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Guided Reading: Foreign Policy

1. Foreign policy:

2. Diplomacy:

3. Assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans or credits on products is called ____________________.

1. Diplomacy failed/was successful before the First Gulf War.

2. The sending of experts with technical skills to aid other nations is called ___________.

3. The National Security Council (NSC):

4. The set of policies having to do with the U.S. armed forces is called _______________.

5. Moral idealism:

6. Political realism:

7. When President George W. Bush declared that Osama bin Laden was evil and that fighting terrorism was fighting evil, he drew on the tradition ___________________.

8. When President George W. Bush was willing to work with the nations of India and Pakistan, two nations that had been sharply criticized by the United States in recent years, in order to gain their cooperation in the war in Afghanistan, he drew on the tradition _____________________________________.

12. Russia faces a problem of terrorism resulting from _________________________.

13. Goals of the al Qaeda terrorist network have apparently included getting U.S. forces out of _________________________.14. In 2002, President George W. Bush enunciated a new foreign policy doctrine that held, in part, that the United States was prepared to wage ____________ war against perceived threats with or without __________________.

15. _________________ annexation of Kuwait in 1990 was the most clear-cut case of aggression against an independent state in half a century.

16. What three nations did George W. Bush described as an "axis of evil"?

17. During the Second Gulf War in 2003, the _____________ army disbanded itself and went home.

18. ____________ and _____________ are two branches of the religion of Islam with somewhat different beliefs and traditions.

19. A majority of the population of Iraq is ____________ Arab.

20. It is believed that _____ is supporting the insurgency in Iraq.

21. Nuclear proliferation became an even greater issue than before in 1998 when ______________________________________ detonated nuclear devices.

22. Today, for the United States, the greatest concern resulting from nuclear proliferation is that nuclear devices could fall into the hands of __________________.

23. Two nations that are feared to be on the brink of developing nuclear weapons are ________________ and ____________________.

24. If America has granted another nation ___________________________ status, we must treat the trade of that nation as well as we treat the trade of the country that receives most favorable treatment.

25. What are the sources of tension between China and America?

26. The internationally recognized solution to the Israeli-Palestinian dispute is that _________________ yields the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the __________________ in return for security.

27. In January 2006, _______ won a majority of the seats in the Palestinian legislature, an alarming development since it has called for the destruction of Israel.

28. In the summer of 2006, Israel went to war with _______ in Lebanon.

29. During the early 2000, AIDS spread throughout ____________, infecting millions of adults, leaving orphaned children, and devastating the economies of numerous nations.

30. Presidents have been largely successful in getting _______________ through the Senate.

31. Since World War II ________________________ have accounted for almost 95 percent of the understandings reached between the United States and other nations.

32. The State Department:

a. One of the problems for the State Department domestically is that it has only "negative constituents"—citizens who oppose the government's policies.

33. What makes up the National Security Council?

34. The government agencies that are involved in gathering information about the capabilities and intentions of foreign governments are known as the ___________________ community.

35. ___________ served in the first term of George W. Bush as National Security Advisor and in the second term as Secretary of State.

36. The Department of Defense

37. One of the major outcomes of the _________________ War was a new interest in the balance of power between Congress and the president on foreign policy questions.

38. War Powers Act:

39. ____________, an incumbent Democratic Senator who supported the war in Iraq, lost a primary election to an antiwar candidate in 2006.

40. The attentive public:

41. The military-industrial complex:

42. A major determinant of U.S. foreign policy in the formative years was that the U.S. was very ____________ militarily.

43. During the 1800s, the United States generally _________________ of European conflicts and politics but pursued an _______________ policy in this hemisphere.

44. The Monroe Doctrine:

45. United States foreign policy toward Europe during most of 1800s was _____________.

46. America obtained which of the following possessions as a result of the Spanish-American War?

47. After World War I, the United States returned to a state of "__________________" in foreign policy, which meant a reduction in military forces, defense spending, and a return to isolationism.

48. American isolationism came to an end with:

49. The United States was the only major country to emerge from World War II with nuclear weapons.

50. The ________________ bloc consisted of the Soviet Union and eastern European countries with communist regimes.

51. The Cold War:

52. The doctrine of containment set forth by __________________ stated that the United States should seek to_______________ communist power within existing boundaries.

53. During the Cold War, there was no direct ______________________ between the United States and the Soviet Union.

54. War in Vietnam:

55. The French word détente means:

56. The policy of détente with the Soviet Union was developed by:

57. Russian President Vladimir Putin

58. Which U.S. President warned against Americans getting involved in "foreign entanglements?"

59. What would occur if American troops were required to be located ONLY on U.S. soil?

60. Who maintained a foreign policy that could be characterized as "realistic," as opposed to "idealistic?"

61. Who was the popular Democrat senator who later became Secretary of State for an antiwar (Iraq) president who has not joined the antiwar bandwagon? 62. _____________ currently produces more steel than the United States and Japan combined.

63. In 2006, only __________ members of the 107th Congress had children in one of the military services.

ESSAY

64. Explain the consequences of a policy that restricted all American troops to U.S. soil.

ANS: Students' answers may vary.REF: What If All American Troops Were Restricted to U.S. Soil?

65. Explain the difference between moral idealism and political realism and how both have been incorporated into American foreign policy.

ANS: Students' answers may vary.

66. Explain the emergence of terrorism as the strategy of choice for groups in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries and how governments have attempted to battle terrorists.


67. Analyze the two Iraqi wars both in terms of causes and consequences.


68. Explain the role that China has come to play in the world and how the United States should interact with China.


69. Describe the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians and the efforts to bring peace to this troubled part of the world.


70. Explain the constitutional clash of powers between the president and Congress in the area of foreign policy making.


71. Describe the bureaucratic structure that assists the President of the United States in the formulation and implementation of national security policy.

ANS: Students' answers may vary.72. Trace American foreign policy from its earliest days to the First World War.


73. Explain the relationship that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union from the postwar era until the collapse of the Soviet Union.


74. Will the relationship between the United States and Russia be substantially different from the relationship that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War?


Foreign and Defense Policy

Facing the World: Foreign and Defense PolicyMorality versus Reality in Foreign PolicyChallenges in World PoliticsWho Makes Foreign Policy?Congress Balances the PresidencyDomestic Sources of Foreign PolicyThe Major Foreign Policy Themes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After students have read and studied this chapter, they should be able to: Define foreign policy, defense policy, and diplomacy. Describe the two competing perspectives of viewing foreign policy. Describe the impact of issues such as nuclear proliferation and terrorism on foreign policy. Describe the current situation in Iraq, with special attention to the attitudes of the three main

ethnic groups. Summarize several current foreign policy concerns, including:

o The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the internationally proposed solution, the position of the Israelis, and the position of the Palestinians.

o The growing economic power of China and the concerns this provokes, especially relating to Taiwan.

o The problem of North Korea’s nuclear weapons development program. Describe the formal and informal powers of the president to make foreign policy. Identify the principal agencies that assist the president in developing foreign policy. Trace the stages of United States foreign policy development including early foreign policy,

the Monroe Doctrine and isolationism, internationalism, the Cold War, containment, détente, and Bush’s doctrine of preemption.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

How strong militarily and economically was the U.S. in the 1790s? Could the U.S. have been very active in world affairs? What was the major goal of U.S. foreign policy then? Was it to protect U.S. citizens and their property?

As the U.S. grew geographically, militarily, and economically, could the government remain isolationist? Why did the U.S. turn to an interventionist foreign policy? Why did the U.S. return to isolationist foreign policy after World War I? Could the U.S. be isolated from the world politically and still remain an economic power?

Does the United States now follow a moral idealist or a political realist approach in international affairs? To what extent?

Is it easy for the president and Congress to set a course for foreign policy? What kinds of measures can the United States use to combat terrorism? How can it defend its citizens against chemical and biological weapons?

Why will relations with China prove important in the years to come?

