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English Grammar for
Effective Speaking
and Writing 2
With Professor Byung Chul Kwon
Kyungdong University
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 1 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
서법조동사의 특성(Characteristics of Modals)
a. The meeting is over.
b. The meeting may be over.
c. The meeting must be over.
d. You must go.
e. You can go.
f. You shouldn’t go.
화자가 말을 할 때 자신의 다양한 개인적인 견해나 태도를 삽입하기 위하여 문법적
으로 사용하는 표현들을 서법(敍法) 표현(Modal expressions)이라고 한다. 이러한 서
법표현의 가장 중요한 문법적인 장치가 바로 서법조동사이다.
서법조동사는 조동사의 일종으로 본동사의 기본형이나 조동사 바로 앞에 놓인다.
a. He must work very hard to earn that much money.
b. He must be working very hard to earn that much money.
c. He must have worked very hard to earn all that much money.
서법조동사는 다른 여타의 조동사와 마찬가지로 일반동사와는 구분되는 문법적 특
성을 가진다.
• 서법조동사는 부정어 ‘not’과 축약할 수 있다.
a. He shouldn’t see her.
b. *He worksn’t with her.
a. He may not come.
b. *He mayn’t come.
• Yes-No 의문문과 부정 표현(never, rarely, not often..)이 문장 첫머리에 올 경우 주
어-동사(서법조동사/조동사) 어순 도치(inversion)가 된다.
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a. Should I finish that book?
b. Rarely, if ever, will you see a performance as good as that.
• 서법조동사는 현재시제 혹은 과거시제 변화형이 없다.
a. *He cans run a mile in almost four minutes when he was younger.
b. *He canned run a mile in almost four minutes when he was younger.
서법조동사의 유형(Types of Modals)
의미에 따른 서법조동사의 분류
• 능력(ability), 허락(permission), 가능성(possibility): can, could, may, might
• 조언(advice), 필요(necessity): must, should, dare, need, have to, had better, had
best, have got to, ought to, be supposed to
• 미래시간(future time): shall, will, would, be going to
능력, 허락, 가능성의 서법조동사
• Can
-능력(Ability) = be capable of/ be able to
a. I can lift over 200 pounds. “be able to do something”
b. I can fly an airplane. “know how to do something”
-허락(Permission) = be allowed to
a. Can I make a quick telephone call?
(Am I allowed to make a quick telephone call?)
b. You can go outside after you finish your homework.
-가능성(Possibility) = It is possible for…to…
In the summer, the temperature can reach 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
-믿기 어려움(Disbelief)
He didn’t get the promotion? That can’t be possible! He’s the most qualified person we
have in the department.
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• Could
-과거의 능력
When he was a child, he could speak several languages.
-정중하고 공손한 허락
a. Could I talk to you for a moment? more polite
b. Can I talk to you for a moment? Informal
-가능성
It could snow up to ten inches today.
-추정(Speculation)
She could be at Linda’s house, but I’m not sure.
-놓친 기회에 대한 후회
I could have been a winner of the award.
-믿기 어려움(과거 사건에 대한)
It couldn’t have been Jim! He’d never do something like that.
• May
-가능성 = It is possible that…
He may be the man we’re looking for, but I’m not sure yet.
Whatever, whoever, whichever, however+S+may..
You have to solve the problems, however difficult they may be.
You have to solve the problems, however difficult they are.
-허락 혹은 요청 = be permitted to
a. May I leave now? formal
b. Can I leave now? less formal
c. You may go in now. Formal
(=You are permitted to go in now.)
d. You can go in now. less formal
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I would like to expand on this, if I may.
(=…, if you will permit me /if I am permitted to do so)
You ruined our plan, if I may say so.
You may not leave this room at any time during the examination. (불허 혹은 금지)
-감탄, 기원
May he never set foot in this house again!
May God grant you happiness!
• Might
-가능성
He might show up later than planned.
-추정(Speculation)
He might have met her in Boston, but I’m not so sure he’s ever been to Boston.
-제안(Suggestion)
You might try stepping on the gas a few times before turning the key.
-굉장히 격식을 차린 요청
a. Might I have a look at this masterpiece you have purchased?
b. Might I borrow that calculator?
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 1 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
Quiz Test
다음 예문에서 밑줄 친 서법조동사의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: You may not speak until you are spoken to.
답: may not = 허락
1. They couldn’t have told him about the party. Catherine and I were the only people
who knew about it, and we didn’t tell anyone else.
2. You mean you had a chance to meet the president, and you turned it down? You
can’t be serious!
3. I really don’t know much about repairing car engines, but you might try connecting
that wire down there and seeing if it starts up.
4. He could do 35 chin-ups when he was 16 years old.
5. They can get as much as 60 inches of rain in a year in Seattle.
6. I could be a big star if I just practice enough.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 2 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
충고(조언)와 필요의 서법조동사(Modals of Advice and Necessity)
• Should
-충고(조언)
That’s a very deep wound. You should see a doctor immediately.
-가능성
We replaced the alternator, so it shouldn’t give you any more problems.
a. It’s 12:18; the bus should come by any minute now.
b. The bus shuld have been here 10 minutes ago. I wonder what’s holding it up.
