February 11, 2006to May 21, 2006

Museum of Art & ArchaeologyUniversity of

MissouriColumbia

Students in 19th and 20th Western Dress, Winter Semester 2005

Megan Albers, Andrea Alderson, Kathryn Baker, Kate Bangert, Angela Bird, Lindsay Braunecker. Elizabeth Brewer, Courtney Cantwell, Kirstin Carmichael,Amber Crosby, Kristin Cunningham, Katie Diehl, Kathryn Fisher, Jayme Grubbs, Kristin Hayward, Annalise Hombs, Ashleigh Hombs, Erin Howard,Aric Maiden, Lynda Manson, Cristy Phelps,Marla Poteet, Lisa Steinhoff, Marisol Tirado, Jenny Tully

Independent Students, Fall Semester 2005

Sarah Boston & Laura Prather

Joan Stack and Laurel Wilson, Editors

Students in Art History and Archeology

Sarah Carter, Meghan Munos, Nicole Papagni

Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Collection, Department of Textile and Ap-parel Management

Museum of Art and ArcheologyCollege of Arts and Sciences

University of Missouri-Columbia

Dress and UndressJayme Grubbs

This miniature painting was done by a German artist, is believed to date between the 1830-1840, a time when very tight corseting set the silhouette for the rest of the 19th century. Corseting represented fragility, decency, and submission, as well as sexuality, confi dence, and power. Since the ideal woman was one who was frail and would never need to work, the restriction of movement that accompanied a tiny waist came to be a status symbol. Mothers and Grandmoth-ers were responsible for making sure young girls of marrying age were corseted, so that their appearance and reputation would be respectable at a time when marriage defi ned the socioeconomic life one would have (Steele 51). The Industrial Revolution and the development of the Singer sewing machine in the 1850s made corsets more available and affordable to women who may not have previously had access to this restrictive garment (Collins 122).

The corset was worn over a chemise and drawers such as those shown here. Having several layers of

clothing, some not even visible, were also signs of upper class status. The drawers, in particular, were unneces-sary since they were open at the crotch, covering the legs and providing another garment to make and care for. The chemise had more multiple uses such as nightwear and, for lower class women, a visible part of everyday dress. Most under clothing was made of linen or cotton, like these, so they could be easily washed in a wash-boil-er with lye soap. Since silken and woolen outer clothing was rarely cleaned, it was important to have a washable barrier between the body and outer garments. This in-cluded the corset that had steel or featherbone reinforce-ment stays that did not wash very well.

“W.H.” (German (?), Early 19th Century)“Portrait of a Lady”Miniature, painted on ivory (76.521)Gift of Mrs. Roy W. Swindell

ChemiseCa. 18501386Donor: Unknown

DrawersCa. 1850

1412Donor: Margaret Mason

Jean Francois Millet (French, 1814-1875)

Title UnknownEtching (X-17)

Black Discharge Print Work DressCa. 18601900Donor: Unknown

Jean Francois Millet Laura Prather

Jean Francois Millet, the son of a French peasant and a realist painter belonging to the Barbizon school, seldom painted people in their best clothing. Indeed, country scenes of working men and women formed the bulk of Millet’s work. In one of his etchings he shows a woman seated near a cottage window, bent over her sewing. She is wearing a simple dress with drop off the shoulder sleeves. These are not the woman’s fancy clothes, they are her work clothes. On her head she wears a plain cap to keep her hair out of

the way. Heavy work shoes cover her feet. This picture provides a glimpse into the life of a woman from the past at work in her daily occupations, sewing for her family. Limited resources may have required her to dress this way, or she may have simply ignored fashion’s precepts in favor of comfort. Whatever the reason, this woman was obviously hard at work, investing time to produce things we now take for granted.

The simple work dress from the Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Collection looks very similar to the dress depicted by Millet. It has a simple, round neckline and long straight sleeves.Although we cannot tell if Millet’s subject was wearing a dress made of a printed fabric, it is likely it was printed since fi gures conceal the soil of everyday life. The Missouri work dress is simply fastened with hooks and eyes and it was cut slightly shorter than fashionable dress so the housewife who wore it could accomplish her work without tripping.

