,fewpeopleoutsidethewallsofacademiafindtheresultsofstudentfeedbackparticularlycompellingbecausetheyrecognizethesubjectivityofeventhe most statistically saturated evaluations. One pedagogical strengthofappliedlearningisthatitoffersmanyothertypesofmeasuresfrommultiplestakeholdersthatcandocumentoutcomes.Forexample,aser-vice-learning project could document the number of clientele a com-munityorganizationservedpriortotheprojectcomparedtothenumbertheprojectreached.Thiskindofdocumentationprovidesdemonstrableevidence that a project extended the capacity of a service agency, anespeciallypowerfulstatementiftheagencyalreadyhasbeenrecognizedasvitaltothecommunity. Whenseveralindicatorsdemonstratesimilaroutcomes,theconclu-sionbecomesmuchstronger.Appliedlearningexperiencesareamenabletomanyassessmentmeasures inaddition to (or insteadof) subjectiveself-reportsfromstudents.Severalacademicfieldshavedevelopedquiterefined measures of learning outcomes, and these field-specific mea-surescouldbeadministeredtocomparestudentswhoundergoappliedlearningwiththeircounterpartswhoparticipateintraditionalclassroominstruction.Externalconstituencies,suchascommunitypartnersforser-vice-learning or professional practitioners for field experiences, coulddocumenthowstudentinvolvementaffectedorganizationalpracticesoradministerindependentassessments(suchasknowledgeoffieldmanu-als) todetermine levelsofpractical knowledge. Internsmight receiveperformanceappraisalsfrommultipleevaluatorsratherthanonlyfromasitesupervisorwhofeelscompelledtomaintainapositiverelationshipwiththeacademicinstitution.Along-termassessmentofanyparticipantinappliedlearningcouldconsistofmakingthatstudentamentorforsub-sequentstudents,whowouldthenevaluatethequalityofthepreparationtheyreceivedfortheireducationalexperience. Researchonappliedlearningcancatapultbeyondthe“testimonialofsuccess”modebygoingbeyondaone-dimensionalpre-test/post-testde-sign.Thismethodologymeasuresstudentopinionsorlearningoutcomesbeforeandafteranappliedlearningexperienceandattributesimprove-mentstotheproject.Frequentlythesedesignsfailtoincorporatecontrolsor benchmarks that would enable the researcher to isolate the “valueadded”uniquelyfromtheprojectitself.Forexample,wouldsimilarout-comeshaveresultedfromlessexpensive,lesslabor-intensive,lessriskyinstructional techniques? How do the experiential project’s outcomescompare with the same material taught in a non-experiential format?


Does the study control for the instructor or supervisor of the project,orareoutcomes theartifactof theadministrator rather thanstemmingfromtheprojectitself?Whichdemographicfactorsarecontrolled?Forexample,doesastudydiscussingtheimpactofastudyabroadprograminclude comparisons or controls across different nations? Could thedemonstrated impactof a studyabroadprogram resultmore from thenatureofaparticularnationalcultureoruniversitysystemthanfromtheinternationalexperience? Theappliedlearningliteraturealsocouldbenefitfrommorevigorouslongitudinalstudies,especiallythosethattracklong-termbehavioralpat-ternsattributabletoappliedlearningexperiences.Someexcellentworkhasbeendoneon trackingspecificprograms,suchasservice-learningpartnerships, over time (e.g., Keen & Hall, 2009; Kiely, 2005). Still,fewfindingshaveaccumulatedthatdocumenttheextenttowhichstu-dentsindependentlyembarkonactivitiesconsistentwiththeobjectivesoftheirappliedlearningexperiences.Inshort,arestudentsapplyingthelessons of their applied learning? The research questions in this areaseem deceptively obvious, yet they have paramount significance forthelong-termjustificationofappliedlearningpractices.Consideronlya few examples. Do students who study abroad initiate or participatemorefrequentlyinorganizationsthatfurtherinterculturalawarenessandcollaboration?Towhatextentdointernationalexperiencesreduceeth-nocentric attitudes and behaviors? How are the membership numbersof international studentgroups correlated to the ratesof studyabroadexperiences? Do study abroad participants exhibit distinctive patternsintheircareerchoicesthatleveragethevalueoftheirinternationalex-perience?Havefieldexperiencesbeencorrelatedwithbetterqualifiedapplicantsforpositionsinthosefields?Howdoin-fieldplacementratesofstudentresearcherscomparewiththoseofstudentswhodidnoten-gage in undergraduate research? How has the undergraduate researchexperienceequippedalumnito(a)conductresearchoutsidetheirfield,or(b)embarkonprofessionaldutiesthatdonotinvolveresearchintheacademicsense?Closertrackingofstudentparticipantsaswellasotherconstituenciesoveranextendedperiodoftimewouldbegintoanswerthesequestionsandmanymorethatlinger. Research on applied learning could reap substantial benefits frommining the rich but often untapped data from voices rarely heard inscholarship that plucks the low-hanging fruit of student self-reports.Moreextensiveexplorationsofinputfromconstituenciessuchasappliedlearningprogramadministrators(e.g.,service-learning,studyaway,andinternship coordinators), community members, site supervisors, clien-teleservedincommunity-basedprojects,orstudentsandfacultyinhostuniversitiesabroadwouldbroadentheconversationbeyondfacultyre-portingtheirstudents’opinionstootherfaculty.Theimpactofapplied