BEYOND THE BOOK

The constitutional powers of the president require him or her to be actively involved in the development of foreign policy. However, it is important to note the difference between the position of the United States in world events in 1787 when the Constitution was drafted, and the position of the United States in the beginning of the twenty-first century. In 1787, the United States was neither a powerful nation nor a major player in world events. Today, the United States has both a highly developed military with worldwide power-projection capabilities and an economy that affects all other nations. This unique position has forced the United States to be active in world events and as the leader of the executive branch, the president must play an integral role in foreign policy.

The United States has often acted as the “world’s policeman” since World War II. This strategy is in conflict with our tradition of isolationism, which was the major theme of U.S. foreign policy until World War II. Many of the military actions the United States has engaged in have been the result of treaties or executive agreements, in which the United States agreed to send in troops or otherwise defend our allies. What would happen if the United States returned to its isolationist stance? One likely result is that it would be much simpler and much less costly to organize a military. Another outcome is that there would be very little “wiggle room” for presidents in the use of troops abroad. A negative consequence is that numerous wars might break out around the world. Currently, the United States acts as a deterrent, and through the United Nations and NATO, forms alliances that serve to deter aggressor nations. The political dynamics of global relations

would change if the United States returned to an isolationist foreign policy. After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, such a policy might meet with public approval. And other nations might assume leadership roles both globally and within the U.N. and NATO alliances. But another possibility is that these alliances could fall apart. Nonetheless, it is unlikely, given the broad scope of our commitments and increasing economic globalization, that the United States would change foreign policy strategies anytime soon.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy Foreign policy includes the techniques and strategies used to achieve external goals, as well as the goals themselves. Some of the techniques used in carrying out foreign policy include: diplomacy—the total process by which states carry on political relations, economic aid—assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans, or credits to purchase goods, and technical assistance—sending experts with technical skills in agriculture, engineering, or business to aid other nations

A. National Security Policy.A major goal of foreign policy is national security, that is, the protection of the independence and political and economic integrity of the United States. Defense policy is a subset of national security policy that includes the directing of the scale and size of the American armed forces. Defense policy considers the types of armed forces we need, how many wars we need to be prepared to fight simultaneously, and the type of weaponry that will be required.

B. Diplomacy.Diplomacy is the total process by which states carry on political relations with each other. It is the process of settling conflicts by peaceful means. Diplomacy may or may not be successful. For example, at times the attempt to negotiate a settlement between Israel and its Arab neighbors—including the Palestinians—has made apparent progress. At other times, negotiations have come to a stop. The failure of diplomacy can be seen in Israel’s war with Hezbollah during the summer of 2006.

II. Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy The development of foreign policy begins with the view a country and its leaders have of the world and how it operates.

A. Moral Idealism.This view of the world sees nations as normally willing to cooperate and agree on moral

standards. This view leads to support for international organizations such as the League of Nations proposed by President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921) and the United Nations. It also supports such efforts as the Peace Corps.

B. Political Realism.

This competing model of foreign policy sees each nation acting to maximize its own interest regardless of moral principles. This principle supports a strong military and a willingness to make deals with dictators.

C. American Foreign Policy—A Mixture of Both. Every president has based his foreign policy on both of these principles, though some have

tended to stress one or the other of the two. For example, George W. Bush’s belief that a democratic Iraq could make the Middle East a less threatening place is an example of moral idealism. The administration’s willingness to support Pakistan, despite the fact that it is a dictatorship and has recently developed nuclear weapons, is an example of political realism. Pakistan’s location is strategic for fighting in Afghanistan.

III. Challenges in World Politics A. The Emergence of Terrorism. 1. Terrorism and Regional Strife. Terrorism has a long history that dates back well

before its recent adoption as a tactic of choice by Islamist radicals. It has been employed in the past by nationalist movements of varying kinds (Ireland, the Basques) and continues to be so used today. Examples include the terrorism used by Palestinian nationalists and by the Chechen rebels in Russia, both of which have led to a large number of truly horrific incidents.

2. Terrorist Attacks against Foreign Civilians. Terrorists have been known to take their fight out of their own region, sometimes committing acts of terror in third-party settings. An example is the attack by Palestinian terrorists on Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics in 1972.

3. September 11. The Al Qaeda group, led by Osama bin Laden, appears to have been motivated by the stationing of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia following the First Gulf War with Iraq, and also by a desire to mobilize masses of ordinary Muslims into a movement that would overthrow existing governments in Islamic nations and create radical regimes that would confront the West.

4. London Bombings. In July 2005 terrorists carried out synchronized bombings of the London Underground and bus network, killing fifty-two and wounding hundreds. In the summer of 2006 British authorities foiled a plot to bring down ten planes scheduled to leave London’s Heathrow Airport bound for the United States.

B. The War on Terrorism. Terrorist violence has fostered increased security measures as nations attempt to balance a desire to protect citizens from terrorists with the citizens’ rights to privacy.

1. Military Responses. In the aftermath of the attacks on the United States, the current Bush administration launched a war on terrorism. One primary goal of that war was to oust the Taliban government from power in Afghanistan. The Taliban was closely aligned with Al Qaeda. The United States, along with a coalition of allies and anti-Taliban rebels within Afghanistan, succeeded in ousting the Taliban and supported the creation of a new regime. The Bush administration also considered

Iraq’s Saddam Hussein to be a threat. After failing to get desired support from the U.N. Security Council, the Bush administration, with participation by Britain and others, launched an invasion of Iraq that quickly overthrew the Hussein regime.

2. A New Kind of War. Bush has enunciated a new doctrine of “preemptive war” to deal with terrorism. War could be anticipatory of threats and waged, if necessary, without allies. Critics have said that such a policy is reminiscent of the actions of dictators.

C. Wars In Iraq.Saddam Hussein’s annexation of Kuwait in August 1990 was the most clear-cut case of aggression against an independent nation since World War II.

1. The Persian Gulf—The First Gulf War. The United States set up a defensive line in Saudi Arabia at the request of that nation. After half a year to prepare, and after obtaining a U.N. resolution authorizing force, the U.S.-led coalition initiated a month-long bombing campaign against Iraq followed by an invasion. Kuwait was freed but the coalition forces did not go on to conquer Baghdad, and as a result Hussein’s regime survived. U.N. weapons inspectors sought to find and eliminate any weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, but in 1999, Iraq placed such obstacles in the path of the inspectors that they withdrew from the country.

2. The Persian Gulf—The Second Gulf War. Bush had called Iraq, Iran, and North Korea part of an “axis of evil” in the world. The invasion of Iraq in March 2003 was conducted with a relatively small force of about a quarter of a million troops, instead of the half-a-million used in the First Gulf War. The Iraqi army collapsed quickly and, in effect, disbanded itself—soldiers took off their uniforms and went home. While the smaller force was sufficient to defeat the Iraqi army, it proved too small to maintain order in Iraq during the occupation.

3. Occupied Iraq. Iraq is made up of three main ethno-religious groups: the Shiite Arabs (about 60 percent) the Sunni Arabs (about 20 percent) and the Kurds (about 17 percent). The Kurds had been functioning as an American-sponsored independent state since the First Gulf War and were overjoyed by the invasion. The Shiites were glad that Hussein, who had murdered many of them, was gone. They were deeply skeptical of the occupation, however. The Sunnis had controlled the government under Hussein and many considered the occupation a disaster. The Coalition Provisional Authority turned Iraqi sovereignty over to an interim government on June 30, 2004.

4. Uprisings in Spring 2004. In April, there were simultaneous uprisings in the Sunni Triangle west of Baghdad and by Shiite supporters of Mutada al-Sadr, a radical cleric. The result of the uprisings was to leave several Sunni cities effectively under the control of anti-coalition militias. After a second uprising later in 2004, however, al-Sadr’s supporters began negotiating to join the political process. Immediately after

the U.S. election, the U.S. mounted a major attack on Fallujah, a rebel-held Sunni city.