Mourning Dress (Skirt, Sacque, Veil)Ca. 18792005.6.1abcDonors: Crum, Edwards, and Hazell

Boy’s Mourning Dress (Dress, Jacket)Ca. 1860

1988.11.13abDonor: Missouri Historical Society

Mourning DressSarah Boston

The tradition of mourning became especially infl uential in 1861 when Prince Albert of England passed away. Queen Victoria wore black for the remaining 40 years of her life to symbolize deep mourning for her dead husband. This tradition soon caught on in America, as well as in other nations. The most public example of mourning in America was that Mary Todd Lincoln wore mourning dress for several years after President Lincoln was killed. This was also the period of the Civil War, so there were thousands and thousands of people that started wearing mourning dress. The dress included black mourning crepe, a crinkled, silk gauze that was fashioned into skirts,

waists (bodices), sacques (a type of loose over-bodice), and veils. Mourning jewelry made out of jet and hair was incorporated into the dress of both men and women.

It was Harper’s Bazaar in 1867 that defi ned the acceptable mourning times. The etiquette dictated that the widow’s mourning time should be eighteen months. During this time, she was to wear black crepe, but other materials were acceptable including black fur, leather gloves, and seal-skin. After six months, the mourning crepe could be replaced with fabrics of grenadine and copeau fringe. After 12 months, she removed the veil to return to everyday fabrics, still dyed black.

Mourning dress for widowers was generally simpler than for widows since they most often wore a black sash or armband in the color black to show their respect. The men wore jewelry made of jet, sometimes with locks of hair or photographs in them. From the 1850s through the 1900s,Godey’s Lady’s Book, a popular women’s magazine, wrote instructions about how to turn hair into jewelry. This started a trend nationwide and people began using hair as another

George Caleb Bingham (American, 1811-1879)Portrait of Thomas Withers Nelson

Oil on canvas (2003.5)Gilbreath- McLorn Museum Fund

sign of mourning. Men’s mourning rings sometimes included skulls and had the name of the deceased inscribed on it. Mr. Singleton?, mourning the death of his wife when this image was painted by George Caleb Bingham, is wearing a mourning pin. It would be easily apparent to all who saw him that he was honoring her memory through this small article of jewelry made of jet with a diamond as a memento of her passing from life.

Another example of Victorian mourning jewelry incorporates the gray, braided hair of a deceased person into its design. The words “In Memory of” appear in gold print on the black enamel, while an inscription of the gold-plated back reads “William Luxton/ died 16 July 1878 aged 70.”

The amount of mourning crepe used in the veil, sacque, and skirt of this 1879 mourning dress indicates that it was worn by a widow. The skirt and sacque were cut in the fashionable silhouettes of that period.Since much of the foundations of these garments were made of mourning crepe, we can assume that the wearer was well-to-do. Women of lesser means would incorporate mourning crepe that could be removed for the later stages of mourning, saving themselves the expense of making a new dress.

Even children were expected to wear mourning dress for the death of a parent; however, the rules for children’s mourning required no mourning crepe for those younger than 16 and much less black. This boy’s dress and jacket made of black and white silk, trimmed with a purple fringed braid was also a mourning dress. Young children, like the boy who wore these garments, dressed in mourning for a very short period.

Mourning Brooch, 1878Gold-plated metal, black enamel, glass and human hairLent by Museum of Funeral Customs, Springfi eld, Illinois

Mourning Dress Detail

Erich Salomon (German, 1886-1944)Banquet at Quai d’Orsay, Paris, July 1931, 1931

Photograph 5/100, 75.129.5Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Marvin Small

Evening Tails, Vest, Trousers19041871abcDonor: Ruby

“What He Ought To Wear: A Look at Etiquette and Men’s Dress in Life and Art

Katie Baker

“Good manners and appropriate dress are part and parcel of gentle people” (Vanderbilt, 197). Even those who were in the lower rungs of the social ladder did their best to dress the part of a gentle person.

Men of the upper class, and those that emulated them, followed the etiquette of their time as strictly as women, especially when formality in dress was expected.

It is when we view art that we must take knowledge of etiquette regarding dress to get a better understanding of what the artist wants us to see. The clothing the subject is captured in tells us more about that person than anything else. It is clothing that dictates the place and the mood of the setting, and therefore the key to the whole artistic expression.