learningresearchalsowouldintensifyifitembracedpublicpolicyissuesmore directly. For example, how do legislators and funding agenciesdefine successful applied learning? How do their criteria and percep-tionssquarewiththoseofacademics?Whatmightaccountfororcorrectmisalignments?Howcouldacademicexpectationsforappliedlearninginterfacebetterwithdesiredpoliticalandsocialoutcomes?

InThISISSuE…AnDBEyonD

Thecontentsof this issue spanabroad scopeof applied learning,illustratingtherangeofpedagogicalpracticesthatcangenerateproduc-tive intellectual discussion. The articles begin with an analysis of theroleofreflectioninappliedlearningandhowtodevelopreflectiontoolsthatcanfacilitatelearningwhileaccuratelydocumentingthenatureofthelearningexperience.Thescholarshipintherestoftheissuecoversawidearrayofconcerns:analternativecertificationprogramcenteredonexperientialcomponents,afieldexperiencethatconnectscourseworkwithprofessionalpractice,theimpactarubrictoassessstudentlearningcanhaveonstudentmotivationinanexperientialsetting,andaservice-learningprojectthatenablesteachercandidatestodeveloptheirSpanishskills while teaching basic English. Together, these articles provide asampleof the rangeof scholarship thatapplied learningcangenerate.Individually,eacharticleraisesissuesandquestionsthatcanstimulateongoingresearch. “Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning:ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning,”bySarahL.AshandPattiH.Clayton,addressestheimportanceofthecarefulandpurposefuluseofreflectiontomotivateandmeasurestudentlearningoutcomes.AshandClayton(2009)notethattheterm“reflection”issomewhatproblematicinthatitsuggestsareactive,emotionalanalysistotheeventsthattakeplace inanapplied learningsituation rather thanacritical analysisofthoseevents.Thustheyusetheterm“criticalreflection”toconnotethismoreanalyticalprocessthathasbeenlinkedsocloselytostudentlearn-ing(Eyler&Giles,1999).HenryandKempf(2005)foundthatfacultymay use critical reflection far less than they actually prefer. Ash andClaytoncallforfacultywhosuperviseappliedlearningtointentionallydesigncritical reflectionaround learninggoals.Thepieceprovidesanenormousresourcetofacultywhotoooftenrelyonanend-of-termre-flectionpaper(whichrarelygetsfeedbacktostudentsinatimelyfash-ion)orjournalingthatdegeneratesintosharingobservationsratherthananalyzingthoseobservationsinlightoflearninggoalsforthecourse. In addition to providing a powerful pedagogical tool, Ash andClayton’sworkinspiresustothinkintermsofhowstudentassessmentmight not just feed into a gradebook, but into a scholarly analysis of


