Feedback in Adult Learning - cdn.ymaws.com€¦ · to helping students develop self-regulation skills. This paper reviews recent literature on the effects of teacher feedback for

RunningHead:PURPOSESANDEFFECTSOFFEEDBACK 1

TheRoleofFeedbackinAdultLearning:ALiteratureReviewwithInstructor

Recommendations1

MCecilSmith

WestVirginiaUniversity

PaperpresentedattheAnnualMeetingoftheAmericanAssociationforAdultandContinuingEducation,October10,2019,SaintLouis,MO.


ABSTRACT

Teachers’feedbacktostudentsisacommoninstructionalactivitythatisexpectedtofollow

uponcompletionofcourseassignmentsandexaminationsorafterstudentsdemonstrate

theirattainmentoftargetedskills.Teachers,includingadulteducators,receivelittlepre-

professionalpreparationthathelpsthemunderstandthepurposes,timing,andeffectsof

feedback—orofstudents’responsestoit.Thus,manyeducatorslackknowledgeofhowto

providefeedbacktoadultlearnersthatiscorrectiveandinformativeandwhichcontributes

tohelpingstudentsdevelopself-regulationskills.Thispaperreviewsrecentliteratureon

theeffectsofteacherfeedbackforadultlearnersandadultstudents’perceptionsofthe

purpose,efficacy,andvalueoffeedback.Implicationsandrecommendationsforinstruction

aredescribed.


Theideaofinstructorfeedbacktolearnersisubiquitousineducation.Students

anticipatethat,whenevertheycompleteandsubmitassignedworkorsitforexaminations,

theywillreceivesomekindoffeedbackabouttheirperformance—evenifonlyascoreor

grade.Likewise,teachersplanandarrangetheirschedulessothattheyhavetimeto

evaluatestudents’workandprovidethemwithinformationthattellsthestudents

somethingabouthowwell(orpoorly)theyhaveperformed.Whilesuchfeedbackmaybe

limitedtoabriefcomment,scoreorgrade,itmightalsoprovidedetailedinformationabout

how,why,andwherethestudentwasincorrect,howtheycouldimprovetheir

performance,orwhattheydidwell(Hattie&Timperley,2007).

Thispapersurveysbothcontemporaryandclassicresearchoninstructors’feedback

tostudentswithaparticularfocusonadultlearners’needsforandresponsestosuch

feedback,andhowfeedbackcanbenefitadults’learning.MillionsofU.S.adultsacrossthe

agespanparticipateinagreatvarietyofformal(i.e.,institutionallysanctionedprogramsof

study),informal(i.e.,self-directedandindependentlearning),andnon-formal(i.e.,

organizedlearningthatdoesnotleadtoadegreeorcertification)educationandtraining

programsandactivities.Dependinguponthestructureoftheseprograms,studentsmay

interactwithandlearnfrommultipleinstructors,trainers,ormentorsortheymaylearn

entirelyontheirown.Typically,participationinformalandnon-formaleducationprovides

manyopportunitiesforadultlearnerstodemonstratethedegreetowhichtheyare

acquiringandmasteringknowledgeand/orskillsinagivendomain.Variousmethodsof

assessingadults’learning—whetherhomeworkassignments,groupstandardizedor

teacher-constructedtests,collaborativelearningprojects,oralpresentations,professional


licensureexaminations,ordemonstrationsofskills—enableinstructorstoprovide

feedbacktolearnersabouttheirperformanceandprogressinlearning.

Theactofgivingfeedbacktostudentsiscommonplacetothepointofseeming

mundane.Yet,asThurlings,Vermeulen,Bastiaens,andStijnen(2013)pointout,feedback

processesarecomplexandmultidimensional.Givingeffectivefeedbacktostudents

dependsuponavarietyoffactors:thestudentsthemselves,theassignedlearningtasks(in

termsofcomplexityandgoals),theinstructorswhoprovidethefeedback,thestudent-

teacherrelationship,andthecontentofthefeedbackmessage,amongotherfactors.

Teachers—includingadulteducators—mayassumethattheyknowandunderstandthe

purposeoffeedbackandhowtoprovidefeedbacktostudentssothattheylearnfromit.

Afterall,teachershavealsobeenstudentsandhavereceivedmanyformsoffeedback

throughoutthecourseoftheirstudiesandprofessionalpreparation.Presumably,such

feedbackmodelsinfluenceteachers’approachestogivingfeedback.

AdultLearners

Onequarter(25.4%)ofallbeginningpostsecondarystudentsintheU.S.duringthe

2011-12academicyearwereover20yearsofage,accordingtodatafromtheU.S.

DepartmentofEducation(2014).Fullyone-third(36.2%)ofallstudentsenrolledinpost-

secondaryundergraduatedegreeprogramsintheU.S.forthe2015-16academicyearwere

adults,ages25andolder(U.S.DepartmentofEducation,2015-16).Amongthe1.9million

adultswhohavecompletedsomekindofworkexperienceprogram(i.e.,workplace

trainingorapprenticeship),aboutninepercent(~177,000)participatedinprogramsthat

includedinstruction,training,orclassesandevaluationledbyasupervisororcoworker.

Thesestatisticsdemonstratethatmillionsofadultlearnersarepursuingeducationand


trainingthroughbothformalandnonformalprograms.Manymoremillionsofadultstake

partininformallearningactivitiesthroughindividualpursuits,community-basedofferings,

socialclubs,andothervenues.Forexample,thePewResearchCenter(2016)reportedthat

threeoutoffour(74%)U.S.adultshadundertakenaninformal“personallearningactivity”

withinthepreviousyear.