5. Sunnis and Shiites. The conflict between Sunnis and Shiites presents one of the greatest challenges to a stable Iraqi government.

D. Nuclear Weapons.America gained nuclear weapons in 1945, the Soviet Union in 1949, Britain in 1952, France in 1960, and China in 1964. These powers remained the only ones with open nuclear weapons programs until 1998, when Pakistan and India tested nuclear weapons.

1. The United States and the Soviet Union. During the cold war, the United States and the Soviet Union developed large stockpiles of nuclear weapons that they aimed at each other. Both have since reduced their holdings, but both continue to possess very large quantities of such arms.

2. Nuclear Proliferation. This is an important U.S. foreign policy concern caused in part by the fear that terrorists will gain control of nuclear weapons. Also, an increased number of nations with these weapons raises the possibility that there might someday be a nuclear war. The issue of nuclear proliferation proved important in 1998 when India and Pakistan each detonated nuclear test bombs. These tests came despite the protests of the international community. Israel is believed to have a hundred or more nuclear bombs, and North Korea has threatened to develop a nuclear capacity. In the 1980s South Africa secretly developed a nuclear capability but destroyed its bombs in the 1990s. Libya has recently renounced a nuclear development program. The latest candidate to enter the nuclear club seems to be Iran, a development of disturbing dimensions given its radical political philosophy.

E. The New Power: China.American policy has been to engage the Chinese in diplomatic and economic relationships in the hope of turning the nation in a more pro-Western direction.

1. Chinese-American Trade Ties. During the Clinton Administration, China was granted normal trade relations status on a year-to-year basis. In 2000 the status was made permanent. In 2001, Congress endorsed China’s application to join the World Trade Organization.

2. Chinese-American Tensions. Some American commentators have been unnerved by China’s booming economy and see China as a potential threat. Current disputes focus on allegations of espionage made by both sides, the Chinese unwillingness to support the war in Iraq and China’s refusal to impose sanctions on Iran.

F. Regional Conflicts. 1. Cuba. One of the most pressing long-term problems for the U.S. has been Cuba.

With the demise of the Soviet Union, the Cuban government has received little economic aid. But the impasse between the U.S. and Cuba became dramatically clear during the Elian Gonzalez case. Whether relations would improve with the death of Fidel Castro remains to be seen.

2. Israel and the Palestinians. The internationally recognized solution is for Israel to yield the West Bank and the Gaza Strip to the Palestinians in return for effective security commitments and abandonment by the Palestinians of any right of return to Israel proper. Unfortunately, the Palestinians have been unwilling to stop terrorist attacks on Israel, and Israel has been unwilling to dismantle its settlements in the occupied territories. Further, the two parties have been unable to come to an agreement on how much of the West Bank should go to the Palestinians and on what compensation (if any) the Palestinians should receive for abandoning all claims to settlement in Israel proper.

3. The Collapse of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process. In 1993, the Israelis and Palestinians agreed to the setting up of a Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and Gaza. Talks broke down in 2002, however, and a campaign of terror by Palestinian radicals led the Israelis to send its army into the occupied territories, which in turn led to the virtual collapse of the Palestinian Authority. Negotiations are at a standstill, and in 2004 Israeli leader Ariel Sharon announced a plan to leave the Gaza Strip whether the Palestinians cooperated or not.

4. The Israeli-Hezbollah (Lebanon) War. After Hezbollah captured several Israeli soldiers and began firing rockets into Israel, Israel responded with military action against Hezbollah. Before a cease-fire was brokered, many civilians, Arab as well as Israeli, lost their lives.

5. AIDS in Southern Africa. AIDS now infects up to a quarter of the adults in several countries in the southernmost part of Africa. The Bush administration announced a special foreign aid program directed at the problem.

6. African Civil Wars. The world in general and America in particular have attempted to avoid involvement in African civil wars, despite the terrific loss of life involved. These conflicts included a genocidal massacre of the Tutsi tribe in Rwanda in 1994, and a civil war in Zaire that killed millions. Civil wars in Angola and southern Sudan may be over, but refugees from suppression of a rebellion in the western Sudanese province of Darfur are now threatened with starvation.

IV. Who Makes Foreign Policy? A. Constitutional Powers of the President 1. War Powers. As commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has very

extensive powers.2. Treaties and Executive Agreements. The president has the authority to make

treaties, though they require the approval of two-thirds of the Senate. The president also makes executive agreements, which don’t require Senate approval, with leaders of other countries.

3. Other Constitutional Powers. The president appoints ambassadors and decides whether to recognize other governments as legitimate.

B. Informal Techniques of Presidential Leadership.

In addition to the constitutional powers, the president also has informal techniques with which he can develop foreign policy. These techniques include access to information from experts within the executive branch. As legislative leader, the president can influence the budgetary constraints in all areas of appropriations. This includes economic aid, military aid, and humanitarian aid. The president can use the “bully pulpit” to build public support for his programs. The president can commit the nation to courses of action from which it would be very difficult to back down even if Congress wished to.

C. Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking. While the president has considerable influence on the making of foreign policy, there are additional sources of foreign policy-making within the executive branch. The sources include:

1. The Department of State. This department is responsible for the daily operation of foreign policy. Every country that the United States officially recognizes receives State Department officials who maintain an office in the country. These officials gather information and advise the president on the development of social, political, and economic conditions within their countries and how events could affect the United States. The department also administers foreign aid.

2. The National Security Council. This group, consisting of the president, vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the CIA and chair of the joint chiefs, was created to aid the president in integrating foreign and defense policy.

3. The Intelligence Community. This consists of the forty-plus government agencies or bureaus that engage in intelligence activities, information gathering and policy development. These agencies gather information about the capabilities of foreign governments, and perform activities that further U.S. foreign policy goals and include

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). National Security Agency (NSA). Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA). Offices within the Department of Defense. Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Army intelligence. Air Force intelligence. Department of the Treasury. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Department of Energy. Directorate of Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection in the

Department of Homeland Security.4. Covert Actions. These actions are carried out in secret and the American public

rarely finds out about them. They may include attempts to overthrow foreign governments. In the 1970s, following scandalous revelations, Congress cut back on

the CIA’s ability to conduct such activities. The agency has since won back much of its freedom of action.

5. Criticisms of the Intelligence Community. The failure to anticipate 9/11 was a serious problem. Because of the threat of terrorism, intelligence budgets have been increased. In 2004, the bipartisan 9/11 commission called for a new intelligence czar to oversee the entire intelligence community

6. The Department of Defense. This department was created in 1947 by merging the Department of War (Army), with the Navy Department. A single entity was now responsible for military activity.

V. Congress Balances the President After the War in Vietnam, Congress sought to restrain the president’s ability to unilaterally commit forces to combat with the War Powers Resolution (1973). Presidents since, however, have frequently chosen not to consult Congress before committing troops and to create a situation in which Congress does not dare recall them. Congress can sometimes take the lead, for example by voting sanctions on South Africa based on its policy of apartheid.

VI. Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy A. Elite and Mass Opinion.

Elites in American business, education, communications, labor, and religion try to influence presidential decision making on foreign policy. Both presidents and elites try to influence that subset of the public that has a strong interest in foreign policy, the attentive public.

B. The Military-Industrial Complex.A major source of jobs in the United States is the manufacture of military equipment. When

President Clinton proposed a significant cut in the budget for the military, there was significant resistance from the military-industrial complex. The military-industrial complex is the term that describes the mutually beneficial relationship between the armed forces and defense contractors. Many communities were opposed to base closings that would mean the loss of jobs in their community, and would hurt secondary economies surrounding the bases as well.

VII. The Major Foreign Policy Themes The United States has not always had the same goals or objectives in foreign policy. Part of the reason for the different goals and objectives has been the differing levels of power of the United States in relation to other countries. As the United States became more powerful, it began to take a different role in world events and this led to different goals and objectives. The following themes of United States foreign policy have influenced the actions of the government and in many cases the actions of the rest of the world.