-책망 혹은 비난(Reproach or reprimand)
You should’t have run that red light. That’s a $50 fine in this state.
• Must
-필요 혹은 의무(Necessity or Obligation) = be obliged to …
a. She must report to the office no later than Tuesday, or they will send someone
out to bring her in.
(=she is obliged (by me) to report …)
b. You must not be late.
(=I am telling you…)
a. If I want to be selected for the Olympic team, I must win this race.
b. In order to be selected for the Olympic team, I had to win this race.
- Must의 부정형
의무:
You musn’t/must not skip classes.
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We musn’t/must not forget the Korean War.
필연:
You must be serious.
You can’t be serious.
(=it is not possible that you are serious)
Since it’s already 10, John must be sleeping.
Since it’s only 8, John can’t be sleeping.
(=It is not possible that John is sleeping.)
You must not forget to turn off the gas before you leave the house.
-금지
You must not leave the country, or your parole will be revoked.
-불필요(absence of necessity or obligation)
a. You need not answer every question on the exam. British English
b. You don’t have to answer every question on the exam. American English
-최소한의 조건 혹은 요건(Minimal requirement or condition)
You must have three years’ experience to be considered for the position.
-추정(inferred probability or supposition)
Well, judging from his appearance, he must be about 40.
Joel must be in great shape. He runs six miles every day.
(=It is certain that Joel is in great shape…)
-정중한 간청(Polite insistence)
You must come to dinner on Friday! George Clooney is going to be there.
You must visit us this weekend. I insist on it.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 2 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
Quiz Test
다음 예문의 밑줄 친 서법조동사의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: Judge: You must not drive your car for three months. If you do, you will be arrested
and subject to a heavy fine.
답: must = 금지
1. She must get a B on this exam if she wants to pass the class.
2. (hearing the telephone ring) That should be Mom.
3. Plumber to customer: That should take care of your hot water problem.
4. You should get some rest. You look beat.
5. Wife: You musn’t forget to take out the trash on Sunday evening.
6. We should be able to see Venus on a clear night like this. Look, there it is!
7. We must contact him today before he leaves for Thailand.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 3 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
여타의 서법조동사
• Dare
미국영어보다 영국영어에서 더 전형적
의문문과 부정문에서만 사용
-충고(조언)
a. Dare I bring this up in the meeting? British English
b. Should I bring this up in the meeting?
c. Would It be OK to bring this up in the meeting?
-경고(Admonition)
You {dare not/must not} tell my mother about this.
It would really upset her. British English
-불가능
I dare not tell my mother about this. It would really upset her.
I can’t tell my mother about this. It would really upset her.
He doesn’t dare (to) jump off the bridge. He knows it’s too high.
• Need
-필요
a. You needn’t tell her. (It’s not necessary to tell her.) British English
b. You don’t have to tell her. American English
We need to speak with him right now.
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-조언
You look tired. You need to lie down and get some rest.
(=You really should lie down and get some sleep.)
• Ought to
긍정 진술문장에서 지배적으로 사용
-충고 혹은 조언
That’s a bad cough. You {ought to/should} see a doctor.
-추론된 가능성
His flight {ought to/should} have arrived by now.
-책망 혹은 비난
You {ought to/should} have helped her. After all, she’s your sister.
• Had better and Had best
-조언 혹은 충고
a. You’d better see a doctor about that cough.
b. Better see a doctor about that cough.
a. You had better be careful – it’s pretty icy out there.
b. You’d better keep you mouth shut about this, or I’ll see to it that you’re fired.
a. You’d best take your raincoat. It looks like a big storm is sweeping in.
b. Best take your raincoat.
• Have to
미국영어에서 더 일반적
-필요 혹은 의무
a. You {have to/must} notify the police right away.
b. You don’t have to notify the police right away.
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He was so sick that we had to take him to the hospital yesterday.
Do we have to invite all of your relatives to dinner?
Must we invite all of your relatives to the wedding?
a. You will have to get that headlight replaced, or you will get a ticket.
b. You may have to see a doctor if that wound doesn’t heal soon.
-추론된 가능성
He {has to/must} be over 70 years old. Look at those deep lines in his face!
• Have got to
회화체에서 종종 ‘gotta’로 축약
a. I’ve gotta work a lot harder.
b. John’s gotta be home early.
c. I gotta read this article for the meeting tomorrow.
d. I’m telling you, you gotta see this movie! It’s fantastic!
-필요 혹은 의무
She {has got to/has to/must} return the book to the library tomorrow. It’s overdue!
a. I was so sick that I had to go to the hospital.
b. *I was so sick that I had got to go to the hospital.
a. He’s very sick. He will have to go to the hospital.
b. He’s very sick. *He will have got to go to the hospital.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 3 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
Quiz Test
다음 예문의 밑줄 친 서법조동사의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: You needn’t go into great detail. Just give us a summary of what happened.
답: needn’t = 불필요
1. Wow, is it ever hot! It’s gotta be at least 100 degrees in the shade.
2. We oughta tell him what happened.
3. He has a driver’s license, so he has to be at least 18. I’d guess he’s somewhere
between 18 and 21.