TeacherPreparationforFeedback

Itappearstoberareforteachers-in-trainingtobeexplicitlytaught,aspartof

teacherpreparationcurricula,aboutfeedbackcharacteristicsandhowtogivefeedbackto

students.Feedbackmaybeatopicthatismentionedbyteachereducators—perhapsquite

frequently—asanimportantcomponentofinstruction,butoneforwhichlittletimeis

devotedtodemonstratinghowtoperform.Anextensivesearchofthegeneraleducation,

teachertraining,andeducationalpsychologyliteraturesrevealedfewdescriptionsandno

investigationsofhowteachers-in-trainingaretaughttogivefeedbackofanykindtotheir

students.Likewise,professionaldevelopmentprogramsforin-serviceteachersmaynot

addresstheroleoffeedbackforimprovingstudents’achievement.Thereare,however,

innumerablewebsitesandonlinematerialsthatprovideinformation,resources,andadvice

toeducatorsabouthowtogivefeedbacktostudents.Manyofthesedescribecharacteristics

ofeffectivefeedback(e.g.,“timely,”“consistent,”“specific”)andprovideguidelinesforwhen

andwhytogiveperformancefeedback.Undoubtedly,someteachersandteachers-in-

trainingturntosuchreadilyavailableinformationsources.But,readingawebsiteisnot

trainingorprofessionaldevelopment.AsMolloyandBoud(2014)observe,itrequiresskill

forteacherstodeterminethecorrectkindoffeedback—positiveandaffirmingornegative

andcorrective—thatstudentsneedthatwillleadtoimprovedperformance.Therefore,itis


likelythatmanyteachers—includingadulteducators--lackin-depthknowledgeabout

feedbackandhowtoskillfullyprovideitsothatithelpsstudentstolearn.

FeedbackinAdultEducation

Theadulteducationliteratureisrathersparseregardingtheneedforand

consequencesoffeedbackinhelpingadultslearn,acquireskillsandknowledge,and

achievemastery.AnexceptionisadulteducatorMalcolmKnowleswhoobservedinhis

classicwork,TheAdultLearner(1973),thatteacherfeedbackisoneofseveralexternal

conditionsoflearningthatcanleadtodesiredchangesinperformance(Knowles,Holton,&

Swanson,2011).Adultlearnersare,infact,justaslikelytobothneedandtobenefitfrom

instructorfeedbackasareyoungerlearners.

Inthesectionsthatfollow,Isummarizevariousdefinitionsoffeedbackfoundinthe

educationliterature.Next,Idescribethepurposesofinstructors’feedbacktostudents,

whatfeedbackisintendedtodoforthelearner,andthedifferenttypesoffeedbackthat

havebeendescribedintheliterature.Then,Idescribethevariouswaysinwhichfeedback

canbecommunicatedtolearnersfollowingtaskperformances.Thetimingoffeedbackis

criticaltolearninganddifferencesbetweenimmediateanddelayedfeedbackaredescribed.

Howlearnersperceivefeedback,intermsofqualityandutility,isalsoimportantandwill

bediscussed.Basedontheunderstoodcharacteristicsofadultlearnersineducational

settings,Iconcludewithrecommendationsforadulteducatorstofollowwhenproviding

feedbacktotheirstudents.

Feedback,Defined

Feedbacktypicallyfollowsfromsomeperformanceonthepartofthestudent,such

ascompletionofanacademicassignment,atestorotherformalassessment,ora


demonstrationofatargetskill.Twotypesofassessmentsareformativeandsummative.

Whenfeedbackisprovidedearlyoninthecourseoflearning,itisconsideredtobe

formative,accordingtoBrown,Peterson,andYao(2016).Feedbackgivenatthistimehelps

learnerstoimprove.Feedbackfollowingalearningtrialorassessmentissummativeand

typicallytakestheformofagradeorscore.

Thereareavarietyofdefinitionsoffeedbackintheeducationliteraturethat

indicateitsimportancetostudentlearning.Atitsmostbasic,feedbackisanoutcomeofthe

evaluationoflearners(Alderman,2004).HattieandTimperly(2007)definefeedbackas

“informationprovidedbyanagenttoalearneraboutaspectsofperformanceor

understanding”(p.81).Morespecifically,feedbackis“anycommunicationorprocedure

giventoinformalearneroftheaccuracyofaresponse,usuallytoaninstructional

question,”accordingtoMory(2003,p.745).

Frequently,however,someauthorsdonotbothertodefinefeedbackatallgivenits

everydayuseinclassrooms(e.g.,Thurlingsetal.,2013).Yet,failingtodefinefeedbackmay

leadtoconfusionaboutthecharacteristics,purposes,andoutcomesoffeedback.According

toHattieandYates(2014),feedbackisnotthesameasrewardorreinforcement(whichare

factorsthatcanmotivatelearning),althoughfeedbackcan—undercertainconditions--be

reinforcingforlearners(Anderson,Kulhavy,&Andre,1972).Rather,feedbackis“the

processofsecuringinformationenablingchangethroughadjustmentorcalibrationof

efforts…tobringapersonclosertoawell-definedgoal”(Hattie&Yates,p.66).

Thus,feedbackisacomplexresponsetostudents’effortsatlearning.Ittakes

multipleforms,isexpressedinavarietyofways,andhasanynumberofconsequencesfor

learners.Feedbackistypicallydescriptive(e.g.,aninstructor’swrittencommentsona


student’spaper)andevaluative(e.g.,lettergradesonassignedtasks).Feedbackcan

provideinformationtostudentstohelpthemcorrecttheirerrors(Kulhavy&Stock,1989).

Yet,tohaveanyeffectonlearningoutcomes,teacherfeedbackhastobeprocessedina

mindfulmannerbystudents(Bangert-Drownsetal.,1991).AccordingtoElawarandCorno

(1985),effectivefeedbackcanincludebothpositiveevaluationsofperformanceaswellas

criticalcomments.Thus,feedbackmaybeperceivedbythelearneraspositiveand

motivatingorasnegativecriticism,andeitherperceptionmayhavedifferenteffectson

students’criticalthinkingandproblemsolving.Also,aninstructor’scriticalfeedbackofa

student’sworkmaybedeliveredinagentlemanneroraharshway--ormaybeperceived

eitherwaybythestudent,regardlessoftheinstructor’sintent.