howwellourinstructionaldesignworkedintermsoffacilitatinglearn-ing goals. Student learning assessed using their Describe-Examine-ArticulateLearning(DEAL)modelinformsafacultymember’sassess-mentofhisorherownwork.Forinstructorswhowanttopublishtheirworkasscholarshipofteaching,theDEALmodelcangeneratecompel-lingevidenceoftheeffectivenessofagivenappliedlearningexperiencebeyondLikert-typeevaluationsthatmaymeasurestudentsatisfactionasmuchaslearning(Greenwald&Gillmore,1997;Snare,2000).Theabil-itytogeneratesuchanargumentisincreasinglytiedtofundingsupportforactivityinhighereducation.Particularlyintightfinancialtimes,thissortofassessmenttooliscriticalindemonstratingtheimpactofappliedlearninganditsvaluetoexternalconstituents. Finally,AshandClayton’sapproachtoappliedlearninglaysoutaresearchprocessbywhichfacultydevelop,inasense,hypothesesaboutwhatstrategieswillpositivelyimpactstudentlearningandtestthosehy-pothesesusingstudentcriticalreflectionproducts.Thisapproachallowsfacultytomovebeyondscholarlyteachingtowardthecriticalevaluationandtestingofone’sownstrategiesthatcanbesubmittedforpeerreview.Indeed,workthatfollowsthislineofanalysiswouldbemostwelcomeinfuturevolumesoftheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education. “ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificateofAppliedLearning and Its Implications for Schools and Teacher Education inAustralia,” by Damian Blake and David Gallagher, provides an out-standingexampleofwhatcanbeaccomplishedwhenappliedlearningisimplementedsystem-wide.Italsohighlightstheimplicationssuchanadoptioncanhaveonteachertrainingprograms,whichimpliesthattheremaybeunanticipatedimpactinotherdisciplinesthatseektointegrateappliedlearningacrossthecurriculum. The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) was moti-vatedbyadesiretoincreasegraduationratesfromsecondaryschoolsintheprovince.Thebaselinecompletionrateofseniorhighschoolpriortothedevelopmentofanalternateeducationalpathbasedinappliedlearn-ingpedagogywas80%,withthegoalthattheVCALmightraisethatto90%.Achieving thatgoalwouldaddmore than60,000 individuals totheworkforce,significantlyboostingtheregionaleconomy.ButwhytheVCAL,andnotsomeotheralternativeroutetocompletion,suchastheGEDprogramin theUnitedStates?Because theVCALaddresses theincreaseddiversitythatfoldsintoaneducationalsystemtryingtoretainstudentswhowouldotherwiseleaveschoolearly.TheVCALprovidesameansforthesestudentstoearnlegitimateacademiccreditforlearningthatoccursinnon-traditionalsituations.Theprocessinvolvescreatingadialoguewithstudentsaboutthecurriculumthroughwhichcurricularcontentisnegotiatedandultimatelyassessed.