4. You’d better take something to drink. It’s going to be a hot day.
5. We’ve gotta find a way to increase our sales of tennis shoes.
6. I need to get a hold of him right now. It’s an emergency.
7. You have to notify the police whenever something like this happens.
8. Dare I tell hm?
9. You’d best bundle up. It’s cold outside.
10. I’ve got to pay that phone bill today.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 4 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
미래시제 서법조동사
• Will
-미래시간 + 예측
a. Sarah will retire in one or two years.
b. They’ll go on to win the championship.
c. By this time tomorrow, we’ll be in Cleveland.
-의지(Volition) = be willing to / intend to
a. I will probably leave tomorrow. future action/prediction
b. I will leave tomorrow no matter what you want me to do. volition
c. I will leave tomorrow! Volition
d. The key won’t go in the lock.
My car wouldn’t start this morning.
This door won’t open.
Will you give me a hand?
(= Are you willing to give me a hand?)
I will take you to the zoo next week.
(=I intend to take you to the zoo next week.)
- 추론된 가능성
That will be Jorge. He always arrives promptly at 3:00.
-습관/습성
Accidents will happen.
Oil will float on water.
(=It is predictable that oil floats on water.)
Boys will be boys.
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On Sundays we would go to a nearby park and play soccer for hours.
When I was working for IBM, we would often have lunch together in cafeteria.
-요청
a. Step into my office for a second.
b. Will you step into my office for a second?
• Shall
미국영어보다 영국영어에서 더 자주 사용
-미래시간
a. According to the most recent polls, I shall win in November. British English
b. According to the most recent polls, I’ll win in November. American English
We shall inform you of our decision within ten days.
-의지
a. We shall overcome these difficulties and go on to win!
b. The person who committed this terrible crime shall be punished!
-제안 혹은 조언 구하기(Suggestions and requests for advice)
a. Shall I tell him now or later?
b. The weather is beautiful today. Shall we go for a stroll?
c. Let’s discuss that at our next meeting, shall we?
• Would
-과거 시간에서 예측 혹은 미래
a. I think it will rain any minute.
b. I thought it would rain any minute.
-과거의 규칙적 행위(Regular action in the past)
He would come in here nearly every day to buy a newspaper.
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-조건 문장에서 가정된 결과
If you went Chicago, you would see some beautiful, modern buildings.
If you listened more carefully, you would get better grades.
-정중한 요청
a. Would you please stop talking so loudly? We’re trying to study.
b. Will you please stop talking so loudly? We’re trying to study.
• Be going to
-미래시간 + 계획한 일
I’m going to visit my grandmother next weekend.
-be going to 와 will의 차이
Speaker: I’m going to visit Siena in October. I will probably spend some time in the
Tuscan countryside around San Gimignano. And then I think I’ll go on to Florence.
-미래시간 + 이미 시작되었거나 일촉즉발의 발생
Slow down! We’re going to miss the exit!
Look out! We’re going to hit that car!
Look out! #We’ll hit that car.
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Lesson 1 서법조동사 (Modal Verbs)
Lecture 4 서법조동사의 특성과 주요 유형
Quiz Test
다음 예문의 밑줄 친 서법조동사의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: They shall not pass!
답: 의지
1. Back when she was just a little kid, she would talk your ear off.
2. We shall severely punish the people who committed this heinous crime.
3. He would come in here every day and tell me how to run my business.
4. If I didn’t have so much work to do, I would go to a movie tonight.
5. That’d be Alice; she said she was coming over to drop something off after dinner.
6. Shall we have tea outside on the veranda? It’s such a lovely evening.
7. I’m going to take a vacation in June. I’ll probably go out to California and visit my
cousin.
8. My father waved good-by as I got into the taxi. I did not realize that I would never
see him again.
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Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 1 시제와 상의 기본 개념
동사의 형태 변화로 동사가 나타내는 상태, 동작, 사건의 시간 영역과(과거/현재/미
래) 상태, 동작, 사건이 진행중인지 습관적이거나 반복적으로 이루어지는 것인지에
대한 양상을 보여준다. 이를 각각 동사의 시제와 상이라고 한다.
시제(Tense)
동사가 나타내는 상태, 동작, 사건의 발생 시간을 표현하는 것으로 기본적으로 현재,
과거, 미래의 시간 영역이 있다.
과거 미래
현재
(말하는 순간)
a. He helps her. 현재시제
b. He helped her. 과거시제 (규칙동사)
c. He went to the game. 과거시제 (불규칙동사)
d. He will help her. 미래시제
e. He is going to help her. 미래시제
여타의 시간 표현 장치
-시간부사: yesterday, today, tomorrow, at noon, three o’clock
-전치사구: for three years, since two o’clock
상(Aspect)
화자가 동사가 나타내는 행위를 어떻게 보는가를 표현
진행: 행위의 진행, 형식: be + -ing
완료: 행위의 완료 혹은 완성, 형식: have + -ed
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시제와 상의 결합
시제 상
a. She is running right now.
b. She was running an hour ago.
c. She will be running in about an hour.
d. He has read the book.
e. He had read the book.
f. He will have read the book.
