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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Carl Jungin 1910. Myers and Briggsextrapolated their MBTI theory from Jung'swritings in his book Psychological Types .

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI) assessment is a psychometricquestionnaire

designed to measure psychologicalpreferences in how people perceive the world and

make de cisions.[1]:1These preferences were extrapolated from the typologicaltheories

proposed by Carl Gustav Jungand first published in his 1921 book Psychological Types

(English edition, 1923).[2 ]

The o riginal developers of the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her

daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. They be gan creating the indicator during World War II,

believing that a knowledge of personality preferences would help women who were entering

the industrial workforce for the first time to identify the sort of war-time jobs where they would

be "most comfortable and effective".[1]:xiiiThe initial questionnaire g rew into the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which was first published in 1962. The MBTI focuses on normal

populations and emphasize s the value of naturally occurring differences.[3]

CPP Inc., the publisher of the MBTI instrument, calls it "the world's most widely used

personality assessment",[4 ]with as many a s two million assessments administered

annually. The CPP and other proponents state that the indicator meets o r excee ds the

reliability of o ther psychologica l instruments[5][6]and cite reports of individual behavior.[7 ]

Some s tudies have found strong support for construct validity , internal consistency, and

test-retest reliab ility , although variation was observed.[8][9]However, someacademic

psychologists have criticized the MBT I instrument, claiming that it "lacks convincing validity

data".[10][11][12][13]Some studies have shown the statistical validity and reliability to below.[13][14][15]The use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator as a predictor of job success has not been supported in studies, [15][16]and its

use for this purpose is expressly discouraged in the Manual.[17]

The registered trademarkrights to the terms Myers-Briggs Type Indicatorand MBTIhave been assigned from the publisher to the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator Trust.[18]

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1.1 Type

1.2 Four dichotom ies

1.3 Attitudes: extraversion/introversion (E/I)

1.4 Functions: sensing/intuition (S/N) and thinking/feeling (T/F)

1.4.1 Dominant function

1.5 Lifestyle: judging/perception (J/P)

2 Historical development

2.1 Differences from Jung

2.1.1 Judging vs. perception2.1.1.1 Orientatio n o f the tertiary function

3 Applications

4 Format and administration

4.1 Additional formats

5 Precepts and ethics

6 Type dynamics and developm ent

7 Correlations to o ther instruments

7.1 Keirsey temperaments

7.2 Big Five

8 Origins o f the theory9 Validity

10 Reliability

11 Utili ty

12 See also

13 Notes

14 References and further reading

15 External links

Concepts

As the MBTI Manualstates, the indicator "is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be understood to understand the

MBTI".[17]:1

Fundamental to the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator is the theoryof psychological typeas originally developed by Carl Jung.[1]:xiiiJung

proposed the existence o f two dichotomous pairs o f cognitive functions:

The "rational" (judging) functions: thinkingand feeling

The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensingand intuition

Jung went on to sugge st that these functions a re exp ressed in either an introverted o r extraverted form. [1]:17From Jung's original

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DichotomiesExtraversion (E) - (I) Introversion

Sensing (S) - (N) Intuition

Thinking (T ) - (F) Feeling

Judging (J) - (P) Perception

concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based.

Type

Jung's typological model regards psychological type as similar to left or right handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop,

certain preferred ways o f thinking and acting. The MBTI sorts some o f these psychologica l differences into four opposite pairs, or

dichotomies, with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these types are betteror worse; however, Briggs and Myers

theorize d that individuals naturallypreferone overall combination of type differences.[1]:9In the same way that writing with the left hand is

hard work for a right-hander, so people tend to find using their oppo site psycholog ical preferences more difficult, even if they can become

more proficient (and therefore be haviorally flexible) with practice and development.

The 16 types a re typically referred to by an a bbreviation of four lettersthe initial letters of each of their four type p references (except in

the case of intuition, which uses the abbreviation Nto distinguish it from Introversion). For instance:

ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)

INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P)

And so on for all 16 possib le type combinations.

Four dichotomies

The four pairs of preferences or dichotomiesare shown in the table to the right.

Note that the terms used for each dichotomy have specific technical meanings relating to the MBTI which

differ from their everyday usage. For example, people who prefer judgment over perception are not

necessarily morejudgmentalor less perceptive. Nor does the MBTI instrument measure aptitude; it

simply indicates for one preference over another.[17]:3Someone reporting a high score for extraversion

over introversion cannot be correctly described as moreextraverted: they simply have a clear

preference.

Point scores on ea ch of the d ichotomies can vary co nsiderably from person to person, even among those with the same type. However,

Isabel Myers considered the directionof the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degreeof the preference (for

example, very clear vs. slight).[19]The expression of a person's psychological type is more than the sum of the four individual

preferences. The preferences interact through type dynamicsand type development.