TheassessmentcomponenttotheVCALiscriticaltotheintegrityofsuchprograms.ItispartofthereasonthattheVCALhadsignificantimplicationsforteachertraining.Forteacherswhoaretrainedintradi-tional assessment strategies, it canbedifficult to imaginehowa real-worldexperiencecouldtranslate toassessmentfocusedontestscores.Theuniversitiesintheprovinceeducatingfutureteachershadtopreparetheseindividualstohandleawiderarrayofassessmentstrategies,aswellastodeliverawiderarrayofpedagogicalstrategies.Giventhedifficultyinrecruitingandretaininghigh-qualitysecondaryschoolteachersintheUnitedStates,making theprocessbroaderandmore rigorous isnotatrivialproblem.Thekeytodoingsosuccessfullymaylieintheabilitytodemonstratesuchaprogram’seconomicimpact.TheVCALhasmovedVictoriasignificantlytowardthegoalof90%completionrates.Inaddi-tiontodocumentingcompletionrates,itwillbeimportantinfutureyearsto document the impact of that improved completion rate in terms ofincreasedworkforceandrelatedproductivitygains. Infact,thistypeofaccountabilityisnotonlyrelevanttotheVCAL,but may be a useful strategy for others doing research on appliedlearning.Appliedlearningisinordinatelyinefficientcomparedtotradi-tionallecture-basedcounterpartsintheacademy.Inleantimes,univer-sityadministratorsmayquestionthevalueofcontinuedsupportforsuchpedagogicalstrategies if the facultywhopractice themhavenotcare-fullydocumentedthebenefitsofsuchinvestmentsfortheconstituentsoftheuniversity.Futureresearchinavarietyofareasofappliedlearningwillbenefitfromscholarswhoestablishaneconomicvalue to theex-pensiveprocessofappliedlearning,aswellastheimpactongraduationratesandstudentlearning. “Will They Recognize My Lecture in the Field? The JuvenileCorrectionsCriticalAssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience,”byGregLindsteadtandReginaWilliams-Decker,raisesseveralimpor-tantissuesforappliedlearning.Theauthorsnotethestimulusforappliedlearningaspedagogical,butalsoasastepinrehabilitatingthereputationofcriminaljusticeasanacademicfield.Thiskindofreflectionprovesespeciallytimelyduringeconomicbelt-tightening,whenacademicpro-gramsmustappealto(largelynon-academic)policymakersbydemon-strating practical relevance. Lindsteadt and Williams-Decker examinethe ways a deep field experience within juvenile justice facilities canshowtheapplicabilityofcoursecontenttotheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice.Writlarge,thisessayposesthequestionofhowwellclass-andtext-based theory aligns with the practices within the criminal justicesystem. The Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour (JCCAT) dis-cussed in thearticle invites reflection that extends farbeyond thedy-namicsofthespecificappliedlearningexperience,ambitiousasitwas.


Usuallythepracticalrelevanceofcoursecontentisjudgedunidirection-ally,bymeasuringcorrespondenceofclassexperiencewithactivitiesintheprofession.Futureresearchmightinvertthequestiontheseauthorsask,queryingwhetherpractitionerswillrecognizefuturejuvenilejusticeworkerswhentheyinteractwiththestudents.Appliedlearningexperi-encesusuallyoccurattheintersectionofseveralrealmsofparticipants:students, academics, field workers, and clients in the field. It mightproverewardingtogatherdatanotonlyonwhetherstudentsrecognizecourse content in thefield,but alsowhether thepersonnel at juvenilejusticefacilitiesviewthecoursecontentasanaccuratedepictionofthejusticesystem. As for learning outcomes, the JCCAT opens the door to multiplemeasuresoflearning.Thearticleoffersintriguingglimpsesofpossiblesystemicbiasesintheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice,especiallyintheareasofracial,gender,andclassequity.Thecourseaswellastheprojectitselfmightinfutureiterationsdigdeeperintotherootsofthesedispari-ties—perhapsuncoveringlingering,unresolvedtensionsbetweenreha-bilitativemodelsofjusticeandpunitivepracticesthatmaycontributetorecidivismmorethanreformation.Onabroaderlevel,theJCCATexpe-riencecouldconfronttheconvergencesanddivergencesbetweensocialjusticeandcriminaljustice(Rawls,1971).Directengagementwiththesesystemicissuesmightequipstudentsnotsimplytobecomefuturework-erswithinthejusticesystem,butrathertoempowerthemasagentstorectifythediscrepanciestheyobservebetweentheoriesofjusticeandthewaysjusticeismetedouttojuveniles. “StudentMotivationandAssessmentofAppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram,”byK.I.Tumlin,R.Linares,andM.W.Schillingde-scribestheimpactofusingarubric—andprovidingittostudentspriortotesting—toassesshands-on,psychomotorskillssuchasshowmanshipinanequinestudiesprogram.Theoretically,providingstudentswiththerubricaheadoftheassessmentshouldclarifythegradingstandardsandimprovestudentperformanceontheappliedtasks.Infact, theauthorsofthisstudyreportthecounterintuitivefindingthatstudentswhoweregivenarubricbeforehandactuallyperformedworseontheassessmentoftheirappliedskillsthanstudentswhohadnotseentherubricatall. Rubricsarestandardoperatingproceduresinmuchoftheeducation-aldomain, inpartbecause theystandardizeassessmentofskilland inpartbecausetheymaketheevaluationstandardstransparenttostudents.Indeed,McTigheandO’Connor(2005)arguethatprovidingtherubrictostudentsisanecessary(thoughnotsufficient)conditionforsupport-ingstudentlearning.Thefindingthatinanappliedlearningsettingtherubricresultedinpoorerstudentlearningoutcomesisintriguing.Futureresearchmightfocusonestablishingwhetherornotthisresultisrepli-cable inotherdisciplines thatuseappliedlearning,andif theresult is