Erich Solomon is a great artist to explore since he took photography into another realm by capturing candid photographs at political events to get truly unique images of some of the most revered heads of state at their most vulnerable (Museet, 8). This is important because these men were expected to uphold rules of etiquette, whether they were under scrutiny or not. In a photograph taken at a banquet in honor of the German Chancellor, we see fi ve men in formal attire, the dress is identifi ed, the place and mood are set, but these men are relaxed rather being rigid as their clothing might dictate. Since they are caught in a moment when their guard is down, we are able to see them as they really are. While it was the artist’s intention to show the human behind the mask of clothing and political titles, he gave the masses another way of gaining information about their

Reginald Marsh (American, 1888–1954)2nd Ave. El, 1930Etching (84.92)

Gift of Harry B. Cohen

Grey Woolen Coat w/Fur TrimCa. 19382003.08.50Donor: Giegerich

Exploring 1930s Dress:The Depression and Social Realism

Katie Diehl & Cristy Phelps

The stock market crash of 1929, coupled with the effects of the Depression, was enough to send shock waves of destitution through all of society. While women felt these economic pangs, they were still expected to dress appropriately for their place in society. A hat and gloves were necessary for any public outing. This shows that, while women had made great strides in dress reform and women’s rights, they were still subjected to old rules. They were not to be seen in public exposing such delicate areas, like the hands, and were expected to wear some sort of head covering (Ryan 67).

In 2nd Ave. El., Marsh, a social realist, shows the viewer the harsh world of the 1930s. Marsh presents the image of a woman on an elevated train. Her face conveys no emotion—she seems disconnected from

her surroundings. Her eyes are cast off to the side, avoiding the viewer. Marsh reminds us of the typical female gaze in art in which a woman is not allowed to meet the viewer’s gaze, representing her subordinate place in life (Land). She can be seen as symbolizing the poor working class whereas the man, confi dent, ugly, and threatening, seated near her on the train can be seen an example of the social realist’s interpretation of the economic pressures of the Depression (Stockstad 447-448). The man snarls at the viewer, directly meeting the viewer’s gaze. The woman, like the working poor, is disconnected and drained of life. She sits there, not contemplating her life, but accepting it in apathetic despair, but still conforming to standards of dress dictated by social custom.

2nd Ave. El, 1930Detail

Jeffery Allan Salter (American, n.d.)Siti Opio, 1990Black and White Photograph (95.6.20)Gift of Dr. Michael Cheers, New African Visions, Incorporated

Nigerian DressCa. 1970s

1991.8.1Donor: Freeman

Afrocentric and African DressAndrea Alderson & Courtney Cantwell

African traditions of dress are extremely complex, diverse, and elaborate. The clothing is often symbolic of the status and identity of different individuals and groups. Even in societies where clothing was minimal, dress involved nuances of distinction and elaboration, which could understood only by the people in the related culture. (LeBlanc and Van Lowe, 2).

African-Americans in the United States in the early 1960s usually wore Westernized clothing that did not give any acknowledgement to their African heritage. However, as African-Americans began to fi ght for rights, they began to embrace their African roots through dress. They no longer felt the need to adopt the styles worn by white Americans, and they had more of a desire to stand out and make a statement of their heritage by wearing clothing that originated in Africa.

The purpose of Afrocentrism, including styles worn in Africa as well as in America, is to encourage Black Nationalism and ethnic pride as a psychological weapon against the destructive and debilitating efforts of universal racism (SkepDic). This photograph by Jeffery Allan Salter’s shows one way in which Afrocentrism is manifested. Wearing the traditional dress is a way to include everyone in the unifying culture and bring back traditions that might have been lost (Magginis, 3). “Graduation from school is a major event in the life and family of each student.It is a time for personal refl ection, personal pride in accomplishment and tribal and community pride of accomplishment. It should be automatically accepted that the youth should be allowed to wear regalia that identifi es their heritage” (Majel, 1).

Bob Black (American, n.d.)Crishon and Stevie Black, 1990Black and White Photograph (95.6.4)Gift of Dr. Michael Cheers, New African Visions, Incorporated

Blue Evening DressCa. 1986

1987.14.1abDonor: Marr

Creating a New Destiny: African American Media in the 1980s

Marla Poteet & Lyndi Manson

The 1980s was a transitional period for African-Americans who were on their way to establishing themselves in American society through education and entrepreneurship. The media’s infl uence on the African-American culture during the 1980s played an extensive role on how African-Americans were viewed. The Cosby Show, in particular, shaped opinion about African-Americans because it portrayed an upper middle class African-American family--the Huxtables. Cosby’s purpose behind the show was to acknowledge history and to change attitudes about African-Americans. The Oprah Winfrey’s show brought multi-racial topics to a multi-racial audience, another ground-breaking idea. African-Americans were encouraged to take charge of their future, according to Ebony Magazine. Students were aspiring to become doctors, lawyers, engineers, business men and women, careers that had never seemed tangible in the past, but because African-American students were attending college in great numbers, these careers were becoming reality.

Songs of My People, an exhibition of photographs taken by 50 African-American photographers, capturing pictures of African-Americans living their daily lives across the country also helped to change attitudes about stereotypes. This photograph by Bob Black, a founding member of the Chicago Alliance of African-American Photographers, shows a young couple wearing formal dress at an occasion attended by smiling people. This image illustrates how the African-American population is proactive in taking control of their future.