Attitudes: extraversion/introversion (E/I)

Myers-Briggs literature uses the terms extraversionand introversionas Jung first used them. Extraversion means "outward-turning" and

introversion means "inward- turning".[20]These sp ecific definitions vary somewhat from the pop ular usage of the words. Note that

extraversionis the spelling used in MBTI publications.

The p references for extraversion and introversion are often called attitudes. Briggs and Myers recognized that each of the cognitive

functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people , and things (extraverted attitude) or the internal world of ideas and

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reflection (introverted attitude). The MBT I assessment sorts for an overall preference for one or the other.

People who prefer extraversion draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their motivation

tends to decline. To rebuild their energy, extraverts need b reaks from time spent in reflection. Conversely, those who prefer introversion

expendenergy through action: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again. To rebuild their energy, introverts need quiet time alone,

away from activity.

The extravert's flow is directed outward toward people and objects, and the introvert's is directed inward toward concepts and ideas.

Contrasting characteristics between extraverts and introverts include the following:

Extraverts are actionoriented, while introverts are thoughtoriented.Extraverts see k breadthof knowledge and influence, while introverts seek depthof knowledge and influence.

Extraverts often prefer more frequentinteraction, while introverts prefer more substantialinteraction.

Extraverts recharge and get their energy from spending time with people, while introverts recharge and get their energy from spending

time alone.[21]

Functions: sensing/intuition (S/N) and thinking/feeling (T/F)

Jung identified two p airs of psychological functions:

The twoperceivingfunctions, sensing and intuition

The twojudgingfunctions, thinking and feeling

According to the Myers- Briggs typo logy model, each p erson uses one of these four functions mo re dominantly and proficiently than the

other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances.

Sensingand intuitionare the information-gathering (perceiving) functions. They describe how new information is understood and

interpreted. Individuals who prefer sensingare more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete: that is,

information that can be understood by the five se nses. They tend to distrust hunches, which seem to come "out of nowhere".[1]:2They

prefer to look for details and facts. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer intuitiontend to trust

information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be assoc iated with other information (either remembered or disco vered by

seeking a wider co ntext or pa ttern). They may be more interested in future possib ilities. They tend to trust those flashes of insight that

seem to bubble up from the unconscious mind. The meaning is in how the da ta relates to the pattern or theory.

Thinkingand feelingare the decision-making(judging) functions. The thinking and feeling functions a re bo th used to make rationaldecisions, based on the data rece ived from their information-ga thering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer thinkingtend to

decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and

matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer feelingtend to come to d ecisions by asso ciating or empathizing with the situation,

looking a t it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve , on b alance, the g reatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the

needs of the people involved. Thinkers usually have trouble interacting with peop le that are inconsistent or illogical, and tend to give ve ry

direct feedback to others. They are concerned with the truth and view it as more important than being tactful.

As noted a lread y, people who prefer thinking do not necessarily, in the everyday se nse, "think better" than their feeling counterparts; the

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opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a measure

of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer feeling d o not necessarily have "better" emotional reactions than their thinking

counterparts.

Dominant f unction

According to Myers and Briggs, people use a ll four cog nitive functions. However, one function is generally use d in a more consc ious a nd

confident way. This do minant function is supported b y the secondary (auxiliary) function, and to a lesser degree the tertiary function. The

fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Myers called this inferior function the shadow.[1]:84

The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (extraversion and introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or

introverted way. A person whose dominant function is extraverted intuition, for example, uses intuition very differently from someone whose

dominant function is introverted intuition.

Lifestyle: judging/perception (J/P)

Myers and Briggs added another dimension to Jung's typological model by identifying that people also have a preference for using

either thejudgingfunction (thinking or feeling) or their perceivingfunction (sensing or intuition) when relating to the outside world

(extraversion).

Myers and Briggs held that types with a preference for judgingshow the world their preferred judging function (thinking or feeling). So TJ

types tend to appear to the world as logical, and FJ types as empathetic. According to Myers,[1]:75

judging types like to "have matterssettled".

Those types who prefer pe rception show the world their preferred perceivingfunction (sensing or intuition). So SP types tend to appear to

the world as concrete and NP types a s abstract. According to Myers, [1]:75 perceptive types prefer to "keep decisions open".

For extraverts, the J or P indicates their dominantfunction; for introverts, the J or P indicates their auxiliaryfunction. Introverts tend to show

their dominant function outwardly only in matters "important to their inner worlds".[1]:13For example:

Because ENTJ types a re extroverts, the J indicates that their dominantfunction is their preferred judging function (extraverted thinking).

ENTJ types introvert their auxiliary perceiving function (introverted intuition). The tertiary function is sensing and the inferior function is

introverted feeling.