Earlybehavioristperspectivesonlearning(Skinner,1954)emphasizedoperant

conditioningandheldthatwheneverfeedbackinformedlearnersthattheirresponseswere

correct,thefeedbackservedasapositivereinforcer.Suchfeedbackwassaidtoincreasethe

likelihoodthatthelearnerwouldgivethesameresponseundersimilartaskconditions.In

contrast,feedbackinformingthelearnerthataresponsewasincorrectservedasaformof

punishmentand,thus,decreasedthelikelihoodofthesameresponseunderthesametask

conditions.Yet,researchconductedinthe1970sfailedtofindsystematiceffectsfor

feedbackofthesortdescribedbybehaviorists.AsMory(2003)reported,researchofthat

eradeterminedthatfeedbackfunctionstocorrecterrors,nottoreinforceresponses.

Contemporaryresearchonfeedbackisrootedincognitiveandinformation

processingperspectivesthatseektounderstandlearners’thinkingprocesses(i.e.,

mindfulness)inresponsetofeedback,aswellastheroleofthelearners’priorknowledge,

learninggoalsandinterests,andabilitytoself-regulatetheirthinkingandstrategyusesas


theyengageinlearningtasks(William,2013).HattieandTimperly(2007)thusdescribed

fourlevelsoffeedbackthatfocusontheself,thelearningtask,thebehavioralorcognitive

processingneededtoperformthetask,andstudents’self-regulationskills.Accordingto

Shute(2008),feedbackshouldfocusonthelearningtaskratherthanthelearner,and

provideguidanceonhowtoimproveone’sperformance.Suchfeedbackisparticularly

powerfulwheneverlearnersuseittoimprovetheircognitivestrategiesorself-regulation

skills(Hattie&Timperley,2007).Brownetal.(2016)foundthatuniversitystudentswho

reportedactinguponthefeedbackthattheyreceivedweremoreself-regulatedintheir

studyingandhadhigherself-reportedacademicself-efficacy.

TheImportanceofFeedbackforLearning

HattieandTimperly(2007)claimthatthemainpurposeoffeedbackistoreducethe

discrepanciesbetweenthelearner’scurrentunderstandingorperformanceandthe

intendedlearningorperformancegoal.Feedbackshouldprovideinformationtolearners

thatispertinenttotheirgoalpursuits.Inacademiccontexts,learners’goalsrelateto

achievementandmastery.VanderKleij,Feskens,andEggens(2015)statethatthereisno

generallyacceptedmodelofhowfeedbackleadstolearning(p.476).Earlier,Butlerand

Winne(1995)proposedamodeloffeedbackinwhichfeedbacknotonlyhelpslearnersto

improvetheirperformanceonsubsequenttasks,butalsoleadstoself-regulatedlearning.

Thus,attheveryleast,feedbackprovidesinformationtothestudent—whichtheymaythen

actuponorignore.Whenactinguponfeedback,studentsmay,accordingtoWinneand

Butler(1994),“confirm,addto,overwrite,tune,orrestructureinformationinmemory”(p.

5740).Feedbackcanhelplearnerscorrecterrors,gainknowledge,improveskillsand,


thereby,improveperformanceandlearning.Toimprove,studentsmusttakeaction

followingthefeedback.

Studentsneedtounderstandwhattheymustdotoimprovetheirperformance,so

feedbackshouldcontainsuchinformation.HattieandYates(2014)pointoutthatfeedback

ispowerfulwhenlearnersknow:(a)whatsuccesslookslike;(b)appreciatethatitisaimed

atreducingthegapbetweenwheretheyarenowandwheretheyneedtobe;and,(c)when

itisfocusedongivingtheminformationaboutwhattodonext.Bangert-Drownsetal.

(1991)foundthatnotonlypointingouterrors,butalsotellingstudentswhytheyare

incorrect,ishelpfultothem.Studentswilloftenmakethesamemistakerepeatedlyunless

theyreceiveinformationalfeedbackabouttheirmistakes.

Feedbackencouragesself-regulation.Theself-regulationoflearninginvolves

planning,monitoring,andreflectingonhowandwhatoneisstudyingandlearning

(Zimmerman,2008).ButlerandWinne’s(1995)self-regulationmodeloffeedback

positionsthelearneratthecenterofthefeedbackprocess;thelearneractivelymakes

connectionsbetweentheirlearninggoals,thestrategiesneededtoachievethesegoals,and

theoutcomesoftheireffort.Thus,instructorfeedbackenablesstudentstobetterplanand

setlearninggoalsandmonitortheirperformancerelativetothesegoals.Whenreflecting

ontheirefforts,learnerscanmakeadjustmentsandengageinstrategicactiontoachieve

desiredoutcomes(Butler&Winne,1995;Locke&Latham,1990).Studentswhodothese

thingsinresponsetofeedbackareself-regulatinglearners.Bandura(1993)arguedfor

givingfeedbackrelatingtostudents’progresstowardgoals,whichservestoenhanceboth

theirself-efficacyandself-regulation,ratherthangivingfeedbackthathighlightsobserved

deficiencies,whichunderminesself-regulation.