현재
과거
미래
현재
과거
미래
진행
진행
진행
완료
완료
완료
-하나 이상의 상이 시제와 결합
시제 상
She will have been working. 미래 완료, 진행
어휘적인 상(Lexical Aspect)
동사의 의미에 따른 상의 분류로 크게 상태(stative)와 동작(dynamic)이 있다.
상태동사(Stative Verbs)
행동이라기 보다 상태나 상황을 표현하는 동사: contain, hope, know, need, own,
resemble, understand
a. He owns a large blue car.
b. She hates her boss.
-일반적으로 진행상으로 표현되지 않는다.
*She is having a car.
동작동사(Dynamic Verbs)
주어의 행위가 투입되는 동사
-행위동사(Activity verbs)
일정기간 행위가 지속되는 것을 표현하는 동사: develop, grow, sit, work
진행상으로 표현 가능
a. He is walking around the park.
b. This plant is really growing fast.
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수행동사(Achievement verbs)
순간적으로 일어나는 행위를 표현 하는 동사: bounce, hit, kick, find, cross
a. He bounced the ball several times.
b. She crossed the finish line.
완성동사(Accomplishment verbs)
행위가 완성되어 목적에 도달한 동사 표현: attend, build, draw, make, apint, recover,
solve, write
a. He wrote a book about language teaching.
b. She made a model of the house.
일부의 동사는 하나 이상의 동사로 분류
상태동사: I see poorly. (=I have poor vision.)
수행동사: I see a parking spot over there.
행위동사: He ran in the hall.
완성동사: He ran to the post office.
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Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 1 시제와 상의 기본 개념
Quiz Test
A 다음 예문의 동사의 시제와 상을 밝히시오.
예: He had been studying for three hours.
답: 과거, 완료, 진행
1. He will be working on that project tomorrow.
2. They have locked up the store.
3. He will have finished it by then.
4. Tom was writing the introduction to the report.
5. They had cleaned the rooms.
B 다음 예문의 의미를 구분하시오. (상태, 행위, 수행, 완성)
예: He reached the summit of the mountain around three o’clock.
답: 완성
1. He observed the bacteria under the microscope.
2. Olivia hated her boss with a passion.
3. John eventually recovered from a bad case of pneumonia.
4. She suddenly spotted the horse at the end of the pasture.
5. He did the crossword puzzle in less than an hour.
6. He hit the ball against the backboard.
7. At the party he recited poetry.
8. At the party he recited a poem.
22
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 2 시제
단순시제(The Simple Tenses)
단순현재와 단순과거는 동사의 형태변화(동사활용형)에 의해 표현
상(진행/완료)이 결합되어 있지 않기 때문에 “단순시제”
단순현재(Simple Present)
기본의미
-상태나 습관적이고 반복적인 행위
a. The lake looks like it’s frozen. states
b. He seems to be confused.
c. She owns three rare Chinese vases.
a. He eats steak and kidney pie every Sunday. habitual actions
b. They always go to the mosque on Friday.
-사실이나 과학적 진실의 일반적 진술
a. Salt crystals dissolve in water,
b. Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade, the equivalent to 212 degrees
Fahrenheit.
c. Warm air rises.
-시간표나 시간계획상 정해진 미래
a. The bus leaves at 8:00 p.m.
b. The game starts at 2:30
-과거의 경험이나 행위를 서술(이야기)할 때
He comes in and starts shouting at the hotel clerk. He’s really angry, you know. So the
manager calls the cops.
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단순과거(Simple Past)
기본의미
-과거 행동
Last night we ate dinner in that Italian restaurant you like so much.
과거시간 표현 부사와 같이 쓰이는 것이 일반적: yesterday, a week ago, last Monday,
at four o’clock, in the morning, on Tuesday, etc.
a. I loved her then.
b. I ran three miles yesterday.
c. They built that house a long time ago.
d. We reached the summit just before noon.
stative verb
activity verb
accomplishment verb
achievement verb
-간접화법(Reported Speech)
a. John said, “I am a doctor.” quoted speech
b. John said that he was a doctor. reported speech
-가상적 조건(Unreal Conditionals)
If I ever said something like that, she would kill me.
정중한 요청 과 질문(Polite Requests and Questions)
a. I want to ask you a favor.
b. I wanted to ask you a favor.
c. Do you want to see me now?
d. Did you want to see me now?
more polite
more polite
24
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 2 시제
Quiz Test
A. 다음 예문의 단순현재 혹은 단순과거 시제의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: If water is heated to 212 degrees Fahrenheit, it boils.
답: 과학적 진실 (단순현재)
1. A: What happened?
B: It was the same old story. She comes in and starts chewing me out about the sale
I lost. So, I don’t like that, right? So, I tell her that I don’t have to take that sort of talk
from her. And, you know what? She says I’m right. I don’t, because I don’t work there
anymore. I’m fired.
2. If I were John, I would accept her offer.
3. Did you want to pay for that now or later?
4. He listens to that program on NPR every Sunday night.
5. He seems to be perfectly healthy.
25
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 3 시제와 상
미래시간 표현(Expressing Future Time)
-Will and Be Going To
가장 일반적인 미래 시간 표현
a. He will go to the ball.
b. He is going to go to the ball.
just probable occurrence
planned activity
a. I’m going to go to Paris next week. I have business there.
b. I’ll go to Paris next week. I have business there.