Because INTJ types a re introverts, the J indicates that their auxiliaryfunction is their preferred judging function (extraverted thinking). INTJtypes introvert their dominant perceiving function (introverted intuition). The tertiary function is feeling, and the inferior function is extraverted

sensing.

Historical development

Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917. Upon meeting her future son-in- law, she observed marked

differences between his personality and that of other family members. Briggs embarked on a project of reading biographies, and she

developed a typology based on patterns she found. She proposed four temperaments: Meditative (or Thoughtful), Spontaneous,

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Executive, and Social.[22][23]Then, after the English translation of Psychological Types was published in 1923 (having first been published

in German in 1921), she recognized that Jung's theory was similar to, ye t went far beyond, her own.[1]:22 Briggs's four types were later

identified as corresponding to the Is, EPs, ETJs and EFJs.[22][23]Her first publications were two articles describing Jung's theory, in the

journal New Republicin 1926 (Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box ) and 1928 (Up From Barbarism).

Briggs's daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely.

Myers grad uated first in her class from Swarthmore College in 1919[1]:xxand wrote the prize- winning mystery novel Murder Yet to Come in

1929 using typologica l ideas . However, neither Myers nor Briggs were formally educated in psychology, and thus they lacked scientific

credentials in the field o f psychometric testing.

[1]:xiii

So Myers apprenticed herself to Edward N. Hay, who was then personnel manager fora large Philadelphia bank and went on to start one of the first successful personnel consulting firms in the U.S. From Hay, Myers learned

test construction, scoring, validation, and statistics.[1]:xiii, xxIn 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator" was created, and the Briggs Myers

Type Indicator Handbookwas published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) in

1956.[24][25]

Myers' work attracted the attention of Henry Chauncey, head of the Educational Testing Service, and under these auspice s, the first MBTI

Manualwas published in 1962. The MBTI received further support from Donald T. McKinnon, head of the Institute of Personality Research

at the University of California; Harold Grant, professor at Michigan State and Auburn Universities; and Mary H. McCaulley of the University

of Florida. The p ublication of the MBTI was transferred to Consulting Psycholog ists Press in 1975, a nd the Center for Applications of

Psychological Type (CAPT) was founded as a research laboratory.[1]:xxiAfter Myers' dea th in May 1980 , Mary McCaulley updated the

MBTI Manual, and the second edition was published in 1985.[19]

The third edition appeared in 1998.

Differences from Jung

Judging vs. perception

The most notable ad dition of Myers and Briggs to Jung's original thought is their concept that a given type 's fourth letter (J or P) is

determined by how that type interacts with the external world, rather than by the type's dominantfunction. The d ifference be comes evident

when assessing the cognitive functions of introverts.[1]:21-22

To Jung, a type with dominant introverted thinking, for examp le, would be considered rational(judging) because the decision-making

function is d ominant. To Myers, however, that same type would be irrational(perceiving) b ecause the individual uses an information-

gathering function (either extraverted intuition or extraverted sensing) when interacting with the outer world.

Orientat ion of t he tertiary function

Jung theorized that the dominant function acts alone in its preferred world: exterior for the extraverts, and interior for the introverts. The

remaining three functions, he suggested, operate together in the opposite world. If the dominant cognitive function is introverted, the other

functions are e xtraverted, and vice versa. The MBTI Manualsummarizes references in Jung's work to the balance in psychological type

as follows:

There are se veral references in Jung's writing to the three remaining functions having an oppo site attitudinal character. For

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example, in writing about introverts with thinking dominant...Jung commented that the counterbalancing functions have an

extraverted character.[19]:29

However, many MBTI practitioners hold that the tertiary function is oriented in the same direction as the dominant function. [26]Using the

INTP type as an example, the orientation would be as follows:

Dominant introverted thinking

Auxiliary extraverted intuition

Tertiary introverted sensing

Inferior extraverted feeling

From a theoretical perspective, noted psycholog ist H.J. Eysenck ca lls the MBTI a mode rately successful quantification of Jung's original

principles as outlined in Psychological Types .[27]However, both models rema in theory, with no controlled scientific studies supporting

either Jung's original concept of type o r the Myers- Briggs variation.[28]

Applicat ions

The indicator is frequently used in the area s of pedagogy, career counseling , team building, group dynamics, professional development,

marketing, family business, leadership training, executive coaching, life coaching, personal development, marriage counseling, and

workers' compensation claims.

Format and administration

The current North American English version of the MBTI Step I includes 93 forced- choice q uestions (there are 88 in the European English

version). Forced-choicemeans that the individual has to choose only one of two possible answers to each question. The choices are a

mixture of word pa irs and short statements. Choices are not literal op posites b ut chosen to reflect opposite p references on the same

dichotomy. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose.