Learnerattributions.Graham(1984)claimedthatfeedbackcanpromotefeelings

amongstudentsthattheyareincontroloftheirownlearning.Inpart,teacherfeedback

doesthisbyimpartinginformationtostudentsthathelpsshapetheirattributionsfor

successandfailure,aswellastheirself-competencybeliefs(Brophy,1998).Whenever

studentsexperienceeithersuccessorfailureonacademiclearningtasks,theyarelikelyto

attributetheseoutcomestoanyofanumberoffactors,suchastheirintelligence,skills,

effort,orluck--orlackthereof(Weiner,1980).Studentsmayalsoattributetheirsuccessor

failuretootherpeople—teachersandcoaches,forexample,therebydeflectingtheirown

successfuleffortsorblamingothersforfailures.Somefactorsareunderthecontrolofthe

learner,suchastheamountofeffortdevotedtomasteryofaskill,forexample.Intelligence

issomethingthatstudentscannotcontrol.Thosewhobelievethatintelligenceisastable

traitdemonstratea“fixed”mindset,accordingtoDweck(2006).Incontrast,studentswho

believethatbasicabilities,suchasintelligence,canbeimprovedthrougheffort,training

andpractice,andlearninghavea“growth”mindset.Becausegrowth-orientedlearners

attributetheiracademicsuccesstoeffortandpracticetheyaremorelikelytobenefitfrom

instructorfeedbackthanfixed-mindsetlearners.Schunk(1982)reportedthatgivingeffort

attributionalfeedbacktostudentsfortheirsuccesses(e.g.,“yougotthiscorrectbecause

youworkedhardatsolvingit”)promotestheirachievementexpectancies.Self-regulation

enableslearnerstorespondappropriatelywhensuccessatlearningtasksdonotappearto

beundertheircontrol.

TypesofFeedback

FeedbackhasbeencategorizedintothreetypesbyShute(2008).Thefirsttypeis

feedbackthatprovidesknowledgeofresults(“KR”),i.e.,theansweriscorrectorincorrect,


butgivesnoadditionalinformationabouthowthelearnershouldrespondtofuturetasks.

Thisisclosesttothebehaviorist,operantconditioningformoffeedbackthatisthoughtto

reinforcelearnerresponding.Thesecondtypeoffeedbackprovidesknowledgeaboutthe

correctresponse(“KCR”),i.e.,thecorrectanswerisprovidedtothelearner.Thistypeof

feedbackdoesnottellthelearnerhowtoarriveatthecorrectresponse,however.Thefinal

typeiselaboratedorexplanatoryfeedback(“EF”)whichtakesmanyforms(e.g.,hints,

additionalinformation).EFmightbepairedwitheitherKRorKCRinsomecircumstances,

suchaswhenastudentisinformedthataresponseisincorrect(KR),isthengiventhe

correctresponse(KCR),andalsoaworked-outsolutiontotheproblem(EF).Smith,Ralph,

MacLeod,andSmilek(2019)examineduniversitystudents’preferenceforquizfeedback

andtheirperceptionsofhowthefeedbackaffectedtheirlearning.Smithetal.gavethree

formsoffeedback:none;KCRonly;and,EF(i.e.,correctanswerplusthesourcematerials

fromlecture).StudentspreferredfeedbackovernofeedbackandEFoverKCR;theyalso

perceivedEFtobemorehelpfulthanKCRornofeedback.Atleastwithincomputer-based

learningenvironments,evidencefromVanderKleijetal.(2015)showsthatEFleadsto

betterandhigherorderlearningoutcomescomparedtoKRorKCR.

Inacomprehensivereviewoftheliteratureonfeedback,Mory(2003)identified

fourtypesoffeedbackandthefunctionsthateachfeedbacktypeservesforlearners.One

typeoffeedbackisthatwhichservestostrengthentheincentivesoflearninggoals.Here,

forexample,teacherscanemphasizeeffortasatoolforincreasingone’sskills.Such

feedbackhelpsstudentsseethattheirabilitiescanbeimprovedthroughhardworkand

practice(therebyemphasizingagrowthmindset).Effortfeedbackismoreeffectivethan

abilityfeedback,accordingtoDweck(2006),asitimpactsstudents’persistence,enjoyment,


andperformance--particularlyaftertheyhaveexperiencedsetbackswhenattemptingto

learnsomethingnew.

Asecondtypeoffeedbackisthatwhichminimizestheeffectofthedifficultylevelof

learningtasks.So,ateachermightemphasizethathavingdifficultywithchallengingtasksis

bothpositiveandnormativeandthatstrugglingtocompleteanassignmentdoesnot

indicatealackofability.Athirdtypeoffeedbackisthatwhichservestoincreasethe

student’sself-efficacyorfeelingsofcompetence.Totheextentpossible,theteachershould

allowthestudenttocontroltheirlearningactivities,andprovidesupportonlyasneeded.A

finaltypeoffeedback,accordingtoMory(2003),isthatwhichenableslearnerstogaina

senseofcontrolovertheirlearning.Forexample,whenteachersobserveandreinforce

studentsforadoptingmoreeffectivelearningstrategies,suchfeedbackhelpsthem

attributetheirsuccessestotheirownefforts.

SourcesofFeedback

Feedbackcomestoadultlearnersthroughmanysources,includingteachers,

mentorsandcoaches,frompeers,studyguidesandtextbooks,fromtheself(resultingfrom

study,self-testing,andreflection),andfromcomputer-basedassessments(CBAs).

Teacherfeedback.Howshouldteacherscommunicateperformancefeedbackto

students?GibbsandSimpson(2004)statethatteachers’feedbacktostudentsshouldnot

onlybetimely,specific,andinformative,butshouldalsobeunderstandable.Thatis,the

feedbackshouldbeinaformthatismeaningfultostudents.Thus,itshouldrelate

specificallytotheassignedlearningtask,informthestudentoftheirerrors,anddescribe

thenecessarystepstocorrecttheerrors(i.e.,elaborationfeedback).Feedbackshould


revealtheconcreteactionsthatlearnerscantaketofurtherimprovetheirknowledge,

developtheirideas,andhonetheirskills(Hattie&Yates,2014).