-단순현재 + 시간표현
He arrives hrere on Thursday. On Saturday he flies back to Lima.
-현재진행(Present Progressive) + 시간표현
아주 가까운 미래의 미리 계획된 행위
a. He’s moving to Phoenix this summer.
b. Susan’s plane is leaving in five minutes.
-Be About To
막 일어날 행위
He’s about to get into the car and leave for the airport.
-Be To
주로 명령의 맥락에서
You are to stay here and guard this prisoner until you are relieved by Private Jones.
26
진행상(Progressive Aspect)
-진행상은 be + -ing (본동사의 현재분사형)
-3개의 시간 영역(과거/현재/미래)과 결합 현재/과거/미래 진행 생성
현재 진행(Present Progressive)
-be 동사의 현재(am, is, are) + -ing (본동사의 현재 분사형)
기본의미
-진행중인 행위
a. They’re studying for a midterm right now.
b. Her plane is landing right now.
c. He’s bouncing the tennis ball off the backboard.
-이미 계획된 미래의 일
a. The New Art Theater is showing the film classic Eraserhead next week.
b. Tom is taking tennis lessons this summer.
-습관적 행동
a. He’s always calling me up at the oddest hours to ask some silly question.
b. He’s always teasing his sister. I wish he wouldn’t do that.
-상태동사와 함께
강한 감정 표현
a. This operation is really costing a lot of money.
b. This operation costs a lot of money.
-예사롭지 않은 변화를 강조
a. Yor’re being very stubborn!
b. Yor’re very stubborn.
c. She’s looking much stronger this week.
d. This river is smelling particularly bad today.
-변화의 과정을 강조
a. The baby is resembling his father more and more every day.
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b. He’s looking worse and worse by the minute.
-비격식적인 완곡한 어조
a. We are hoping you can solve this problem for us.
b. We hope yo can solve this problem for us.
-단정적인 견해나 입장을 부드럽게
No, I’m sort of thinking that I’d like to try a bit higher level heel, anyway.
과거 진행(Past Progressive)
be-동사의 과거형(was/were) + -ing (본동사의 현재분사형)
-주로 단순과거시제로 표현되는 행위와 겹쳐 진행중에 있었던 과거 행위를 표현
a. He was studying for his exam when I saw him this afternoon.
b. She accidentally cut her hand while/when she was chopping vegetables for a
salad.
c. She was tossing and turning all night long.
She was studying in the library when I was talking to Tom.
미래진행(Future Progressive)
Will + be + -ing(본동사의 현재분사형)
- 미래(가까운)에 진행중일 행위 표현
a. The president will be meeting with his staff at ten o’clock tomorrow.
b. That was such an unexpected upset that all true sports fans will be discussing
it for years.
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Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 3 시제와 상
Quiz Test
A. 다음 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 밝히고 비문법적이라면 그 이유를 설명하
시오.
예: He is going into town every day.
답: 비문법적 (시간 표현 ‘every day’는 습관적 혹은 반복되는 행동을 나타냄으로 단
순현재로 표현해야 한다.)
1. I’ll be discussing those issues with him at our meeting on Friday.
2. She was working on her paper since noon.
3. When a gas is heated, it is expanding.
4. He’s always complaining about the service everywhere we go.
5. Jae Eun takes a statistics course next fall.
B. 다음 각 쌍의 예문은 사용에 있어 약간의 차이가 있습니다. 그 용법의 차이를
설명하시오.
예: a. She always kids her brother.
b. She’s always kidding her brother.
답: 문장 (a)는 습관적인 행동을 표현하는 반면 (b)는 행위의 반복성을 강조하고 그
에 따른 불평을 드러내는 표현이다.
1. a. Your sister is about to get on the plane.
b. Your sister is going to get on the plane.
2. a. The plane is landing at La Guardia Airport.
b. The plane will land at La Guardia Airport.
3. a. He snored and talked in his sleep all night long.
b. He was snoring and talking in his sleep all night long.
4. a. You are very rude.
b. You are being very rude.
5. a. They will argue the wisdom of the president’s tax cut for the next three years.
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b. They will be arguing the wisdom of the president’s tax cut for the next three years.
30
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 4 시제와 상
완료상(Perfect Aspect)
Have + -ed (본동사의 과거분사형)
완료된 행동을 표현
3개의 시간 영역(현재/과거/미래)과 결합하여 현재완료/과거완료/미래완료 생성
-현재완료(Present Perfect)
Have(has)+-ed(본동사의 과거분사형)
-과거에 시작되어 현재까지 지속되는 상황
a. They have lived in Chicago since 1976.
b. My father has been a Cubs fan for over 30 years.
c. I have loved her since the day I first saw her.
d. She has worked for that company for 15 years.
-최근에 완료된 행위
a. The Japanese climbers have reached the peak of Mount Everest.
b. Her plane has arrived.
c. Alan has recently written an article on that very subject.
d. She has just drawn a circle on the board.
-불특정 과거에 일어난 행위가 현재에 관련성을 가질 때
a. He has read all of Shakespeare’s plays.
b. I have already seen that movie.
-말하는 순간에 완료된 상당 기간에 걸쳐 이루어진 행위를 표현
a. He has grown over two inches in the past six months.
b. His condition has improved considerably in the last three days.