Using psychometric techniques, such as item response theory, the MBTI will then be scored and will attempt to identify the preference,

and cla rity of p reference, in each d ichotomy. After taking the MBTI, p articipants are usually asked to comple te a Best Fitexercise (see

below) a nd then given a readout of their Reported Type, which will usually include a b ar graph and number to show how clear they were

about each preference when they completed the questionnaire.During the early development of the MBTI thousands of items were used. Most were eventually discarded beca use they did not have

high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item did not, on averag e, move an individual score awayfrom the midpoint.

Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the MBTI to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information

as other instruments with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The MBTI requires five points one way or another to

indicate a clear preference.

Additional formats

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The Sixteen Types

US Populatio n

Breakdown

The table organizing the

sixteen types was created

by Isabel Mye rs (an INFP).

ISTJ

1114%

ISFJ

914%

INFJ

13%

INTJ

24%

ISTP46%

ISFP59%

INFP45%

INTP35%

ESTP

45%

ESFP

49%

ENFP

68%

ENTP

25%

ESTJ

812%

ESFJ

913%

ENFJ

25%

ENTJ

25%

Est imated percentages o f the

16 types in the U.S.

popu la t ion .[35]

No preference or total type is considered better or worse than another. They a re all Gifts Differing, as emphasized by the title of Isabel

Briggs Myers' book on this subject.

Voluntary

It is considered unethical to compel anyone to take the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. It should always be taken voluntarily.[34]

Confidentiality

The result of the MBTI Reported and Best Fit type a re confidential between the individual and administrator and, e thically, not for

disclosure without permission.

Not for selection

The results of the assessment should not be used to " label, eva luate, or limit the responde nt in any way" (emphasis original). [34]

Since all types are valuable, and the MBTI measurespreferencesrather than aptitude, the MBTI is not considered a proper instrument

for purposes o f employment selec tion. Many professions contain highly competent individuals of different types with complementary

preferences.

Importance of proper feedb ack

Individuals should always be given de tailed feedback from a trained administrator and an opportunity to undertake a Be st Fit exercise

to check against their Reported Type. This feedback can be given in person or, where this is not practical, by telephone or

electronically.

Type dynamics and development

The interaction of two, three, or four preferences is known as type dynamics. Although type d ynamics has

garnered little or no e mpirical support to substantiate its viability as a scientific theory,[36]Myers and Briggs

asserted that for each of the 16 four-preference types, one function is the most dominantand is likely to be

evident earliest in life. A secondary or auxiliaryfunction typically becomes more evident (differentiated)

during teenage years and provides balance to the dominant. In normal development, individuals tend to

become more fluent with a third, tertiaryfunction during mid life, while the fourth, inferiorfunction remains least

consciously de veloped. The inferior function is often considered to b e more a ssociated with the

unconscious, being most ev ident in situations such as high stress (sometimes referred to as being in the grip

of the inferior function).However the use of type dynamics is disputed: in the conclusion of various studies on the subject of type

dynamics, James H. Reynierse writes that "Type dynamics has persistent logical problems and is

fundamentally based on a series of category mistakes; it provides, at best, a limited and incomplete

account of type related phenomena;" and that "type dynamics relies on anecdotal evidence, fails most

efficiacy tests, and d oes not fit the emp irical facts;". His studies ga ve the clear result, that the de scriptions

and workings of type dynamics don't fit the real behavior of people. He suggests getting completely rid of

type dynamics, because it doesn't help, but hinder understanding of personality. The presumed order of

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functions 1 to 4 did only occur in one(!) out of 540 test results. [37]

The sequence of differentiation of dominant, auxiliary, and tertiary functions through life is termed type development. Note that this is an

idealized sequence that may be disrupted by major life events.

The d ynamic seq uence of functions and their attitudes ca n be determined in the following way:

The ove rall lifestyle preference(J-P) de termines whether the judging (T- F) or pe rceiving (S-N) preference is most evident in the

outside world; i.e., which function has an extraverted attitude

The attitudep reference (E-I) de termines whether the extraverted function is dominant or auxiliary

For those with an overall preference for extraversion, the function with the extraverted attitudewill be the dominant function. Forexamp le, for an ESTJ type the d ominant function is the judg ing function, thinking, and this is experienced with an extraverted attitude.

This is notated as a dominant Te. For an ESTP, the dominant function is the pe rceiving function, sensing, notated as a dominant Se.

TheAuxiliaryfunction for extraverts is the secondary p reference of the judging or pe rceiving functions, and it is experienced with an

introverted attitude: for example, the auxiliary function for ESTJ is introverted sensing (Si) and the auxiliary for ESTP is introverted

thinking (Ti).