reliable, thereasonbehindit.Theauthorsof thisstudyreport that thestudents in this program are largely more goal-oriented than process-oriented.Coulditbethatprovidingstudentswhoarealreadygoal-(i.e.,grade?)orientedpushes them toachieve theminimumrather than themaximumpossible?This isexactlywhathappenedfor thestudents inthisstudy—theaverageperformancewasloweroverallandthefailureratewas lowerwhentherubricwaspresentbut the“superior”perfor-mancecategorywasmuchmorelikelytobeachievedwhentherubricwasnotprovided. This result invites the question of what impact a rubric has in anappliedlearningsetting.Insomeways,providingarubric“frames”thesituation for students a priori. Part of the point for those of us whoencouragestudents toparticipate inapplied learningactivitiessuchaspracticainadisciplineistoexposestudentstolearningsituationsthatarevague andundefined, requiring the student to frame theproblemstheyencounteron-sitefor themselves.Theabilitytoeffectivelyframea situation so that one can apply the appropriate academic content togenerate solutions andproductivework is critical to applied learning.Indeed,EylerandGiles(1999)arguethat“application”isoneofthevitalcomponents of the learning process in service-learning settings. Doesprovidinga rubric tostudents inanapplied learningsituationperhapsdefeatpartofthepurposeofappliedlearningbyeffectivelynarrowingstudents’attentiontoalimitedsetoffeaturesorpossiblesolutions?TheresultsreportedbyTumlin,Linares,andSchillinginvitefuturescholarstoinvestigatetheseandotherpossibilities. “Demographic Tipping Point: A Discussion of Cultural Broker-ing with English Language Learners as Service-Learning for TeacherCandidates andEducators”byWendyMcCarty,RosemaryCervantes,andGeraldineStirtzdetailstheexperienceofaservice-learningprojectthatillustratesthemutualimpactsuchexperiencescanhaveonstudentsand community members. The project implements “cultural broker-ing,”definedasinterculturalpartnershipsinitiatedtoinstigatepositivesocial change. The brokering in this case involves teacher candidateshelpingnativeSpanishspeakerslearnbasicEnglish.Thelanguagelearn-ingmovedintwodirections, typifyingthebrokeringrelationship.TheEnglish language learners (ELLs) developed their linguistic skills toimprove their social mobility, while the teacher candidates acquiredmoreSpanishlanguageskillsthroughconversingwiththelearnersandtheirfamilies. The cultural brokering experience offers intriguing possibilitiesregarding how service-learning might combine with interculturalactivities to enhance linguistic and intercultural competence. Spe-cifically, standardizedpre-testsandpost-testsof languageskillscouldgaugethedegreetowhichtheteachercandidatesandtheELLslearned