과거완료(Past Perfect)
Had + -ed(본동사의 과거분사형)
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기본의미
-과거의 행위나 사건 이전에 완료된 행위 표현
a. She gave the book to his brother after she had read it.
b. She had already mailed the letter when Hal called her.
-사실과 반대되는 조건문에서
If I had only worked a little harder, I would have been promoted.
미래완료(Future Perfect)
Will + have + -ed(본동사의 과거분사형)
-특정 미래에 앞서 완료될 행위 표현
I will have finished grading the papers {by/before} 4:00 p.m.
-특정 미래 시간까지 지속될 상태 표현
This coming January we will have been married for 30 years.
32
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 4 시제와 상
Quiz Test
다음 각 예문의 밑줄친 동사의 시제를 밝히고 문법적인지 비문법적인 문장인지 구
분하고 비문법적이라면 이유를 밝히고 정정하시오.
예: I didn’t see her since Monday.
답: 단순과거/비문법적/’since Monday’와 같은 시간표현은 ‘월요일부터 지금까지’의
의미로 현재와 단절된 이미 지난 과거의 특정 시간을 표현하는 단순 과거 시제와
같이 쓰일 수 없다. 정정: I haven’t seen her since Monday.
1. I have talked to him about it last Tuesday.
2. She already cooked dinner when we came home.
3. I would have made a fortune in the stock market if I bought IBM back in 1972.
4. We didn’t get any response on Monday.
5. My father and mother will have been married for over 40 years this coming August.
6. Tom will be finished by the time his wifwe comes home.
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완료와 진행 상(Perfect and Progressive Aspects)
완료와 진행 상은 같이 쓰일 수 있으며 또한 3개의 시간 영역(과거/현재/미래)과 교
차적용되어 현재/과거/미래 완료진행시제를 생성
현재완료진행(Present Perfect Progressive)
Have(has) + been + -ing(본동사의 현재분사형)
-과거의 행위가 현재에 연장
a. He’s been going to that health club {since February/for over six months.}
b. She’s been traveling through Europe.
a. He has been working with our company for over 20 years.
b. He has worked with our company for over 20 years.
과거완료진행(Past Perfect Progressive)
Had + been + -ing (본동사의 현재분사형)
-과거의 행위와 겹쳐 진행중이었던 행위 표현
She had been working on her paper for over an hour when Jack came home.
미래완료진행(Future Perfect Progressive)
Will + have + been + -ing (본동사의 현재분사형)
-미래의 특정 시간 까지 계속 진행될 행위 표현
He will have been studying and practicing medicine for over ten years when he finally
completes his residency next month.
34
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 4 시제와 상
Quiz Test
A. 다음 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 밝히고 비문법적이면 이유를 설명하고 정
정하시오.
예: They will be driving for over 16 hours when they complete the next stage of the
Paris to Dakar race.
답: 비문법적/미래의 특정 시간까지 지속될 행위는 미래완료진행시제로 표현해야 한
다. 수정: They will have been driving for . . .
1. She has been studying for over four hours when she decided to take a short nap.
2. I have been reading your article. It’s very good, but there are a couple of points that
need to be clarified.
3. I’ve been studying since noon, so I think it’s time to stop and do something else.
4. Cheryl has been working on that paper since January.
5. He will be traveling for about 18 hours when he lands in Sidney tomorrow.
B. 다음 각 쌍의 예문의 의미차이를 설명하시오.
예: a. How long has he been studying biology?
b. How long did he study biology?
답: (a)의 현재완료진행 시제는 그가 지금도 생물학을 공부하고 있다는 것을 드러내
는 반면 (b)의 단순과거 시제는 그의 공부가 지금은 완료되었음을 보여준다.
1. a. How long have you been waiting for me?
b. How long did you wait for me?
2. a. How long had he been living in London?
b. How long has he been living in London?
3. a. She has been working for me for a little over two months.
b. She has worked for him for a little over two months.
4. a. They have built a small house on the edge of town.
b. They have been building a small house on the edge of town.
35
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 5 시제의 일치
시제의 일치(Sequence of Tense Rules)
종속절의 시제가 주절의 전달동사(reporting verbs)의 시제 변화에 영향을 받아 시제
이동하는 규칙
시제 전환(Shifts inTenses)
주절의 전달동사가 단순과거일 경우 종속절의 시제는 한 단계 과거로 전환
a. Al said, “I like her.”
b. Al said (that) he liked her.
a. Joan said, “I’m working on my book.”
b. Joan said she was working on her book.
a. Al said, “I finished my report on time.”
b. Al said he had finished his report on time.
a. Susan said, “Al has finally finished his report.”
b. Susan said Al had finally finished his report.
단순현재
단순과거
현재진행
과거진행
단순과거
과거완료
현재완료
과거완료
종속절의 시제가 과거완료 혹은 과거완료진행의 경우 더 이상 거슬러 전환될 과거
가 없기 때문에 전환 없음.
상위절의 전달동사가 현재시제일 경우 종속절의 시제에 변환 없음.
a. John said, “I went to the movies last night.”
b. John says (that) he went to the movies last night.