For those with an overall preference for introversion, the function with the extraverted attitude is the auxiliary; the dominant is the other

function in the main four letter preference. So the dominant function for ISTJ is introverted sensing (Si) with the auxiliary (supporting)

function being extraverted thinking (Te).

The Tertiaryfunction is the opposite preference from the Auxiliary. For example, if the Auxiliary is thinking then the Tertiary would be

feeling. The a ttitude of the Tertiary is the subject of some deba te and therefore is not normally indicated; i.e. if the Auxiliary was Te

then the Tertiary would be F (not Fe or Fi)

The Inferiorfunction is the opposite preference and attitude from the Dominant, so for an ESTJ with dominant Te the Inferior would be

Fi.

Note that for extraverts, the dominantfunction is the one most evident in the external world. For introverts, however, it is the auxiliary

function that is most evident externally, as their dominant function relates to the interior world.

Some examples o f whole types may c larify this further. Taking the ESTJexample above:

Extraverted function is a judg ing function (T-F) be cause of the o verall J preference

Extraverted function is dominant because o f overall E preference

Dominant function is therefore extraverted thinking (Te)Auxiliary function is the preferred p erceiving function: introverted sensing (Si)

Tertiary function is the opposite of the Auxiliary: intuition (N)

Inferior function is the opposite of the Dominant: introverted feeling (Fi)

The dynamics of the ESTJ a re found in the primary combination of extraverted thinking as their dominant function and introverted sensing

as their auxiliary function: the d ominant tendency of ESTJs to order their environment, to set clea r boundaries, to clarify roles a nd

timetables , and to d irect the activities around them is supp orted by their facility for using past expe rience in an ordered and systematic

way to help organize themselves and others. For instance, ESTJs may enjoy planning trips for groups of people to achieve some goal or

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to perform some culturally uplifting function. Because of their ease in directing others and their facility in managing their own time, they

engage all the resources at their disposal to achieve their goals. However, under prolonged stress or sudden trauma, ESTJs may

overuse their extraverted thinking function and fall into the grip of their inferior function, introverted feeling. Although the ESTJ can seem

insensitive to the feelings o f others in their normal activities, under tremendous stress, they can suddenly e xpress feelings of be ing

unappreciated o r wounded by insensitivity.

Looking at the diametrically opposite four-letter type, INFP:

Extraverted function is a p erceiving function (S-N) because of the P p reference

Introverted function is dominant because of the I preferenceDominant function is therefore introverted feeling (Fi)

Auxiliary function is ex traverted intuition (Ne)

Tertiary function is the opposite of the Auxiliary: sensing (S)

Inferior function is the opposite of the Dominant: extraverted thinking (Te)

The dynamics of the INFP rest on the fundamental correspondence o f introverted feeling a nd ex traverted intuition. The d ominant tendency

of the INFP is toward building a rich internal framework of values and toward championing human rights. They often devote themselves

behind the scenes to ca uses such as c ivil rights or saving the environment. Since they tend to avoid the limelight, postpone decisions,

and maintain a reserved posture, they a re rarely found in executive-director type positions of the organizations that serve those causes.

Normally, the INFP dislikes being " in charge" o f things. When not under stress, the INFP radiates a pleasant and sympa thetic demeanor;

but under ex treme s tress, they can sudde nly beco me rigid a nd directive, e xerting their extraverted thinking erratically.

Every type, and its opposite, is the expression of these interactions, which give each type its unique, recognizable signature.

Correlat ions to other instruments

Keirsey temperaments

David W. Keirseymapped four 'temperaments' to the existing Myers-Briggs system groupings SP, SJ, NF and NT; this often results in

confusion of the two theories. However, the Keirsey Temperament Sorteris not directly assoc iated with the official Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator.

ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJ

Inspector Protector Counselor Mastermind

ISET IP ISEFIP INEFIP INET IP

Crafter Composer Healer Architect

ESET IP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENET IP

Promoter Performer Champion Inventor

ESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ

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Supervisor Provider Teacher Fieldmarshal

Big Five

McCrae and Costa[11]present correlationsbe tween the MBTI scales and the Big Fivepe rsonality construct, which is a conglomeration of

characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychologica l tests. The five personality characteristics are e xtraversion, openness,

agreea bleness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 me n

followed as part of a longitudinal study o f aging. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism

E- I 0.74 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.16

S- N 0.10 0.72 0.04 0.15 0.06

T-F 0.19 0.02 0.44 0.15 0.06

J- P 0.15 0.30 0.06 0.49 0.11

The closer the number is to 1.0 or 1.0, the higher the degree of correlation.