A. The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements.The Declaration of Independence was the first foreign policy statement of the United States. Our foreign policy was on the whole nonexistent under the Articles of Confederation. Under Washington and Jefferson, the goal was to “steer clear of permanent alliances.”

1. The Monroe Doctrine. While the United States was not actively involved in the affairs of countries in Europe, Asia, or Africa, the United States was concerned with the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine claimed a role for the United States as the protector of the Western Hemisphere. This doctrine attempted to limit European influence in North and South America while increasing the influence of the United States. The United States also followed an active expansionary policy, buying Louisiana, annexing Texas, and obtaining much territory from Mexico through the Mexican War (1848).

2. The Spanish-American War and World War I. These wars brought about a dramatic change in the foreign policy of the United States. For the first time the United States became an important player in the game of international affairs. Not only was the United States concerned with the Western Hemisphere, it was now concerned with international events throughout the globe. After Word War I, however, the United States returned to a policy of isolationism.

B. The Era of Internationalism.This era began the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After defeating Germany and Japan in World War II, the United States sought to eliminate the conditions that led to both world wars by sponsoring the United Nations.

1. The Cold War. The alliance formed by the United States and the Soviet Union during World War II was short-lived. Because of their contrasting economic and political systems the United States and the Soviet Union became major adversaries. This adversarial relationship would dominate foreign policy through 1991. The Soviet Union created an area of influence that became known as the Soviet bloc, while the United States entered into a military alliance with many European nations called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. Winston Churchill proclaimed the Soviets had placed “an iron curtain” between the countries of Eastern Europe and Western Europe.

2. Containment Policy. Containment was the U.S. foreign policy that addressed this new threat from the USSR. Expressed in the Truman Doctrine, this policy sought to stop the spread of Soviet power by containing it within existing limits.

C. Superpower Relations. Soviet and American troops never met in battle during the Cold War. Several wars took place with nations allied to the superpowers, however. In 1950, communist North Korea attempted to conquer noncommunist South Korea. The United States entered the war to prevent a South Korean defeat. When North Korea was on the brink of collapse, China entered on the North Korean side to preserve that nation. The result was a draw, with the pre-war status-quo maintained. Vietnam was also divided into a communist north and a noncommunist south. Communist rebels in the South (the Viet Cong) supported by the North threatened the South Vietnam government, and U.S. president Lyndon Johnson introduced U.S. ground troops. North Vietnam then committed its regular army.

Controversy over the war in the United States reached a fever pitch rarely seen in American history. In the 1970s the United States began withdrawing its troops and in 1975 South Vietnam fell to the North.

1. The Cuban Missile Crisis. The most dangerous nuclear confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union took place in 1962 when the Soviet Union stationed missiles in Cuba to ward off an American invasion. After tense negotiations, the weapons were withdrawn and the United States promised not to attack Cuba.

2. A Period of Détente. Détente, or a relaxation of tensions, began to develop in the early 1970s as both sides realized that a nuclear war meant mutually assured destruction. Although there were still significant problems between the super powers (the U.S. refused to attend the Olympics held in the USSR in 1980 and the USSR refused to attend the Olympics held in the U.S. in 1984), relations were rarely openly hostile. Significant strides were taken to limit the use of nuclear weapons. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) went into effect, although SALT II was never ratified.

3. The Reagan-Bush Years. President Reagan took a hard line against the Soviet Union during his first term, proposing the strategic defense initiative (SDI), or “Star Wars,” in 1983. The SDI was designed to serve as a space-based defense against enemy missiles. After the fall of the Soviet Union in George H. W. Bush’s presidency, another major treaty limiting strategic weapons (START—the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was signed with Russia and three other Soviet successor states.

4. The Dissolution of the Soviet Union. This began in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the last bastion of the iron curtain. Shortly thereafter, the Baltic republics separated from the Soviet Union. The USSR was dissolved in December 1991, leaving fifteen independent nations to grapple with the major social, economic, and political problems in the 1990s and today. Although Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke in terms of reform, his recent actions reveal a disturbing resemblance to those of his Soviet predecessors.

VIII. Features. A. What If . . . All American Troops Were Restricted to U.S. Soil?

Such a move would involve incredibly complex logistical problems as American troops would be transported back to, and then housed in, the United States. It would be necessary to create a means by which American troops could be dispatched to distant lands. It would be necessary to provide more financial assistance to other nations so that they could bolster their military capacity. Finally, an absence of American troops would have dramatic implications for situations in Korea and East Asia, as well as Iraq.

B. Politics and Foreign Policy: How Much Realism Should There Be?

The Democrats have had a tradition of being relatively open to moral idealism in foreign policy since the days of Woodrow Wilson. The Republicans traditionally were more skeptical of this tendency. George W. Bush’s approach to Iraq, however, reveals a strong orientation to a moralistic philosophy.

C. Beyond Our Borders: China: The Next SuperpowerChina could well have a larger GDP than the United States by the 2030s. Economic power translates into diplomatic and military power. What will the Chinese do about Taiwan, which they claim as one of their provinces but which has been functioning as an independent state for over half a century? Use of military force against Taiwan could result in a confrontation with America.

D. Which Side Are You On? Should We Bring Back the Draft?Some say that a reintroduction of the military draft would spread the burden of service more equally and make the U.S. government more careful about going to war. Opponents of this idea say that the draft is an unwarranted imposition on those drafted and that draftees are not the kind of soldiers the military needs.

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Facing the World: Foreign and Defense PolicyA. Foreign policy is a nation’s external goals and the techniques and strategies

used to achieve these goals. In practice foreign policy cannot be totally separated from domestic policy because the techniques and strategies used in foreign policy will have significant impact on domestic goals and policies. Some of the techniques used in the development of foreign policy include:1. diplomacy - the total process by which states carry on political relations2. economic aid - assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans, or

credits to purchase goods3. technical assistance - sending experts with technical skills in agriculture,

engineering, or business to aid other nationsB. A major goal of foreign policy is national security, which is the foreign and

domestic policy designed to protect the independence and political and economic integrity of the United States. Securing the nation from other nations is a difficult and complex task. In addition to the conventional military forces needed to repel aggressive action by other nations, the United States must also have strategic policy to protect the country from potential hostile actions.

C. Defense policy is a subset of national security policy that includes the directing of the scale and size of the American armed forces. Defense policy considers the types of armed forces we need, how many wars we need to be prepared to fight simultaneously, and the type of weaponry that will be required.

D. Diplomacy is the total process by which states carry on political relations with each other. It is the process of settling conflicts by peaceful means. During the

1990’s, the United States has used diplomacy to help unstable areas of the world negotiate peace. For example, the United States encouraged the negotiation of the North Ireland Peace Resolution.

II. Morality Versus Reality in Foreign PolicyA. The development of foreign policy begins with the view a country and its

leaders have of the world and how it operates. For an extended period of time the United States has operated on the assumption of moral idealism. This view of the world sees all nations as willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards. Clearly not all foreign leaders have operated from the moral idealism standard. However, when the United States encountered leaders of foreign nations who did not fit this model, like Hitler in the 1940s, the U.S. did not alter from this position. Typically, foreign policies that are based on moral idealism are unsuccessful because they assume an American ideal of morality that may not be universal for every nation.

B. A competing model of foreign policy is grounded in the philosophy of political realism. Political Realists see each nation acting to maximize its own interest. From this perspective, foreign policy will not be used to further idealistic goals for the world. Instead foreign policy will reflect the values that will produce the best results for the people within the nation. What difference does it make if the United States conducts foreign policy from the position of moral idealism, or from the position of political realism? How could the public influence which view of human nature the federal government should operate from when conducting foreign policy?

C. American foreign policy in this century has been a mixtre of both. For example, the second Gulf War in 2003 revealed a mixture of idealism and realism. While the primary motive for invading Iraq was realistic (in the interests of U.S. security), another goal of the war reflected idealism (the liberation of the Iraqi people from an oppressive regime).