-서법조동사 변환(Shifts in Modals)
-may → might (가능성)/ could (허락)
a. Fred added, “I may go with her.”
b. Fred added that he might go with her.
c. The secretary said, “You may go in.”
d. The secretary said that we could go.
e. possibility
f. permission
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-can → could (능력)
a. Alice said, “I can hold my breath for two minutes.”
b. Alice said that she could hold her breath for two
minutes.
-shall → would (미래시간) / should (제안)
a. The headwaiter said, “I shall speak to the chef about it.”
b. The headwaiter said that he would speak to the chef
about it.
c. “Shall we include Bill in our plans?” Alice asked.
d. Alice asked if we should include Bill in our plans.
future time
suggestion
-will → would
a. Judy said, “I will see Mike tomorrow.”
b. Judy said that she would see Mike tomorrow.
c.
-must → had to
a. The conductor told the opera singer, “You must sing with gusto!”
b. The conductor told the opera singer that she had to sing with
gusto.
c.
시제 역전환 예외(Exceptions to Backshifting)
-종속절이 일반적인 사실을 표현
Torrecelli concluded that the atmosphere {is/was} a sea of air pressing down on the
surface of the earth.
-화자가 종속절의 내용이 여전히 현재에도 사실이라고 볼 때
Fred said he {drives/drove} a 1956 Belchfire Special.
-화자가 종속절의 미래에 관한 내용이 여전히 가능하다고 볼 때
The forecast a couple of days ago said we {will/would} be having rain all weekend.
-화자가 방금 한 말을 반복할 때
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John: I like opera.
Bill: What did you say?
John: I said I like opera.
38
Lesson 2 시제와 상(Tense and Aspect)
Lecture 5 시제의 일치
Quiz Test
다음 각 예문의 (b)에 해당하는 문장에서 시제의 전환 혹은 전환없음이 적절한지를
밝히고 그 이유를 설명하시오.
예: a. Waiter: You may smoke in this area but not in that room over there.
b. The waiter told us that we could smoke in this area but not in that room over
there.
답: 시제 전환은 적절함 (‘may’가 허락의 의미일 때 ‘could’로 전환될 수 있다.)
1. a. John: I still have that dictionary you gave me when I was 16 years old.
b. John said he still has that dictionary you gave him when he was 16 years old.
2. a. Perry: I could still run a mile in under five minutes if I had to.
b. Perry added that he could still have run a mile in under five minutes if he had had
to.
3. a. Alice: I have been around the world three times in the last four years.
b. Alice replied that she had been around the world three times in the last four years.
4. a. Galileo believes all bodies, regardless of their mass, fall at the same rate toward
the center of the earth.
b. Galileo believed that all bodies, regardless of their mass, fall at the same rate
toward the center of the earth.
5. a. Dreyfus: I am innocent! (Dreyfus is then stripped of his rank and led away.)
b. Bystander: Dreyfus said that he is innocent.
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Lesson 3 수동문(Passive Sentence)
Lecture 1 수동문의 형식과 사용
수동문 형성(Forming Passive Sentences)
a. Anders Celsius invented the centigrade thermometer. 능동문
b. The centigrade thermometer was invented by Anders Celsius. 수동문
-능동문의 목적어 → 수동문의 주어로 이동
-능동문의 주어 → 수동문의 마지막 자리로 이동 (by + 주어)
-능동문의 동사 → 적합한 형태의 be-동사 + -ed (본동사의 과거분사형)
수동문의 동사는 주어와 주어-동사 수일치
a. The dean often fires our professors. active
b. Our professors are often fired by the dean. passive
수동문의 주어
동작의 행위자가 아니라 행위의 대상 혹은 경험자
-능동문의 직접목적어
The professor was dismissed by the dean.
-능동문의 간접목적어
a. Warren gave Suzy a beautiful present. active
b. Suzy was given a beautiful present by Warren. passive
-전치사의 목적어
a. Herbert Hoover slept in this bed. active
b. This bed was slept in by Herbert Hoover. passive
-보충어
a. Everyone recognized that John couldn’t possibly win. active
b. That John couldn’t possibly win was recognized by everyone. passive
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수동문의 2가지 유형(Two Types of Passive Sentences)
a. These spare parts were manufactured in Thailand by highly trained workers.
b. These spare parts were manufactured in Thailand.
행위자 (by + 명사구)가 없는 수동문
-행위자가 모를 때
His car was stolen in Detroit.
-행위자를 밝히고 싶지 않을 때
I was given some top-secret information.
-행위자를 쉽게 추정할 수 있어 굳이 표현하지 않아도 될 때
a. Our grapes are usually harvested in late August.
b. The mail was delivered to my doorstep.
-행위자보다 행위자체에 더 관심이 있을 때
The subjects were each given a pencil and a sheet of paper.
행위자 (by + 명사구)가 있는 수동문
a. This picture was painted by van Gogh.
b. This package was dropped off by a strange-looking woman.
-행위자가 중요한 새로운 정보일 때
a. In the French Open, Agassi beat Sampras, but he was later beaten by a young
man from Singapore who was ranked 102 in the world.
b. This bed was slept in by George Washington, our first president!