Thereissomedisagreementintheliteratureaboutthevalueofteacherpraise,asa

typeoffeedback,forreinforcingstudents’effortsandmotivationforlearning.Whena

teacher’spraiseisdirectedtoastudent’seffort,self-regulation,engagement,orprocesses

relatedtothetaskandperformance,itcanbeeffective,accordingtoTimperly(2013).

HattieandYates(2014)claimthatpraiseisnotastrongsourceofreinforcement,however.

Brophy(1998)observedthatteacherpraisecanbeeithereffectiveandsupportiveor

ineffectiveanddebilitating.Amongothercharacteristics,praiseismosteffectivewhenitis

contingentuponthestudents’taskperformance,identifiestheparticularsofthe

accomplishment,rewardsthestudentforattainingaspecific,agreed-uponperformance

criterion,andattributestheirsuccesstoeffortandability(therebyimplyingthatsimilar

successcanbeanticipatedinthefuture).Praiseisineffectivewhenitisgivenrandomly,

rewardsstudentsmerelyforparticipatinginanactivitywithoutregardtotheir

performance,givenwithoutacknowledgingstudents’efforts,providesnomeaningful

informationtostudentsabouttheirstatus,orwhenitfocusesontheteacherasanexternal

authority(Alexander,2006).

Typically,instructorfeedbackisdeliveredthroughthreemodalities,exclusivelyor

incombination:orally,inwriting,orcomputer-generated.Oralfeedbackcommunicationis

themost“intimate”ofthesethreemodalitiesasitoftenoccursinface-to-faceinteractions

betweenthestudent(s)andtheteacher.Individualizedfeedbackusuallyisgiveninprivate

meetingsbetweentheinstructorandthelearnersothatconfidentialityofthelearner’s

performanceismaintained.Suchmeetingsmayalsoyieldopportunitiesforfurther


instructionandtheensuingconversationmaystrengthenthestudent-teacherrelationship.

Oralfeedbacktostudentsmayalsocoincidewithanywrittenfeedback(i.e.,commentson

papers)thattheteacherwishestoprovide.

Writtenfeedbacktostudents,includingreportingoftestscores,issomewhatless

“intimate”innature,althoughitmaycoincidewithface-to-facemeetingsbetweenthe

studentandtheteacher.Writtenfeedbackmaybequiteextensiveanddetailed,orvery

brief.Often,theamountofwrittenfeedbackdependsuponthetimeandeffortthatthe

teachersputsintothetaskofprovidingthefeedback,aswellasthelearningobjectivesthat

theteacherhasidentifiedforstudents.Writtenfeedbackmustbeclearandspecificsothat

studentsunderstandandcanrespondtoit(Brookhart,2008).

Asautomatedassessmentsystemsandcognitivetutorsbecomemorecommonin

schoolsandclassrooms,software-drivenartificialintelligence(AI)agentscanprovide

immediatefeedbacktolearnersinresponsetoassessmentsandotherlearningtasks.

Typically,cognitivetutorsnotonlyprovidefeedback,butalsoprompts,hints,andcuesto

learnersastheyworkontasks(Anderson,Corbett,Koedinger,&Pelletier,1995).Feedback

fromcomputer-basedassessments(CBAs)canbeprovidedattheindividualtaskoritem

level,orfortheoverallassessment.Suchdigitalfeedbackistheleastintimatefeedback

methodbecausethestudentisinformedoftheirtaskperformancebyanimpersonalAI

agent.Studentstypicallyhavenoopportunitytorebuttheprovidedfeedbackandmust

waituntiltheycanmeetwiththecourseinstructororalivetutortoappealatestscoreor

obtainamoredetailedexplanationoftheirerrors.

Self-feedback(reflection).Feedbackdoesnotcomeonlyfromothers;thelearners,

too,maygivethemselvesfeedbackaftermonitoring,evaluating,andreflectingupontheir


performance.Suchself-feedbackcanleadstudentstowardself-improvement.Learners

providefeedbacktothemselvesby,forexample,lookinguporotherwiseobtainingcorrect

answerstoassignedproblemsandthenanalyzingtheirerrors.Ideally,studentsshouldset

theirownlearninggoalsandlearnhowtoanalyzedataabouttheirperformance.While

mostadultsarecapableofidentifyingandsettingpersonallearninggoals,theymayneed

assistanceinanalyzingperformancedata(e.g.,arechangesinaseriesoftestscoresover

timeduetoactualchange,ortomeasurementerror?),dependingupontheirprior

knowledge,thecomplexityofthelearningtasks,andtheproblemsolutions.Onedangerof

self-feedbackisthatstudentsmaybetoohardonthemselvesinresponsetopoor

performance.Studentsalsomightnotpossessthecorrectinformationorbemisinformed

and,therefore,theirself-feedbackwillbeoffthemark.Theuseofself-assessmentrubrics

thatindicateperformancecriteriacanbehelpfulinguidingstudents’effortstoevaluate

andreflectupontheirwork(Boud,1995).

Peerfeedback.HattieandYates(2014)notethatpeerfeedbackisvaluableto

learners,andmuchofwhatstudentslearninclassroomsderivesfromtheirpeer

interactions.Studentsreceiveagooddealoffeedbackrelatedtoacademiclearningtasks

fromtheirpeers.However,asNutall(2007)observed,muchofpeerfeedbackisincorrect—

whichisaproblemforbothstudentsandteachers.Thus,itisimportantforinstructorsto

preparestudentstoprovideaccuratefeedbacktooneanotherwhenevertheyare

collaboratingonacademicwork,sharinginformationaboutwhattheyknow,orassessing

oneanother’swork.HattieandGan(2011)suggestthatteachersshouldteachstudents

howtoengageincritical,elaborativediscoursewithpeers(p.264).Suchpeertalkenables


studentstothinkaboutthediverseperspectivesthattheirpeershaveandtomake

connectionsbetweendifferentideasandtheirownpriorknowledge.