Robert Crumb (American, b. 1943)The Nightmare, 1995Photo lithograph and lithograph (99.6)Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Fund

Striped Tank TopCa. 19951999.6.33Donor: Boyd

Purple TightsCa. 19842000.2.52Donor: Roets

Black BootsCa. 1984-19861996.1.20abDonor: Roets

She Knows What Her Body Can Do: The Objectifi cation of Woman by Society

and in the Artwork of Robert CrumbAric Maiden

Every culture and period of history has beauty ideals, but western society is preoccupied with body size, exerting pressure on women to conform to the thin body ideal. Previously the focus was to look nice; however, mass culture has turned concern about the body ideal into obsession, and a dangerous one at that. A woman who happens to an attractive female body holds much power, women know this and sometimes succumb to the obsession to achieve an ideal with tanning beds, cosmetics, and even plastic surgery.

During the 19th century women had little worth as individual human beings but were like a product, created behind closed doors and exhibited publicly. As for any mass-produced product, consistency was important, so women forced their bodies into an hourglass silhouette controlled by the corset (Payne, 1965). This had dangerous effects since it diminished lung capacity, deformed the body by forcing the rib cage into a conical shape, and compacting the organs into the lower abdomen (Steele, 2001). The corset had the power to make a woman faint from the smallest exertion, or even crack a rib, but was a small price to pay. As young girls they were advertisements as future wives and mothers, and as married women

they were symbols of their husband’s wealth and importance.

As a lifetime objectifi er, Robert Crumb makes an interesting case. He began his career in the 1960s as an underground cartoonist, lifting the veil on the American hypocrisies and his favored subject was women. His piece titled “The Nightmare” (1995) is typical of his representation of women. Crumb liked his women voluptuous, tall and strong and that is how he drew them. It was in stark contrast to his depiction of his libido as a cartoon of small, weasel-like man, inept with women and controlled by his fantasies. In “The Nightmare,” he can be seen perched atop the woman as if he has conquered her. It is interesting to note that, although Crumb objectifi ed women, he did not illustrate them as abnormally thin, full-breasted women as portrayed in mainstream culture, but as full bodied voluptuous women.

Lisette Model (American, 1901-1983)Coney Island Standing, 1942Gelatin silver print photograph (2002.7)Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Fund

Black Bathing SuitCa. 1952

1622Donor: Fisher

Maker: Catalina

The Black Swimsuit Jaime Minard

A black swimsuit made by Catalina Sportswear was wore by Mary E. Fisher during the early 1950s.This particular model was advertised for the “full-fi gured woman” (Fisher Record). Catalina Sportswear capitalized on the popularity of their swimsuits by promoting their swimwear through sponsorship of the Miss America Pageant. Due to a dispute with 1950 Miss America, Catalina decided not to sponsor the Miss America Pageant so the company went on to develop the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageant, which still take place today. (History of Pageants, n.d., Miss Universe Scrapbook, n.d., Miss USA History, n.d.).

This history is quite a contrast with the 1942 photograph by Lisette Model of a large, happy woman. Model conveyed messages and feelings about people through photography, an art that truly represents life. This photograph, taken a decade earlier than the Catalina swimsuit was made, reveals a larger woman who is happy with herself even though she is completely unlike beauty queens whose bodies were considered the cultural ideal. It is as though the woman in the picture is making fun of models and the infl uence they may have had on body image. She, herself, is a model since she can wear a fi tted black swimsuit like those sold to beauty queens and she can pose for the camera as well. She presents an unselfconsciously confi dent picture of a woman who enjoys life, unaffected by beauty ideals.

Kimbal Wells (American, b. 1939)Burger Queen, 1977Lithograph (78.228)Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Christopher A. Graf

Burger King UniformCa. 19702006.1.1

Missouri Historic Costume Collection PurchaseMaker: Portrait Clothes Division of Barco

Burger QueenJoan Stack and Laurel Wilson

Burger Queen pictures a young woman seated on the counter of a fast-food restaurant. She wears the store’s uniform and wraps her arm around a cash register. The title of the print helps identify the setting by making reference to two giant fast-food franchises: Burger King and Dairy Queen. It also identifi es the central fi gure, whose monumental form dominates the composition. She is a “queen” of consumer culture, seated on the “throne” of burger commerce. It was in 1954 that fast food franchises began with Burger King and McDonalds, replacing once-familiar drugstore lunch counters. Part of the idea of fast-food franchises was to provide a predictable standard of quality and quantity of food throughout an entire chain of restaurants. This also resulted in standardizing the

appearance of the restaurants, food containers, and dress worn by employees.