eachother’slanguage.Asforinterculturalsensitivity,priorresearchonservice-learninghasnotedthepotentialforinterculturalexperiencestotriggerboomerangeffectsif theunfamiliarcultureiscast inparticularkindsofsocialroles(Erickson&O’Connor,2000).Placingcertainpop-ulations,suchasnon-nativeEnglishspeakers,consistentlyintheroleofneedingassistancemightactuallyreinforceethnocentricviewsofAnglo-Americanhegemony.Inventoriesofinterculturaltoleranceormeasuresofprejudicecouldbeadministeredtodeterminehowculturalbrokeringaffectsthecross-culturalattitudesofparticipants. Astheauthorsnote,participantfeedbackdeservessupplementationwithotherkindsofempiricalandinterpretiveanalysis.OneinterestingdirectionforfurtherresearchwouldbetoemploydifferentpedagogicaltechniquestoteachtheELLstudents.Theprojectcouldcollectimportantdataonthemosteffectivewaystoenablenon-nativeEnglishspeakerstoacquireEnglishlanguageskills.Dothesametechniquesforforeignlanguage instruction of native English speakers work as well for stu-dentsfromotherlinguisticbackgrounds?Whichpedagogicaltechniquesprovemosteffectivewithparticulardemographicsoflanguagelearners?McCarty,Cervantes,andStirtzopenthedoorforfutureresearchtobegintomineavarietyofdatasourcesforanswerstothesequestions.

InVITATIonToFuRThERInVESTIGATIon

Thefinaleofthisarticleconsistsofsuggestionsforfutureresearchdirections rather than a definitive conclusion that brings inquiry to aneat—and necessarily premature—conclusion. Scholarship on appliedlearning needs to move beyond self-advocacy. The justifications forappliedlearninghavebeenmadeconvincingly.Theseargumentsrequiremorenuancedexaminationtoavoidcategoricalendorsementofappliedlearningregardlessofitsmethodorcontextofimplementation.Wesug-gest severalmodesofconductingscholarshiponapplied learning thatgobeyondself-justificationsofparticularappliedlearningexperiences. Many fruitful paths for scholarship on applied learning await ex-ploration.Thusfar,littleattentionhasfocusedontheinterfacebetweenapplied learning and emergent educational technologies. Appliedlearningtechniqueshavebeendiscussedaslow-techwaystointensifyintellectualexperiences,especiallywhencomparedtohands-off,deper-sonalizedmethods thatoperateviaeconomiesofscale (Schwartzman,2001).Minimalattention,however,hasbeendevotedtotheroletechnol-ogymightplaywithinappliedlearning.Forexample,whatimplicationsdo computerized simulations have for field experiences and practica?Asbudgetarybeltstighten,mightvirtualexperiencesupplement,enrich,ordisplacewhatcountsasexperience inexperiential learning?Ratherthandemonizenewtechnologicaltools,futureresearchcouldtapintothe


instructionaltechnologyliteraturetoinvestigatehowtechnologicaltoolsandappliedlearningcouldprovemutuallybeneficial.Howcouldinex-pensivemeansfortouringsitesandconductinglong-distanceinterviewsenhancepreparationforstudyaway?InwhatwaysmightcollaborativeandsocialnetworkingtoolsfromwikistoTwitterandbeyondincreasethesustainabilityoflearningbeyondthedurationofatermspentstudy-ingabroadorataninternshipsite?CouldvirtualrealitiessuchasSecondLifeandsimilarrealmsintensifypreparationforfirsthandappliedlearn-ingexperiences?Overall,howmightappliedlearningleveragethepow-eroftechnologyto(a)improvestudentreadinessforappliedlearning,(b)enrichtheappliedlearningexperience,(c)extendthesustainabilityofappliedlearningbeyondaproject’sterminationatagivenlocale,(d)improvemethodsofassessinglearningoutcomes,(e)reduceormaintaincostswithoutsacrificingquality? Inanimportantessaysurveyingthetheoreticalterritoryofthecom-municationstudiesfield,Craig(1999)identifiessocio-culturalandcriti-cal approaches as twoclassificationsof communication theory.Theseperspectives transcend communication studies and could generate re-searchthatwouldenrichthestudyofappliedlearning. Socio-cultural scholarship on applied learning asks questions thatexploretheinteractionbetweenappliedlearninganditssocialenviron-ment.Internshipsofferanexcellentexampleofopportunitiesforsocio-cultural explorations. Internships tend to be discussed from two per-spectives: the student’spedagogical/professionaldevelopment and thesponsoringorganization’slaborneeds.Lessattentionhasbeendevotedtoissuesrelatedtointernshipsandorganizationalculture.Onesuchissueinvolvestheintern’splaceinorganizationalhierarchies.Ifaninternshipservesasatraininggroundforexecutivepositions,ahopemanystudentinternsharbor,thenhowdorankandfileemployeesviewtheinternwhoservesabriefinternshipandthenleapfrogsoveremployeeswithgreatersenioritytoapositionthatoutranksthem?Howdoestherapidriseofaninternthroughtheorganizationalrankscomportwithanorganizationalculture that toutsadvancement through“payingyourdues,”and“tak-ingcareofourown”?Ifinternsareanalogoustoapprentices,thenhowdoes an apprenticeship through an educational institution’s internshipprogramcomparetoanapprenticeshipofon-the-jobtrainingwithoutanacademiccomponent? Internshipsalsoprovideanopportunevenuefordelvingintotheam-biguous role of students engaged in applied learning. The student in-ternassumesadualrolecomparabletothegraduateteachingassistant.Teachingassistantsmustnavigatebetweenseveralpotentiallyconflict-ingroles,suchaspeertothestudentstheyteach(allarestudentsearn-inggrades)grader,mediatorbetweenundergraduatesandfull-fledged