III. Challenges in World PoliticsA. The issue of terrorism has proven to be an important foreign policy challenge

for the United States, particularly in the era after September 11, 2001. In the aftermath of the attacks on the U.S., the current Bush administration launched a war on terrorism. One primary goal of that war was to oust the Taliban government from power in Afghanistan. The Taliban was supportive of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden’s organization deemed responsible for the September 11 attacks. The U.S., along with a coalition of allies and supporters succeeded in ousting the Taliban and supported the creation of a new regime that did not support terrorism. Terrorist violence also has fostered increased security measures as nations attempt to balance a desire to protect citizens from terrorists with the citizens’ rights to privacy.

B. Nuclear proliferation is an important U.S. foreign policy concern caused in part by the fear that terrorists will gain control of nuclear weapons. As a result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, independent states now possess the nuclear warheads formerly controlled by the Soviet Union. The issue of nuclear proliferation again proved important in 1998 when India and Pakistan each

detonated nuclear test bombs. These tests came despite the protests of the international community.

C. The People’s Republic of China will continue to be an important player in world affairs. During the Clinton administration, China was granted most-favored nation status on a year-to-year basis. China’s enormous population is tremendously attractive to western corporations, and its possession of nuclear weapons enhance China as an important nation in the twenty-first century. In spite of tensions between China and the United States in 2001 when an American spy plane collided with a Chinese fighter plane in Chinese air space, China fully backed the United States’ war on terrorism, and even provided intelligence information to the United States.

D. The interdependence of the world economy is demonstrated by stock markets all over the world responding to regional ups and downs. In particular, the Asian economic crisis caused international concern as stock markets responded to bad economic news from parts of Asia.

E. Regional conflicts no longer are conflicts between countries backed by the two super powers. However, this has not meant the end of conflicts between nations, or within nations. 1. In Central America and the Caribbean the U.S. has been actively involved

in limiting the amount of armed conflicts. In 1989 the U.S. sent military troops to replace the leader of the government of Panama. One of the most pressing long-term problems for the U.S. in this region has been Cuba. With the demise of the Soviet Union, the Cuban government has had little economic aid. But the impasse between the U.S. and Cuba became dramatically clear during the Elian Gonzalez case.

2. The Middle East has long been an area of concern for the United States because we purchase oil from the region. Hostilities culminated in 1990 with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. This action led the U.S. to persuade the United Nations to respond with aggressive action against Iraq. The Gulf War ended with the reinstatement of the Kuwait government but did not remove Hussein from power. The United States advocates stability in this region because of its impact on world energy supplies and because the state of Israel has had direct and indirect protection from the U.S. since its creation in 1956.

3. After the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, the United States made it clear that it consider Iraq and Saddam Hussein to be part of an “axis of evil” that threatened world peace. In 2002 and early 2003, President George W. Bush called for a “regime change” in Iraq, but Bush was unable to convince the United Nations that military force was necessary in Iraq. Nonetheless, in March 2003, a U.S.–led coalition of nations invaded Iraq and within a month had ended Hussein’s decades-old dictatorship. The efforts of the coalition forces then turned to the task of assisting Iraq in recovering from the war and establishing a new government regime.

4. Regional conflicts mushroomed in Eastern Europe after the break up of the Soviet Union. In some countries the conflict was managed in a peaceful

manner (Czechoslovakia became two independent nations) while in others the conflict is extremely violent (former Yugoslavia). In the late 1990’s the United States and European countries began a bombing campaign that attempted to force Serbian leaders from waging war against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. The bombing did stop some of the violence against Albanians, but left the Serbian leadership politically strengthened.

5. Various regions of Africa continue to challenge foreign policy. Civil war in Rwanda caused huge refugee problems in neighboring Uganda and Zaire. Despite the extent of the crisis, the U.S. did very little to help. In addition, unrest continues to be a problem in the Congo and in Sierra Leone. Many see the western world’s lack of response as evidence of a political realist perspective in foreign policy. In addition, famine and disease, particularly the spread of AIDS negatively impact the economic, social and political realms of many African nations and create instability in this part of the world.

IV. Who Makes Foreign Policy?A. The constitutional powers of the president require him to be actively involved

in the development of foreign policy. However, it is important to note the difference between the position of the United States in world events in 1787 when the Constitution was drafted, and the position of the United States in the beginning of the twenty-first century. In 1787, the United States was neither a powerful nation nor a major player in shaping world events. Today the United States is the only country that has both a highly developed military with international power and a world-based economy that affects all other nations. This unique position has forced the United States to be active in world events and as the leader of the executive branch the president must play an integral role in foreign policy. Included in the powers of the president are his position as commander-in- chief of the military and the power to make executive agreements.

B. In addition to the constitutional powers, the president also has informal techniques with which he can develop foreign policy. These techniques include:1. The access to information from within the executive branch.

a. The Department of Defense.b. Central Intelligence Agencyc. State Departmentd. All other agencies and departments that collect information about

international affairs.2. As legislative leader, the president can influence the budgetary constraints

in all areas of appropriations. This includes economic aid, military aid, and humanitarian aid.

3. The president can use his position to build public support for his specific programs.

4. As leader of the government the president can make decisions for the country in the world arena that set the moral tone for the foreign policy of the nation.

C. While the president has considerable influence on the making of foreign policy there are many sources of foreign policy-making within the executive branch. The sources include:1. The Department of State is responsible for the daily operation of foreign

policy. Every country that the United States officially recognizes receives State Department officials who maintain an office (or offices) in the country. These officials gather information and advise the president on the development of social, political, and economic conditions within their countries and how events could affect the United States.

2. The National Security Council was created to aid the president in integrating the volumes of information related to foreign policy. From the Nixon administration through the George H. W. Bush administration (1968-1992) the NSC was seen by many political analysts as a rival to the State Department in the development of foreign policy. During the Reagan administration the NSC conducted secret foreign policy that was hidden from Congress and, according to President Reagan, the president.

3. The intelligence community consists of the forty-plus government agencies or bureaus that engage in intelligence activities, information, and policy development. These agencies gather information about the capabilities of foreign governments, and perform activities that further U.S. foreign policy goals. These agencies include the following:a. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)b. National Security Agency (NSA)c. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)d. Offices within the Department of Defensee. Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of Statef. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)g. Army intelligenceh. Air Force intelligencei. Department of the Treasuryj. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)k. Department of Energy

D. The Department of Defense was created in 1947 in an effort to bring all military activity under the jurisdiction of a civilian Secretary of Defense; it replaced the Department of War, which had been in existence since 1789. But the reorganization and creation of the Department of Defense created a single entity responsible for military activity. This reorganization helped to refine the gathering of information important to the president in the area of foreign policy.

V. Congress Balances the PresidentHow much power should the president have in the area of foreign policy? This is not an easy question to answer today, nor was it an easy question for the founding fathers. In 1789 when the Constitution became effective, the power of the president in the area of foreign policy was rather limited because the power of the United States was very limited. The president was commander-in-chief, but only Congress could declare war. The president was responsible for making treaties but with the advice and consent of the Senate. As time progressed the power of the United States grew

both economically and militarily. This increased power meant an increased role for the institution of the president. By the beginning of the twentieth century the United States had become a world power and the power of the presidency had expanded dramatically. Did the founding fathers intend for one person to have this much power? After the end of the Vietnam conflict Congress took action that was intended to reduce the power of the president. The War Powers Act limited the president’s use of troops in military action without congressional approval.

VI. Domestic Sources of Foreign PolicyA. Currently, the amount of interaction between all nations socially, economically,

and politically is expanding dramatically. Foreign policy is becoming difficult to separate from domestic policy. President George H. W. Bush, President Clinton and President George W. Bush all appear to be influenced by public opinion in the development of specific foreign policy (although it is difficult to measure), and it appears that the American public is becoming more attentive to foreign affairs, particularly after September 11, 2001. This was especially the case during the Gulf war of 2003, during which time there were massive anti-war demonstrations. But besides fears of terrorism, Americans are increasingly interdependent on the global economy. Americans are affected by volatility in other nations now more than ever. This is especially true of Americans who are employed by multinational corporations, by American corporations dependent upon foreign markets, and by suppliers to these corporations. And as an increased percentage of Americans hold stock portfolios, the volatility of the global economy has become an increasingly important source of domestic public opinion. If this trend continues it seems likely that the public will more strongly influence foreign policy.