Whenteachersemploypeerassessment,itcanhelpstudentslearnhowtogive

appropriateandhelpfulfeedbacktooneanother.Peerassessmentinvolvesstudents

engaginginreflectivecriticismofothers’workandgivingconstructivefeedbackusingthe

instructors’pre-determinedcriteria(Hattie&Gan,2011).Generally,deliberatepreparation

isrequiredsothatstudentsperformpeerassessmentsinwaysthatfriendshipsarenot

threatened,peersdonotresorttocollusion,andcandemonstratethattheyareableto

interpretandfollowanevaluationrubricorotherguide.Emphasingthatpeerevaluation

contributestoone’sownlearningandmasteryoftheassignedmaterialscanachievebuy-in

fromstudentswhomightotherwisebereluctanttoassesstheirpeers’work.

Textbooksandstudymaterials.Typically,feedbackofthesortprovidedintextbooks

andrelatedstudymaterialsisstatic,appearingascorrectanswerstoinsertedstudy

questionswithinorattheconclusionoftextbookchapters.Studentscanuseusethese

textbookquestionstoself-testtheirunderstandingandthenchecktheiranswerswhen

(andif)correctresponsesareprovidedinthetext.Suchfeedbackistypicallyintheformsof

KCRandER,dependinguponhowmuchandwhatkindofinformationisprovided.

TimingofFeedback

Anothercriticalvariableinfeedbackeffectspertainstowhenthefeedbackis

receivedbythelearner.Alargebodyofresearchhasexamineddifferentialeffectson

studentlearningforthetimingoffeedback,i.e.,isfeedbackprovidedimmediatelyfollowing

anassessmenteventoraftersomeperiodofdelay?).Theseeffectsmayalsovarydepending


uponthespecificlearningtask.Formanyformativeassessmentsituations,prompt,ifnot

immediate,feedbackisgivensoonafterstudents’responseshavebeenrecorded.

Immediatefeedback.Manyeducatorsbelievethatimmediatefeedbackismost

beneficialforstudents.Boud&Falchikov(2007)claimthatmoreimmediateandprecise

feedbackhasastrongereffectonlearningthandoesdelayed,non-specificfeedback(p.58).

Immediatefeedbackispreferredwhenstudentsareworkingonnewordifficulttasks,or

whenevertasksdealwithprocedural(“howto”)knowledge(Dihoff,Brosvic,&Epstein,

2003).CognitivetutoringsystemsandCBAscangiveimmediate,nearlyinstantaneous

feedbackfollowingastudent’sresponsetoeachitemonanassessment.Givingimmediate

feedbacktolearnersismorechallengingforinstructorstodogiventhetimeneededto

assesslearners’performance.Generally,immediatefeedbackshouldnotbegivenwhen

studentsareengagedinthelearningtask,asthefeedbackmayinterferewiththeirlearning

(e.g.,itmaybedistractingormayresultininformationoverload).

Researchevidencesuggeststhatstudentspreferimmediateoverdelayedfeedback.

Studentsaremorelikelytorespondtoimmediatethantodelayedfeedbackandtheyspend

moretimeconsideringimmediatefeedback(VanderKleij,Eggen,Timmers,&Veldkamp,

2012).Sogunro’s(2015)interviewswithadultlearnersfoundthattheyreportedthat

timely(notnecessarilyimmediate)feedbackwashighlymotivating,encouragingthemto

continueeffortstowardimprovement.Becauseteachersneedtimetocheckresponses,

evaluate,confirmandreporttothestudent,mostsuchfeedbackismoreaccurately

consideredtobedelayedfeedback.

LefevreandCox(2017)presentedasampleofnearly600Britishcollegestudents

withaseriesofmultiplechoicequizzesonvarioustopics.Participantsweregiventhe


choicetoviewperformancefeedbackimmediately(afterattemptingeachquizquestion)or

followingadelay(aftercompletionofallquizquestions).Nearlyallparticipants(95.33%)

indicatedapreferenceforimmediatefeedback.Interviewswithasubsampleofthe

participantsrevealedthatthesestudentspreferredimmediatefeedbackbecausethey

deemeditmoreefficient,requiringlesscognitiveefforttorecalltherelevantinformation.

Delayedfeedback.Someresearchsuggeststhatlearningisfacilitatedwhenever

feedbackisdelayed,particularlyinregardstocomplexlearningtasks(Clariana,Wagner,&

Murphy,2000).Mullet,Butler,Verdin,vonBorries,andMarsh(2014)reportedtwo

experimentsinwhichthetimingoffeedbackwasmanipulated.Studentsinanupper-level

engineeringcoursewereassignedtoapplytheirknowledgeofcomplexengineering

conceptsandthenreceivedfeedback--eitherimmediatelyfollowingtheassignment

deadlineoroneweeklater.Studentsreceivingdelayedfeedbackperformedbetteron

subsequentcourseexamsthatcontainednewproblems,butwhichhadthesame

engineeringconcepts.Nonetheless,studentsinboththeimmediate-anddelayed-feedback

conditionsreportedthattheybenefitedthemostfromimmediatefeedback.Thus,asMullet

etal.note,studentsdemonstratedametacognitivedisconnectbetweenactualand

perceivedeffectivenessoffeedback.

Mullaney,Carpenter,Grotenhuis,andBurianek(2014)reportedthatdelayed

feedbackbenefitslearnersbecauseitencouragesthemtoanticipatetheupcoming

feedback,anditisparticularlyeffectivewheneverlearnersarecurioustoknowthecorrect

response.Itisalsolikelythatdelayedfeedbackgiveslearnersopportunitiestothinkabout

andevaluatetheirperformanceandconsideralternativeapproachestoproblemsolving

withsimilartasks.