These data sugge st that four of the MBTI scales a re related to the Big Fivepersonality traits. These correlations show that E- I and S- N

are strongly related to extraversion and openness respectively, while T-F and J-P are moderately related to agreeableness and

conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely abse nt from the original MBTI (though the TDI,

discussed above, has addressed that dimension).These findings led McCrae a nd Costa, the formulators of the Five Factor Mode l (a Big Five theory), [38]to conclude, "correlational

analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did mea sure aspects of four of the five major d imensions of normal personality. The five-

factor model p rovides an alternative basis for interpreting MBT I findings within a broa der, more commonly shared co nceptual framework."

However, "there was no suppo rt for the view that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences o r qualitatively distinct types , instead,

the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."

Origins of t he theory

Jung's theory of psycholog ical type, as published in his 1921 book, was not tested through controlled scientific studies. [28]Jung's

methods primarily included clinical observation, introspectionand anecdotemethods that are largely regarded as inconclusive by themodern field of psychology.[28]

Jung's type theory introduced a sequence of four cognitive functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, a nd intuition), each having one o f two

orientations (extraverted or introverted), for a total of eight functions. The Myers-Briggs theory is b ased on these eight functions, although

with some d ifferences in exp ression (see Differences from Jungabove) . However, neither the Myers-Briggs nor the Jungian mode ls offer

any scientific, experimental proof to suppo rt the existence, the sequence, the orientation, or the manifestationof these functions.[28]

Validity

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The statistical validityof the MBTI as a psychometric instrument has bee n the subject of criticism. It has be en estimated that between a

third and a half of the published material on the MBTI has bee n produced for conferences o f the Center for the Application of

Psychologica l Type (which provides training in the MBTI) or as papers in the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited by Myers-

Briggs advocates).[39]It has been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny. [15][39]

For example, some researchers expected that scores would show a bimoda l distributionwith peaks near the ends of the scales, but

found that scores on the individual subscales were actually distributed in a centrally pe aked manner similar to a normal distribution. A cut-

off exists at the center of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the

opposite type. This fails to support the concept of type: the norm is for peop le to lie near the middle of the subsca le. [11][12][13][15][40]

"Although we do not conclude that the absence of bimodality necessarily proves that the MBTI developers theory-based assumption of

categorical types of personality is invalid, the absence of empirical bimodality in IRT-based MBTI scores does indeed remove a potentially

powerful line of evidence that was previously available to type advocates to cite in defense of their position." [40]

In 1991, the National Academy of Sciences committee reviewed da ta from MBTI research studies and concluded that only the I-E scale

has high co rrelations with comparable scales of other instruments and low correlations with instruments designed to assess d ifferent

concepts, showing s trong va lidity. In contrast, the S- N and T- F scales show relatively weak validity. The 1991 review committee

concluded at the time there was "not sufficient, well-designed research to justify the use o f the MBTI in career counseling p rograms".[16]

However, this study also based its measurement of validity on "criterion-rela ted validity (i.e., does the MBTI predict spe cific outcomes

related to interpersonal relations or career success/job performance?)."[16]The ethical guidelines of the MBTI assessment stress that the

MBTI type "do es not imply excellence, competence, or natural ability, only what is preferred."[34]The 2009 MBTI Form M Manual

Supplement states, "An instrument is said to b e va lid when it measures what it has been de signed to measure (Ghiselli, Campbell, &

Zed eck, 198 1; Murphy & Davidshofer, 2005)."[5 ]Studies have found that the MBTI scores compare favorably to o ther assessments with

respect to evidence of convergent validity , divergent va lidity, construct valid ity, internal co nsistency, and test-retest reliability. [5][8][9]

The accuracy of the MBTI depends on honest self-reporting by the person tested. [17]:52-53Unlike some personality measures, such as

the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventoryor the Personality Assessment Inventory, the MBTI does not use validity scales to assess

exaggerated or socially d esirable responses.[41]As a result, individuals motivated to do so can fake their responses, [42]and one study

found that the MBTI judgment/perception dimension correlates with the Eysenck Personality Q uestionnairelie scale.[43]If respondents

"fear they have something to lose, they may answer as they assume they should."[17]:53However, the MBTI ethical guide lines state, "It is

unethical and in many cases illegal to require job app licants to take the Indicator if the results will be used to screen out applicants."[34]

The intent of the MBTI is to provide "a framework for understanding individual differences, and a dynamic mode l of individualdevelopment".[44]

The terminology of the MBTI has been criticized as being very "vague and general" [45]as to a llow any kind of behavior to fit any

personality type, which may result in the Forer effect , where individuals give a high rating to a positive description that supposedly

applies specifically to them.[15][28]Others argue that while the MBTI type desc riptions are brief, they a re also distinctive and

precise.[46]:14-15Some theorists, such as David Keirsey, have expanded on the MBTI descriptions, providing even greater detail. For

instance, Keirsey's descriptions of his four temperaments, which he co rrelated with the sixteen MBTI p ersonality types, show how the

temperaments differ in terms of language use, intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self image ,