B. A major source of jobs in the United States has been tied to the manufacture of military equipment. When President Clinton proposed a significant cut in the budget for the military, there was significant resistance from the military-industrial complex. The military-industrial complex is the term that describes the mutually beneficial relationship between the armed forces and defense contractors. Many communities were very opposed to budget cuts that would mean the loss of jobs in their community, and would hurt secondary economies surrounding the bases as well. When base closings were announced, many political leaders opposed these closings because of the economic hardships this would place on the communities affected.

VII. The Major Foreign Policy ThemesA. The United States has not always had the same goals or objectives in foreign

policy. Part of the reason for the different goals and objectives has been the differing levels of power of the United States in relation to the power of other countries. As the United States became more powerful it began to take a different role in world events and this led to different goals and objectives. The following themes of United States foreign policy have influenced the actions of the government and in many cases the actions of the rest of the world.

B. Formative years (1776-1800). The Declaration of Independence was the first foreign policy statement of the United States. Foreign policy was on the whole nonexistent prior to the nineteenth century. It was characterized by the large number of things that the government (then under the Articles of

Confederation) could not do, including that it could not control commerce, and had no right to make commercial treaties. The goal was to “steer clear of permanent alliances.”

C. The period of the Monroe Doctrine (1823-1898) was different from the formative years. While the U.S. was not going to be actively involved in the affairs of countries in Europe, Asia, or Africa, the U.S. was concerned with the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine placed the United States as the leading country in the Western Hemisphere. This doctrine attempted to limit European influence in North and South America while increasing the influence of the U.S.

D. The Spanish-American War and World War I (1898-1919) brought about a dramatic change in the foreign policy of the United States. For the first time the U.S. was recognized as an important player in the game of international affairs. Not only was the U.S. concerned with the Western Hemisphere, it was now concerned with international events throughout the globe. During this era the United States actively sought to influence the foreign policies of all major nations. The first war of nations (known at the time as the Great War) marked the beginning of the end of this era of foreign policy.

E. The Era of Internationalism (1942-present) began the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After defeating Germany and Japan in World War II, the United States sought to eliminate the conditions that led to both world wars and formed the United Nations.

F. The alliance formed by the United States and the Soviet Union during World War II was short-lived. Because of their contrasting economic and political systems the United States and the Soviet Union became major adversaries. This adversarial relationship would dominate foreign policy throughout the world for the next 46 years. The relations between the U.S. and the USSR followed the following themes from 1945 through 1991.1. The Cold War was an ideological, political, and economic impasse. The

Soviet Union created an area of influence that became known as the Soviet bloc, while the United States entered into a military alliance with many European nations called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. Winston Churchill proclaimed the Soviets had placed “an iron curtain” between the countries of Eastern Europe and Western Europe.

2. Containment was a new U.S. foreign policy that addressed this new threat from the USSR. Called the Truman Doctrine, this policy was adopted in an attempt to limit the spread of Soviet influence in other countries. The policy of containment led the U.S. to a military involvement in the Korean conflict and the Vietnam conflict.

3. Confrontation in the nuclear world became a real threat in the late 1950s when the U.S. and the USSR had nuclear bombs and the technological means to deliver them.

4. A period of détente or a relaxing period between the superpowers began to develop during the late 1960s, as both sides realized that a nuclear war meant mutual assured-destruction (MAD). Although there were still significant problems between the super powers (the U.S. refused to attend

the Olympics held in the USSR in 1980 and the USSR refused to attend the Olympics held in the U.S. in 1984), relations were rarely openly hostile. Significant strides were taken to limit the use of nuclear weapons. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) went into effect, and although SALT II was never ratified, another major treaty limiting strategic weapons (START - Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was signed.

5. During the Reagan and George H. W. Bush years, the world order changed drastically. The dissolution of the Soviet Union culminated in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the last bastion of the iron curtain. This event signaled a major alteration in the Soviet Union’s influence. Shortly thereafter, the Baltic republics separated from the Soviet Union. The USSR was dissolved in December 1991, leaving a commonwealth of 15 independent nations to grapple with the major social, economic, and political problems in the 1990s and today. The dismantling of the Soviet Union led to new world problems and opportunities for the United States.

PRACTICING POLITICS: AN EXERCISEAsk students to follow all of the foreign affairs that are reported in the newspaper for one week. During this time, what policies does the U.S. seem to be concerned with? Where are the “hot spots” at this point in time? Why? Why are other areas less likely to get attention?

This chapter focuses on selected aspects of U.S. foreign and defense policy. It examines the roots of American foreign and defense policy, while studying the policymaking process. The chapter also discusses the economic dimension of national security policy, exploring both external and domestic challenges facing the United States’ future as a world leader. The main points of the chapter are:

Since World War II, the United States has acted in the role of world leader, which has substantially affected its military, diplomatic, and economic policies.

The policy machinery for foreign and defense affairs is dominated by the president and includes military, intelligence, diplomatic, and economic agencies and organizations.

The United States maintains a high degree of defense preparedness. This preparedness mandates a substantial level of defense spending and a worldwide deployment of U.S. conventional and strategic forces. A consequence of these requirements is a military-industrial complex that benefits from and is a cause of high levels of military spending.

Changes in the international marketplace have led to increased economic interdependence among nations, which has had a

marked influence on the United States’ economy and on its security planning. Increasingly, national security policy has been defined in economic rather than military terms.

From 1945 to 1991, U.S. foreign and defense policies were dominated by a concern with the Soviet Union. During most of that period the United States pursued a policy of containment based on the premise that the Soviet Union was an aggressor nation bent on global conquest. Containment policy led the United States into wars in Korea and Vietnam and into maintaining a large defense establishment. U.S. governmental forces are deployed around the globe and the nation has a large nuclear arsenal. The end of the Cold War, however, has made some of this weaponry and much of the traditional military strategy obsolete. Cutbacks in military spending and a redefinition of the military’s role are underway.

With the end of the Cold War, the United States has taken a new approach to foreign affairs, which President George Bush labeled a "new world order." It proposes that nations work together toward common goals and includes efforts to address global problems, such as drug trafficking and environmental pollution. The Persian Gulf War is the notable example of the multilateralism that is a characteristic of the new world order (See OLC audio, "President Bush on the Gulf War," at www.mhhe.com/patterson5). However, multilateralism may not work well in all cases, such as in the Balkans.

Increasingly, national security is being defined in economic terms. After World War II, the United States helped establish a global trading system of which it was the leading partner. Today, the increasingly integrated international economy can best be seen as tripolar (United States, Japan, and Germany), with the United States playing a leading, if not dominant, role in the system. Many analysts believe that a vigorous economic sector rather than military power holds the key to America’s future position in international affairs. American foreign policy seeks stability, open trade, and access to natural resources. (See OLC graphic, "Foreign Trade Statistics," at www.mhhe.com/patterson5.)

The chief instruments of national security policy are diplomacy, military force, economic exchange, and intelligence gathering. These are exercised through specialized agencies of the U.S. government, such as the departments of State and Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency, which are largely responsive to presidential leadership. Increasingly, national security policy has also relied on international organizations, such as the UN and WTO, which are responsive to the global concerns of major nations.