Thereislittleevidencetosuggestthatdelayingperformancefeedbacktolearnersis

harmful.Yet,itseemspossiblethatlearnersmayforgetthetargettasksbythetimethey

receivedelayedinstructorfeedback.Theymayalsobelookingaheadtoothertasksand

assignmentsandnotgivefullattentiontothefeedback.Lengthydelaysingivingfeedback

mayalsosignaltostudentsthattheassessment—orthefeedbackitself—isunimportant.

HarmfulEffectsofFeedback

Doesfeedbackeverhaveharmfulsideeffects?Feedbackcansometimeslead

studentstoadoptstrategiesthatareineffective.Harshfeedbackmayleadsomestudentsto

abandontheiroriginallearninggoals,ornotidentifyandpursuefurthergoals,forexample.

Studentsmay“cherry-pick”easiergoals,settlingforasomewhatlowerbutnonetheless

successfulperformance(Timperley,2013).Sometimes,feedbackcanhaveanegativeeffect

onastudent’sconfidenceandself-perceptionsasalearner(Chanock,2000;Higgins,

Hartley,&Skelton,2001;James,2000).Also,studentssometimesdonotknowwhattodo

inresponsetonegativefeedback(Forsyth,2015).Finally,DeciandRyan(1985)claimthat

feedbackcanbecounterproductiveunderthefollowingconditions:(1)whenlearnersfeel

toocloselymonitoredbytheinstructor;(2)whenlearnersinterpretfeedbackasthe

instructor’sattempttocontrolratherthanguidethemonhowtoimprove;and,(3)when

learnersfeelanuncomfortablesenseofcompetitionwithotherstudents.Insuchsituations,

learnersmaydiscountorignorethefeedbackand,subsequently,failtoimprovetheir

performance.

BenefitsofFeedbacktoMotivation

Researchhasshownthatfeedbackisstronglyrelatedtostudents’motivationfor

learning.AccordingtoStipek(2003),specificandconstructivefeedback—bothpositiveand


negative—isthemostmotivatingformoffeedbackthatteacherscanprovidetostudents.

Bandura(1997)observedthat,inthatspacebetweenwherestudentsareperformingand

wheretheyneedtobeperforming,theyarebestmotivatedwhentheyhaveagoodsenseof

theircurrentstatusandknowhowmuchtheyneedtoimprove.Further,positivefeedback

canincreaselearners’confidenceintheirabilitytopursuetheirachievementgoals.

Negativefeedback,however,undermineslearners’confidenceandexpectationsofsuccess

(Fishbach,Eyal,&Finkelstein,2010).

AsSchunkandZimmerman(2006)observed,whenteacherfeedbackinforms

studentsthattheyareimprovingtheirskillsorknowledgeandbecomingmorecompetent

attasks,thenstudents’intrinsicmotivationalsoimproves(p.360).Intrinsicmotivationis

doinganactivityforitsinherentsatisfactionratherthanforsomeseparableconsequence,

suchasreceivingareward(e.g.,agrade,agoldstar,teacherpraise)(Ryan&Deci,2000).

Intrinsicmotivationisconsideredtobeanecessarybutnotsufficientfactorinstudents’

academicperformance;sometimes,extrinsicmotivation(i.e.,studentspursuingtasksto

reaprewardssuchasgoodgrades,praise,orspecialprivileges)isalsonecessaryto

promotelearningandachievement.Skillfulinstructorsseektocreateconditionswhere

thereisabalancebetweenintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation.Feedbacktolearnersontheir

performancecanplayanimportantroleinstrikingthatbalance.

Learners’PerceptionsofFeedback

Itisimportanttounderstandhowstudentsfeelaboutthefeedbackthattheyreceive

fromtheirteachers.Muchoftheefficacyoffeedbackdependsonhowlearnersperceivethe

feedbackthatisgiventothem,intermsofits’informationvalue,timeliness,andsource

(e.g.,teacher,peer).Asstudentsadvancethroughtheirschoolyears,theybecomemore


adeptatprocessingevaluativefeedbackandadjustingtheirapproachestoclassroom

learningtasks(Perry,Turner,&Meyer,2006,p.331).Thus,adultlearnerstypicallyhavea

lengthyhistoryofexperiencesinschoolwheretheyhavereceivedandrespondedto

teacherfeedback.Adultlearnerswithahistoryofschoolfailuremayviewtheinstructoras

apowerfulauthorityfigureandexpertand,therefore,bereluctanttoquestionordebate

teacher-providedfeedback.Suchlearnersmaynotknowhowtorespondtofeedbackorthe

stepsnecessarytocorrecttheirerrors(Carless,2006).Apps(1991)emphasizedthe

importanceofhonestyanddiplomacyingivingfeedbacktoadultlearners,observingthat

“[i]falearnerisnotdoingwell,sheorhedeservestoknowthis,butwemustpresentthe

messageinsuchawaythatthepersondoesn’tgiveup”(p.42).

OnesurveyofBritishuniversitystudentsfoundthattheypreferredhavingboth

writtenfeedbackandone-on-onemeetingswiththeirinstructorsratherthanreceiving

onlywrittenfeedback(Blair&McGinty,2012).Undoubtedly,studentscanbenefitwhen

theyhaveopportunitiestoreceiveverbalfeedbackinface-to-facemeetingswiththeir

instructors.Higginsetal.(2001)observedthat,inordertomakesenseoffeedback,

interpretitcorrectly,anduseittoimprovesubsequentperformance,studentsneedtohave

suchinteractionswiththeirinstructors.But,manystudentsmaynotfeelcomfortable

talkingwiththeirinstructorsinpost-evaluationsituations.Also,instructorsmaylackthe

timenecessarytoscheduleindividualfeedbackmeetingswitheachstudent.