The “Burger Queen’s” uniform refl ects the valuesof the modern fast-food industry. By dressing all employees in similar clothing, companies like McDonalds and Burger King present effi cient, homogeneous faces to the public. The cut and style of the uniforms are conventional and “clean-cut” so as not to offend the sensibilities of mainstream America. The material of the outfi ts is usually synthetic, easy-to-clean, cheap and durable. In the 1970s, many fast-food uniforms were gender-specifi c: women wore dresses, jumpers or skirts, and men wore pants. The young woman who wore this uniform was not happy with the conservative length of the skirt so shortened it without removing the original hem, not necessary today since fast food workers are more likely to wear unisex uniforms.

Works CitedArthur Tomson, Jean-Francois Millet and the Barbizon School (London, England, George Bell and Sons, 1903)Baker, Kathryn. “What He Ought To Wear: A Look at Etiquette and Men’s Dress in Everyday Life And Art in the First Half of the 20th Century,” Unpublished Paper, May 2005. Collins, Gail. America’s Women. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc, 2003Crumb, Robert. The Complete Crumb. Westlake Village, California: Fantagraphics Books, 1987.Ebony. (1961-62). Volume 17. Pg. 58, 63-64, 70. Volume 25. Pg. 100.Fishcer, Gayle. Pantaloons and Power. 2001 Kent State University PressGodey’s Lady’s Book (1848-1900)Godey’s Lady’s Book April 1849Harper’s Bazaar (1867)History of Pageants. Retrieved March 15, 2005 from http://www.pageantcenter.com/pagenat_history.htm.Land, Norman. “Baroque Art in Holland.” History of Western Art II. University of Missouri-Columbia. March 8, 2005.Mourning dress. Retrieved November 29, 2005 http://www.fashion-era.com/mourning_fashion.htm http://www.wcwa.net/Civilians/mourning.htm http://www.deathonline.net/remembering/mourning/victorian.cfm http://www.victoriana.com/library/harpers/funeral.html http://www.chicagohs.org/AOTM/oct98/oct98fact2a.html http://www.hairwork.com/remember.htmMuseet, Fotografi ska. Erich Solomon: Unguarded Moments. Sweden: Hasselblad, 1974.New Harmony Gazette, June 26, 1826.Payne, Blanche, et. al. History of Costme. New York: Harper & Row, 1965.Ryan, Mildred Graves. Cues for You. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1940.Steele, Valerie. The Corset: a Cultural History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.Stockstad, Marilyn. Art: A Brief History. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000. 447-450.Sunday Evening Post (1821-1830); May 8, 1830; vol. 9, no. 458; APS Online pg. 3Sweet Clover or Nellie Milton’s Housekeeping, (Boston William H. Hill, Jr. & Co. 186The Poughkeepsie Casket: a monthly literary journal; Aug. 1839; vol. 3; no. 10; pg. 78.Vanderbilt, Amy. Amy Vanderbilt’s Etiquette. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1952.,

Burger King Uniform Label, Detail Ca. 19702006.1.1Missouri Historic Costume Collection PurchaseMaker: Portrait Clothes Division of Barco

Published in conjunction with the exhibition, Dressing the Part: Fashion and Art in the 19th and 20th Centu-ries, held at the Museum of Art and Archeology, Feb-ruary 11-May 21, 2006. The exhibition and catalog were made possible through donations of Friends of the Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Collection, the Department of Textile and Apparel Management in the College of Human Environmental Sciences and the Museum of Art and Archeology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia. Of course there would be no exhibition without generous donations of garments and artworks to the two institu-tions.

Exhibition co-curators: Joan Stack and Laurel WilsonPhotography: Howard WilsonPrinting: University Printing Services, University of Missouri

© 2006, Missouri Historic Costume and Textile Col-lection, Department of Textile and Apparel Manage-ment and Museum of Art and Archeology, College of Arts and Science, University of Missouri-Columbia.

Front Cover

Mourning Dress (Skirt, Sacque, Veil)Ca. 1879Gift of Julie Crum, Aileen Edwards, and Jane Hazell

Black HatCa. 1879Gift of Patricia Roets

Boy’s Mourning Dress (Dress, Jacket)Ca. 1860Gift of the Missouri Historical Society

Portrait of Thomas Withers Nelson, 1844-45By George Caleb Bringham (American, 1811-1879)