Introduction

The 2000 G-8 summit meeting dramatized changing world politics

Russia, once a superpower, now a struggling nation

Focus on cooperation rather than competition

National security now includes both economic and military might

America must maintain relations with about 160 nations around the world

Chapter’s main points:

The United States has been the world leader since World War II

The president dominates the foreign and defense policy machinery

The United States maintains a high level of defense preparedness

Economic interdependence among nations affects American security

The Roots of U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left America as the only superpower

Key to global success has now become a strong economic base

The United States as Global Superpower

America moved from an isolationist to internationalist country

After World War II, America’s concern was Soviet expansion

The Doctrine of Containment

Kennan’s plan called for checking Soviet power regionally

Truman saw Soviets as global threat (lesson of Munich)

The Cold War (hostility but not actual combat between superpowers)

Communist victory in China; Truman and Korean War in 1950

The Limits of American Power: The Vietnam War

U.S. backed South Vietnam after Geneva Conference

Kennedy placed 17,000 advisors there; Johnson escalated in 1965

U.S. had 550,000 troops in Vietnam by late 1960s

But guerrilla war dragged on—no victory

Many young people protested against war

1973, American troops disengage; 1975, Saigon falls

Detente (a "relaxing" of tensions between U.S. and Soviet Union)

Lesson of Vietnam was that there were limits to American power

Nixon’s trip to China and SALT agreement on nuclear weapons

Disintegration of the "Evil Empire"

Reagan depicted Soviets as evil, began massive military buildup

Soviets collapsed due to heavy defense outlays, inefficient economy

Gorbachev tried perestroika (economic restructuring)

After 1989, liberation of Eastern Europe, end of Berlin Wall

In December of 1991, Soviet Union ceased to exist

A New World Order—emphasized multilateralism

Multilateralism worked in Gulf War against Iraq

Germany, Japan funded operation

Use of UN

Limited conflict left Saddam in power

Multilateralism in the Balkans

Conflicts in Bosnia (1992) and Kosovo (1999)

Goal of stopping ethnic cleansing

Use of bombing and multinational peacekeepers

Multilateralism only somewhat successful in resolving international conflicts

The Process of Foreign and Military Policymaking

National security policy rests on relationships with outside powers

No international body has final authority on disputes among nations

The Policymaking Instruments

Acts of diplomacy involve bilateral or multilateral nations Military power can be used unilaterally (United States has used its military power) Economic exchange takes one of two forms—trade or assistance Intelligence gathering is monitoring of other countries’ activities

The Policymaking Machinery

President dominates here

National Security Council provides advice on foreign and military issues

Includes president, vice-president, secretaries of defense and state

CIA director, Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff are advisory members

President’s National Security Advisor has become important

Defense Organizations (DOD—Department of Defense)(see Figure 1)

DOD has 1.3 million military personnel, 700,000 civilian employees

DOD created in 1947; each service has its own secretary

Service secretaries report to Secretary of Defense

JCS (Joint Chiefs) help shape military strategy and weapons needs

NATO—with demise of USSR, has been restructured

Charter prohibits it from acting out of its area

Widening of membership to include Eastern Europe

Europeans now proposing own defense force

Intelligence Organizations

CIA and National Security Agency (electronic communications analysis)

Federal government spends roughly $25 billion on intelligence

CIA now stressing drug trafficking, terrorism, industrial espionage

Diplomatic Organizations

Department of State—small (only about 25,000 people)

Influence of Secretary of State varies with each president

Example: Madeline Albright and prominent role

Organization of American States and United Nations

France, U.S., USSR, China, Britain would work together

Cold war destroyed unity

Can UN today play large role in world politics as once envisioned?

UN was effective in Persian Gulf

UN has worked on terrorism, drug trafficking

But UN needs cooperation of members

Also, leaders respond more to domestic pressures

U.S. politicians have divided opinions about UN

Critics charge U.S. pays too much of UN’s costs

Nation’s foreign policy should not be UN-controlled

Economic Organizations

Executive departments, Federal Trade Commission, Export-Import Bank

World Trade Organization—nations negotiate rules of trade

IMF and World Bank assist developing countries

World Bank makes long-term loans to poorer nations

IMF provides short-term loans

The Military Dimension of National Security Policy

Introduction

End of USSR led to significant defense reductions

Still, U.S. spending is more than twice that of NATO nations (per capita)

U.S. defense budget is second to none in the world (see Figure 2)

Defense Capability

U.S. conventional forces are quite strong; have advanced weaponry as well

Pentagon is working on next generation: "smart" and "brilliant" weapons

Ability to control information is critical; U.S. leads in this area

The Uses of Military Power (six types of military action)

Unlimited Nuclear Warfare

Nuclear deterrence rested on "triad" (land, air, sea)

Triad provided "second-strike capability"

Reductions in nuclear arsenals by both sides

Capability for total warfare retained

Limited Nuclear Warfare

Major concern for Russians—control of arsenal

Proliferation of weapons (terrorists, outlaw nations such as Iraq)

Unlimited Conventional Warfare

Likelihood in Europe reduced with end of Cold War

Limited Conventional Warfare (Persian Gulf War)

These wars do not always produce satisfactory results

Political aspects remain troublesome (Bush’s ending of war)

Counterinsurgency

Police-Type Action (other global problems)

Drug trafficking, terrorism, political instability, population movements

These actions not favored by military commanders, but will likely continue

The Politics of National Defense

Public Opinion and Elite Conflict

Majority opinion important in broad issues

Example: Vietnam, Somalia, Persian Gulf

Most conflicts over defense policy take place between political elites

The Military-Industrial Complex (Eisenhower warned about it in 1961)

Defense budget over $250 billion in fiscal year 2000

Complex has three components:

Military establishment

Defense industries

Members of Congress who come from defense-related districts

Economic impact of a weapon system can be substantial:

B-1 Bomber—built by 5200 subcontractors in forty-eight states

B-1 affected all but a handful of congressional districts

Unsure as to exact proportion of spending that derives from complex

Defense firms: hurt by cutbacks, so they are turning to export sales

Nine of ten largest arms-making firms are American firms

These firms control two-thirds of global arms sales

The Economic Dimension of National Security Policy

Economic considerations are a vital part of national security

A strong defense rests upon economic strength

USSR bankrupted itself; will U.S. succumb to "imperial overstretch"?

A Changing World Economy

The Marshall Plan aided European recovery while being a market for U.S. goods

Germany and Japan became economic competitors with U.S.

Japan has trade surplus with U.S.

Western Europe, including Germany, less receptive market for U.S.

Currently, a tripolar economic world:

United States—produces nearly 20 percent of world’s goods and services

Japan—accounts for 10 percent of the global economy

European Union—has over 25 percent of the global gross product

Centers: 15 percent of world population, 60 percent of global economy

U.S. is weakest of three in some ways

It has the world’s largest national debt

It has the worst trade imbalance (see Figure 3)

U.S. is strongest of three in some ways

Its economy is more well-rounded

It has abundant resources, strong industry and agriculture

It ranks highest in economic competitiveness

U.S. stable economically as Europe and Asia struggled in the 1990s

American Goals in the Global Economy

Broad goals are three:

Sustaining an open system of trade

Maintaining access to vital energy and other resources

Keeping the gap between rich and poor nations from upsetting global trade

Global Trade

Since end of Cold War, American foreign policy emphasizes global economy

National economies increasingly are interconnected

Multinational corporations a major factor

Economic globalization creates opportunities, poses threat to US

Protectionism vs. free trade debate (see Figure 4)

Center of protectionism has been Congress

Free trade (lowering of trade barriers) centers on White House

NAFTA (U.S., Canada, Mexico) debate illustrates interests

In first year, NAFTA was a boon to three nations

However, Mexico’s fiscal problems cloud picture

Opponents of free trade blocked president’s "fast track" authority

GATT rules approved in 1994

Aim at creating nearly a free global marketplace

Tariffs lowered by a third, protections for copyrights

Create standards for securities, worker safety, environment

WTO is GATT’s successor; 124 member nations are committed to free trade regulated to ensure fair play

Access to National Resources

America not self-sufficient in oil (domestic production only accounts for half used)