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[edit]

[edit]

[edit]

personal values, social roles, and characteristic hand gestures.[46]:32-207

With regard to factor analysis, one study of 1291 college- aged students found sixdifferent factors instead of the fourused in the MBTI.[47]

In other studies, researchers found that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another. [11]

Reliability

Some researchers have interpreted the reliabilityof the test as b eing low. Studies have found that between 39% and 76 % of those tested

fall into d ifferent types upon retesting some weeks o r years la ter.[13][15]

One study reports that the MBTI dichotomies exhibit good split-half reliability; however, the d ichotomy scores a re distributed in a bell

curve, and the overall typealloca tions are less reliable. Also, test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time be tween tests. Within each

dichotomyscale , as measured on Form G, about 83% of catego rizations remain the same when individuals are retested within nine

months, and around 75% when individuals are retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the

same ove rall type, and 36% remain the same type after more than nine months.[48]For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI

instrument), the MBTI Manualreports that these sco res are higher (p. 163, Table 8.6).

In one study, when people were asked to compare their preferred type to that assigned by the MBTI assessment, only half of people

picked the same profile.[49]Critics also argue that the MBTI lacks falsifiability , which can cause confirmation biasin the interpretation of

results.

Utility

In her research, Isabe l Myers found that the proportion of different personality types va ried by choice of ca reer or course of

study.[1]:40-51[19]However, some researchers exa mining the proportions of each type within varying professions repo rt that the p roportion

of MBTI types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population.[15]Some researchers have expressed

reservations about the relevance of type to job sa tisfaction, as well as concerns abo ut the po tential misuse o f the instrument in labeling

individuals.[15][50]

Studies suggest that the MBT I is not a useful predictor of job performance. [51]As noted above under Precepts and ethics, the MBTI

measures preference, not ability. The use of the MBTI as a predictor of job success is expressly discouraged in the Manual.[17]:78 It is

not designed for this purpose.

See also

Adjective Check List (ACL)

BarOn EQ-i

Birkman Method

CPI 260

DISC assessment

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Enneagram of Personality

RisoHudson Enneagram Type Indicator

FIRO-B

Fort Profile

Holland Codes

Humorism

Interaction Styles

Interpersonal compatibility

Kingdomality

List of personality tests

Personality psychology

Revised NEO Personality Inventory

Socionics

Strong Interest Inventory

Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

Notes

1. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqMyers, Isabel Briggs with Peter B. Myers (1980 , 1995). Gifts Differing: Understanding Personal ity Type . MountainView, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN0-89106-074-X.

2. ^J ung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). "Psychol ogical Types". Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6 . Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-

09774.

3. ^Pearman, Roger R.; Sarah C. Albritton (1997). I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You (First ed.). Palo Alto, California: Davies- Black Publishing. xiii.

ISBN0-89106-096-0.

4. ^"CPP Products" . Retrieved 2009 -06 -20.

5. ^ abcSchaubhut, Nancy A.; Nicole A. Herk and Richard C.Thom pso n (200 9). "MBTI Form M Manual Supplement" . CPP. pp. 17. Retrieved 8

May 2010.

6. ^Clack, Gillian; J udy Allen. "Response to Paul Matthews' criticism" . Retrieved 2008-05-14.

7. ^Barron-Tieger, Barbara; Tieger, Paul D. (1995). Do what you a re: discover the perfect career for you through the secrets of personal ity type .

Bosto n: Little, Brown. ISBN0-316-84522-1.8. ^ abThompso n, Bruce; Gloria M. Borrello (Autumn 198 6). "Co nstruct Validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator". Educational and

Psychological Measurement(SAGE Publications) 46 (3): 745752. do i:10.1177/0013164486463032 .

9. ^ abCapraro, Ro bert M.; Mary Margaret Capraro (August 200 2). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Score Reliability Across: Studies a Meta-Analytic

Reliability Generalization Study". Educational and Psychological Measurement(SAGE Publications) 62 (4): 5906 02.

do i:10.1177/0013164402062004004 .

10. ^Hunsley J, Lee CM, Wood JM (2004). "Controversial and questionable assessment techniques". Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical

Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford. ISBN1-59385-070-0., p. 65

11. ^ abcdMcCrae, R R; Cos ta, P T (198 9). "Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective o f the Five-Factor Model of

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Personality". Journal of Personality57 (1): 1740. do i:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x . PMID2709300 .

12. ^ abStricker, L J; Ro ss, J (196 4). "An Asses sment of Som e Structural Properties o f the Jungian Personality Typolo gy". Journal of Abnormal

and Social Psychology68 : 6271. do i:10.1037/h0043580 .