Bailey(2009)interviewedbothtraditionalandnon-traditional(“mature”)

undergraduatestudentsenrolledinsocialworkandnursingprogramstodeterminetheir

experienceswithinstructorfeedback.Thesestudentsreportedthattheyvaluedfeedback

whenithelpedthemtocorrecterrorsandprovidedspecificwaysforthemtoimprove.But


students’effortstodosowereimpairedwhenthefeedbackwasvagueandconfusingor

whentheirinstructorsdidnotfollowtheassessmentrubrics.Likewise,PoulosandMahony

(2008)observedthatstudentswantconsistency,transparency,clearcriteria,early(timely)

feedback,andexplanationsfromtheirinstructorsabouthowtheycanmakethebestuseof

thefeedbacktoimprovetheirlearning.

AstudyofTurkishuniversitystudents(Seker&Dincer,2014)foundthatwhenthey

feltpositiveaboutthefeedbacktheyreceivedontheirwork(secondlanguagewriting),

theyimmediatelytookstepstocorrecterrorsandimprovetheirperformance.However,

whentheyfeltnegativelyaboutthefeedback,theyputoffrespondingtothefeedback.This

suggeststhatinstructorsneedtobeawareofstudents’feelingsaboutfeedbackandbe

willingtohelpthemprocessthosefeelingssothattheycanrespondpositivelyand

promptlytoimprovetheirwork.

Students’backgroundcharacteristicsmayalsoplayaroleinhowtheyrespondto

feedback.Forexample,astudyoffirstgenerationAustralianuniversitystudents(Small&

Attree,2016)foundthatthesestudentsappreciatedthefeedbacktheyreceivedfromtheir

instructors—particularlywhenthatfeedbackwasclearandinstructive.Theyalso

demonstratedadegreeofsophisticationinusingprovidedfeedbacktobecomemoreself-

reflectivelearners.Adulteducatorsshouldpayspecialattentiontothewaysinwhichthey

giveperformancefeedbacktostudentsfromdiversebackgrounds.Adultlearnersfrom

non-majoritybackgroundsmay,forexample,havedifferentperspectivesontheroleofthe

teacher(i.e.,asanexpertandrespectedauthorityfigure)thatmaybeatoddswiththeadult

educator’sviewsoninstructorrolesandresponsibilities(Pratt-Johnson,2006).

ImplicationsforInstruction


Feedbackinresponsetoadultstudents’performanceonacademictasksisessential

toincreasingtheirlearning,skillmastery,andacademicachievement.Theresearchcitedin

thispapersuggestsseveralimplicationsforadulteducatorswhengivingfeedbackto

students.

First,giventhecomplexityoffeedbackasatoolforimprovingstudents’learningand

performance,adulteducationinstructorsshouldparticipateinprofessionaldevelopment

thatemphasizesthecharacteristics,purposes,andeffectsoffeedback—andhowtodeliver

feedbacksothatstudentslearnfromit.Adulteducatorsshouldbemindfuloftheir

approachestolearnerfeedbackandwhattheywanttoaccomplishwhentheygive

performancefeedbacktotheirstudents.

Second,adulteducatorsshouldunderstandthatpraiseforadultstudents’efforts

andachievementsiseffectiveonlyunderspecificcircumstances.Givingpraisetostudents

whoexcelcomesnaturallytoeducators.But,praiseshouldonlybeusedwhenitfocuseson

specificaspectsofstudents’performanceandwhenitacknowledgesstudents’abilities.

Third,adulteducatorsshouldhelpstudentsdevelopself-monitoringandself-

regulationskills.Self-regulationprocessesdeterminehowinstructors’feedbackisreceived

andacteduponbylearners.Thus,adulteducatorsneedtobeknowledgeableaboutthe

relationshipbetweenfeedbackandself-regulationoflearning.

Fourth,adulteducatorsshouldbecognizantforstudents’perceptionsofthevalueof

instructorfeedback.Althoughstudentsoftenpreferimmediatefeedback,thisisnotalways

possible;therefore,teachersshouldencouragestudentstousefeedbacktoimprovetheir

performancewithoutregardtothetimelagbetweenassessmentandfeedbackprovision.


Finally,adultlearnersareultimatelythedeterminantsoftheimpactandvalueof

feedbacktotheirlearningandachievement.AsHattie(2015)reported,feedbackismost

powerfulwhenlearnersseekitout,receiveit,andrespondtoit.Thus,adulteducators

shouldencourageandsupportadultlearnerstotakecontrolovertheirlearningwhenever

possible.

Conclusion

Theintentofthispaperistohelpadulteducatorsbetterunderstandhowfeedback

contributestoimprovingadults’learning.Becauselearningisoftenatrial-and-errorand

unpredictableprocess,feedbackisoftenessentialtothelearner.Thebestfeedback,in

termsofeffectivenessinpromotinglearning,providesinformationtothelearneraboutthe

sourceoftheirerrorsandwhattheyshoulddotorepairthesemistakes,butdoesnotdothe

problemsolvingforthelearner.Effectivefeedbackfocusesonthetask,notthelearner.Itis

timelyandfollowsfairlyimmediatelyupontaskcompletion;delayedfeedbacktendsto

impedeadditionallearning.

Adultstudents,likealllearners,needfeedbacktocorrecterrorsinlearningand

improvetheirstudyefforts,cognitiveprocessing,andself-regulation.Adulteducators

shouldstrivetolearnaboutthecharacteristicsofeffectivefeedback,themethodsfor

providingsuchfeedback,andcollaboratewiththeirstudentstoensurethatfeedbackis

receivedandacteduponsothatstudentsachievetheirlearninggoals.


NOTE

1. TheauthorwishestothankBigDanforhismetafeedback.


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Feedback in Adult Learning - cdn.ymaws.com€¦ · to helping students develop self-regulation skills. This paper reviews recent literature on the effects of teacher feedback for