faculty.Studentinterns,whetherpaidorunpaid,facesimilarcomplexi-tiesinpositioningtheirrolewithinanorganization. Scholarship thatexploresapplied learningasacritical forcecouldinvestigate the maintenance and disruptions of power relationshipsthat infuseexperiential learning.Johnston(2007)notes thedisconnectbetween the compliant subservience sooften rewarded in cooperativeeducationventures,whichcouldincludeinternships,andtheencourage-mentofquestioningandchallengingsystemsofembeddedprivilegethatlieattheheartofcriticalpedagogy.Howmightscholarshiponappliedlearningreconciletheconflictingsocialpressurestotrainobedientem-ployeeswhilealsofosteringcriticalthinkerswhoquestiontheembeddedsystemsofprivilege thatperpetuate subservience?AstudybyCarsonandFisher(2006)foundthat25percentofstudentsdidnotdemonstratesignsofcriticalthinkingintheirreflectionsontheinternshipexperience.Thesestudentssimplydescribedtheirexperienceswithoutquestioningwhattheyencountered.Theresearchersnotethatstudentsmightbecomereluctanttoengageincriticalreflectionwhensimpledescriptionposesfewerrisks.“Werecognizethatattemptingtoproducecriticality inanenvironmentthatoftenasksfortheopposite(conformityandadherencetothestatusquo)canbeariskyundertaking,onethatmanystudentsmaybereluctanttopursue”(Carson&Fisher,2006,p.716).Towhatextentcanappliedlearningmovetowardmorecriticalreflectionwithoutjeop-ardizing the continuity of campus-community or campus-corporationpartnerships? Anotherproductivepathforresearchwouldleadresearcherstowardreflectingmoredeeplyontherelationshipbetweenappliedlearningandthe cultivation of what Benjamin Barber (2004) calls “strong democ-racy.”Amoresubstantialbodyofempirical researchcoulddocumentwhich kinds of applied learning correlate with long-term behavioralchanges that reflectdeep involvement incivicaffairs.Theoreticalandinterpretiveresearchcouldexplorehowappliedlearningcanbuildthecapacity for systemic democratization, perhaps by creating a cultureof mutual obligation and care as a counterpoint to consumerism andcommodification(Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Forexample,studiescouldadoptnetworkingtheoriesordiffusionofinnovationstodeterminethemosteffectivewaystodisseminatetheculturalawarenessstudentsacquirefromstudyabroad.Suchinvestigationsmightprovideinsightsregarding ways to counteract American hegemony and foster morecivilizedinterculturaldialogues. Futurescholarshiponappliedlearningcanblazemanypromisingin-tellectualtrails.Wearepleasedtoplayaroleinthisexploratoryventureandinviteallscholarsandpractitionersinvolvedinappliedlearningtojointhejourney.


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