13. ^ abcdMatthews, P (200 4-0 5-21). "The MBTI is a flawed meas ure of personality" . Bmj.com Rapid Responses . But see also Clack & Allen's

response to Matthews.

14. ^Kline, Paul, The handbook of psychological testing, Psycholo gy Press, 200 0, ISBN 0 -415-21158-1, 9 780 415211581

15. ^ abcdefghPittenger, David J . (November 1993). "Measuring the MBTI...And Coming Up Short." (PDF). Journal of Career Planning and

Employment54 (1): 4852.

16. ^ abcNowack, K. (199 6). Is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator the Right Tool to Us e? Performance in Practice , American Society of Training

and Development, Fall 199 6, 6

17. ^ abcdefMyers, Isabel Briggs; Mary H. McCaulley (198 5). Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

(2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psycholo gists Press . ISBN0-89106-027-8 .

18. ^"Trademark Guidelines" (PDF). Consulting Psycholo gists Press. Retrieved December 20, 200 4.

19. ^ abcdMyers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hamm er, Allen L. (199 8). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use

of the Myers Briggs type indicator). Consulting Psycholo gists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN0-89106-130-4.

20. ^Zeisset, Carolyn (2006). The Art of Dialogue: Exploring Personality Differences for More Effective Communication . Gainesville, FL: Center for

Applicatio ns o f Psycholog ical Type, Inc. p. 13. ISBN0-935652-77-9.

21. ^Tieger, Paul D.; Barbara Barron-Tieger (1999). The Art of SpeedReading People . New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 66. ISBN978-

0-316-84518-2.

22. ^a

b

"CAPT: "The Story of Isabel Briggs Myers"" . Retrieved 2009 -07-29 .23. ^ ab"The TYPE Writer: "It Happened In 1943: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Turns 6 0 Years Old"" . Retrieved 2009 -07-29 .

24. ^Geyer, Peter (1998) Some Significant Dates . Retrieved December 5, 200 5.

25. ^"Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885- 1992" . University of Florida Geo rge A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area

Studies Collections , Gainesville, FL.. 200 3. Retrieved December 5, 200 5.

26. ^"TypeLogic" . Retrieved 2008- 09 -14.

27. ^Eysenck, H.J.. Genius: The Natural History of Creativity (1995 ed.). pp. 110.

28. ^ abcdeCarroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 200 4). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-The Skeptic's Dictionary" . Retrieved January 8, 200 4.

29. ^"Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator" (PDF). Retrieved 2008 -0 9- 14.

30. ^Rebecca L. Oxford (Goo gle Boo k). Language learning motivation: pathways to the new century . Retrieved 2012-01-27.

31. ^Briggs Myers, Isabel; McCaulley, Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L.; Mitchell, Wayne D. MBTI Step III Manual: Exploring Personality

Development Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Instrumentp.119. Consulting Psychologists Press (2009)32. ^Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hamm er, Allen L. (1998 ). MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the

Myers Briggs type indicator) p.131. Cons ulting Psychologis ts Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0-89 106 -130-4.

33. ^"CAPT Step III" . Retrieved 20 08 -09 -14.

34. ^ abcd"Ethics for Administering the MBTI Instrument" . Retrieved 2009-02-15.

35. ^"CAPTCenter for Applications of Ps ychological Type" . Retrieved 2010-06-19.

36. ^"The Perso nality Junkie: Personality Type Theory" . Retrieved 20 09 -11-22.

37. ^James H. Reynierse, The Case Against Type Dynamics, Jo urnal of Psycholo gical Type, Issue 1 200 9

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40. ^ abBess , T.L. & Harvey, R.J. (200 1). "The Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psycholo gy, San Diego 200 1".

41. ^Boyle, G J (199 5). "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Some psychometric limitations". Australian Psychologist30 : 7174.

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46. ^ abKeirsey, David (199 8). Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence . Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nem esis Boo k Company.

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48. ^Harvey, R J (199 6). Reliab ility and Va lidity, in MBTI Applications A.L. Hammer, Editor . Consulting Psycholo gists Press : Palo Alto, CA. p. 5- 29.

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References and further reading

Hunsley, J.; Lee, C.M.; and Wood, J .M. (200 4). Controversial and questio nable ass essm ent techniques. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical

Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr J M, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1-59385-070- 0

Bess , T.L.; and Harvey, R.J. (20 01, April). Bimodal score d istributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact? Paper pres ented at the Annual Co nference

of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psycho logy, San Diego.

Bess , T.L.; Harvey, R.J.; and Swartz, D. (20 03). Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Paper presented at

the Annual Co nference of the So ciety for Industrial and O rganizational Ps ychology, Orlando.

Bourne, Dana (200 5). Personality Types and the Transgender Community . Retrieved November 14, 200 5

Falt, Jack. Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author . Retrieved December 20, 200 4

Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Prog