Economic interdependence may make military action counterproductive

Relations with the Developing World

U.S. gives large amount of foreign aid and assistance to developing world

Main recipient of foreign aid is Israel ($3 billion annually)

Foreign aid only accounts for less than 1 percent of total budget (see Figure 5)

Some politicians wish to reduce aid

Private investment by U.S. multinational corporations leads world

Investments send profits back to United States

Makes other nations dependent on American prosperity

Some say U.S. puts too much emphasis on trade, not enough on human rights and democracy

Clinton’s 1998 visit to China was criticized

The Politics of Global Economic Policy

The U.S. depends more heavily on its economic strength to help with trade

U.S. corporations have tried to make products more competitive

Much greater stress on lowering trade barriers among nations

Public opinion supports economic over military priorities for the nation

Economic priorities will probably continue to be a driving factor in American foreign policy

Foreign Policy Activity

1. Issues regarding a nuclear-test-ban treaty, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Alliance, and a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) agreement are all examples ofa. majoritarian politics c. entrepreneurial politicsb. interest group politics d. client politics

2. All of the following policies reflect interest group politics in foreign policy EXCEPTa. government policy toward Cyprus c. alliance with Western Europeb. tariffs and quotas on steel imports d. the ABM defense system

3. Washington’s provision of assistance to U.S. corporations doing business abroad is an example of ________ politics.a. majoritarian politics c. entrepreneurial politicsb. client politics d. interest group politics

4. The president usually takes the leading role in foreign policy issues that are matters of a. majoritarian politics c. entrepreneurial politicsb. interest group politics d. client politics

5. In foreign policy issues that are majoritarian in nature, decision-making tends to be dominated bya. the presidents. c. the bureaucracy.b. Congress. d. public opinion.

6. Congress plays a leading role in foreign policy issues that are matters of a. majoritarian politics c. entrepreneurial politicsb. interest group politics d. client politics

7. The constitutional power to appoint ambassadors and to negotiate treaties is vested in the a. State Department c. presidentb. Senate d. Congress

8. The constitutional power to declare war and to regulate commerce with other nations is vested in the a. State Department c. presidentb. Senate d. Congress

9. How many times have U.S. presidents sent troops abroad without the authorization of Congress?a. none c. approximately fiftyb. ten d. more than 100

10. Presidential success with Congress on foreign policy matters, compared with presidential success on domestic matters, isa. impossible to determine. c. decidedly less.b. about the same. d. decidedly greater.

11. How did President Clinton’s strategy change as he tried to win support for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)?a. At first he stressed the domestic benefits, then switched to the foreign policy benefitsb. At first he stressed the foreign policy benefits, then switched to the domestic benefits.c. At first he stressed both domestic and foreign policy benefits, then switched to domestic benefits.d. At first he stressed both domestic and foreign policy benefits, then switched to foreign policy benefits.

12. All of the following presidents were dominant in setting foreign policy EXCEPTa. Franklin Roosevelt c. Dwight Eisenhowerb. John Kennedy d. Richard Nixon

13. The branch of government least involved in foreign policy disputes has traditionally beena. Congress. c. the executive branch.b. the Supreme Court d. all of the above.

14. The most important check on what the president can do in foreign matters isa. the Supreme Court c. the two-party systemb. the Pentagon bureaucracy d. congressional control over the purse strings

15. The War Powers Act of 1973 requires that a. Congress not interfere with the president’s role as commander-in-chief.b. the president not spend money for military engagements without the prior approval of Congress.c. the president consult with Congress when sending troops into a new conflict.d. Congress declare war whenever the president sends troops into a conflict.

16. Presidents Nixon, Carter and Reagan all refused to acknowledge the constitutionality of the a. Simpson-Mazzoli Immigration Act c. Budget Impoundment Act.b. Eagleton Amendment d. War Powers Act of 1973

17. Beginning in 1983, Congress debated whether to fund covert Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) aid to rebels trying to overthrow the government of a. Poland c. El Salvadorb. Libya d. Nicaragua

18. Foreign policy became the first item on the president’s agenda at what period in U.S. history?a. during and after the Civil War c. during and after World War IIb. during and after World War I d. during and after the Vietnam War

19. The decision-making machinery in U.S. foreign policy can best be described asa. highly concentrated. c. multicentered.b. tightly coordinated. d. majoritarian.

20. The National Security Council is chaired by the a. secretary of state. c. director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)b. president d. head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)

21. The clearest lesson that history offers a president regarding making war and public opinion is either to fight a vastly popular crusade or to fight a wara. when the Democrats control the Senate. c. only when you can win quickly.b. near the end of your term d. against oppressive regimes

22. The average citizen tends to judge foreign policy initiatives on the basis of ______; elite opinion does so on the basis of _______.a. results moral considerations c. costs, benefitsb. moral considerations, results d. benefits, costs

23. The age group LEAST supportive of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War wasa. twenty to twenty-nine c. forty to forty-nineb. thirty to thirty-nine d. fifty and older.

24. Cleavage between mass and elite opinion on foreign policy tends to be greatest when the elitea. are college educated c. come from a blue-collar backgroundb. consist of foreign policy experts d. are more conservative and less internationalist

25. Compared to the general public, foreign policy leaders in the United States tend to bea. conservative and internationalist. c. conservative and isolationist.b. liberal and internationalist. d. liberal and isolationist.

26. Which of the following groups of people turned most strongly against the Vietnam War as it progressed?a. working class people c. young college-educated peopleb. members of minority groups d. low income and uninformed

27. Elite opinion was a work in the formulation of the strategy of containment bya. John Foster Dulles c. Maxwell Taylorb. Averell Taylor d. George Kennan

28. The worldview of U.S. - Russian relations held by many conservatives, and emphasizing the continuing danger of the former Soviet Union, is thea. antiappeasement view. c. isolationist view.b. disengagement view. d. nuclear containment view.

29. The worldview of U.S. - Russian relations held by many liberals, and emphasizing the benefits of closer ties to the former Soviet Union, is thea. antiappeasement view. c. isolationist view.b. disengagement view. d. nuclear containment view.

30. The person appointed by the president to deal with and formulate foreign policy and affairsa. Secretary of Defense. b. Secretary of State.c. Attorney General. d. Secretary of Labor.

'Gamble' Author: Iraq War Only Halfway Over

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Author Thomas Ricks says it's unlikely all combat troops will be out of Iraq by 2011. Courtesy of Thomas Ricks

“I think Iraq is going to change Obama more than Obama changes Iraq.”Thomas Ricks

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'The Gamble' By Thomas Ricks

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Morning Edition, March 4, 2009 · The Obama administration announced Friday that it would draw down U.S. troops in Iraq, ending combat missions by August 2010. Fifty thousand troops will remain through the end of 2011.

Thomas Ricks, a former Pentagon correspondent for The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post, spent time studying America's war in Iraq and has written a book called The Gamble, about the surge and how America reversed its course in Iraq.

"I think we may just be half way through this war," Ricks tells NPR's Steve Inskeep. "I know President Obama thinks he's going to get all troops out by 2011 — I don't know anybody in Baghdad who thinks that's going to happen. I think Iraq is going to change Obama more than Obama changes Iraq."

Ricks says the plans in Baghdad last summer were for about 35,000 troops to remain in the country for several years. Ricks says that Gen. Ray Odierno, the commander of the Multinational Forces in Iraq, would like to see 35,000 troops there in the year 2015.

"The point is as long as you have American troops in Iraq, no matter what you call them, they are going to be fighting and dying," Ricks says. "The surge worked tactically — it improved security enormously. But it didn't succeed strategically, politically. And that was its larger goal."

Ricks argues that the Iraq war "was the biggest mistake in the history of American foreign policy," adding that "we don't yet understand how big a mistake this is."

He paints a bleak long-term picture for Iraq, where the country is no longer an American ally.

"It's not going to be a democracy, it's going to have a surprising level of violence, it's probably going to be an ally of Iran and it's probably going to be ruled by some sort of dictator, some sort of little Saddam," Ricks says.

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