수동문의 사용(Using Passive Sentences)
수동문은 뉴스 보도나 논문과 같은 학문적 글쓰기에서 지배적으로 사용
-배경정보-신정보 대조(The Given-New Contrast)
문장에서 배경정보가 먼저 오고 다음으로 새로운 정보가 제공되는 원칙을 유지하기
위해 수동문 사용
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For dessert I had a piece of a wonderfully delicious cake. It was made by the new
pastry chef.
-문미 비중의 원리(The Principle of End Weight)
문장의 의미(정보) 해석을 쉽게 하기 위해 길고 복잡한 구조의 문장성분(명사구)을
문장의 끝으로 배치하는 어순 원리
I was approached by a man wearing dark glasses, a wide-brimmed hat, and a black
scarf.
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Quiz Test
A. 다음 각 예문(수동문)의 주어의 문법적 기능(직접목적어, 간접목적어, that-보충어
절, 전치사의 목적어)을 상응하는 능동문에 비추어 밝히시오.
예: This bridge has been flown under by that stunt pilot, Fearless Fred.
답: 전치사’under’의 목적어
1. The exams were corrected for the professor by the teaching assistants.
2. That he had already left on Tuesday was discovered only later by the police.
3. For her birthday, Alice was given a beautiful blue necklace by her mother.
4. Centre Court at Wimbledon has been played on by some of the greatest players in
the history of tennis.
5. That watch was bought for me by my grandfather on my 16th birthday.
6. That the two boys were in serious danger was recognized by everyone.
B. 다음 각 예문에서 화자가 수동문의 행위자 (by + 명사구)를 포함하거나 생략한
이유를 추정하여 밝히시오.
예: I really don’t like being leaned over by people who are buying popcorn at the
movies.
답: 행위자가 주어 “I”에게 불쾌함을 줄 정도로 중요하기 때문에 포함.
1. Guess what? This porch was walked on by “Old Rough and Ready,” Teddy
Roosevelt.
2. I hate to tell you this, but I’m afraid that I lost all that money you gave me to invest. I
was given some bad advice.
3. This chiar has definitely been sat on by someone who is very heavy. Look at that
leg! It’s cracked.
4. For several decades, the tachistoscope has been used to investigate how much
visual information can be gained from a single fixation of the eye.
5. The prime minister’s house was broken into at some point during the night.
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Lesson 3 수동문(Passive Sentence)
Lecture 2 수동문의 형식과 사용
수동문 형성의 제약들(Constraints on Forming Passive Sentences)
상태동사(Stative Verbs)
-상태동사(contain, cost, equal, fit, lack, last, resemble…)를 포함한 능동문은 상응하는
수동문이 없다.
a. In many ways, Agnes resembles my mother. active
b. *In mnay ways, my mother is resembled by Agnes. passive
Be-수동문과 흡사한 구조
-Be + -ed (과거분사형 형용사)
The library is located on the other side of the campus.
a. The shop is closed at five o’clock. (형용사 해석)
b. The shop is closed at five o’clock. (수동문 해석)
a. He saw that the pitcher was smashed to bits. (verb + adjective)
b. The pitcher was smashed to bits by the angry woman. (passive)
Get 수동문(Get Passives)
-Get + -ed (본동사의 과거분사형)
John got arrested.
-Get-수동문은 비격식적인 회화체에서 주로 사용
a. John got mauled by a vicious dog.
b. My car got stolen.
c. Susan got fired.
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-Get-수동문은 인지동사(comprehend, know, understand…)와는 쓰이지 않음
a. His solution to the problem was {known/understood} by everyone.
b. *His solution to the problem got {known/understood} by everyone.
-대부분의 경우 be-수동문과 get-수동문의 의미 차이는 없음
a. Our house got broken into last year.
b. Our house was broken into last year.
-사람주어의 get-수동문은 주어의 자발적인 혹은 의도적인 행동을 드러냄
a. I got invited to Sharon Stone’s big New Year’s Eve party.
b. I was invited to Sharon Stone’s big New Year’s Eve party.
유사 Get-수동문
-Get + 분사형 형용사/형용사
a. His explanation is getting complicated.
(=His explanation is becoming complicated.)
b. It suddenly got cold.
(=It suddenly became cold.)
a. He got stuck in the elevator.
b. Someone stuck him in the elevator.
a. Education is getting specialized.
b. Education is getting more and more specialized.
Get 관용표현(Idiomatic Expressions with Get)
Get around(“avoid”), get over(“forget/recover from”), get by(“subsist”), get
down(“descend”), get going(“start”), get up(“arise”)
a. He got up at six o’clock.
b. She got hungry, so she made herself a sandwich.
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여타의 수동문 유형들(Other Types of Passive Sentences)
-Get/Have(사역동사) + 보충어
a. Fred had [a mechanic at Jiffy Lube repair his car]. active
b. Fred had [his car repaired by a mechanic at Jiffy Lube]. passive
a. Alice got [someone to cut her hair]. active
b. Alice got [her hair cut by someone]. passive
a. Susan got her nails done.
b. James had the house painted.
불의의 사고 수동문(Happenstance Passives)
a. My partner had his office broken into last week.
b. I got my pocket picked in Penn Station.
a. My partner’s office was broken into.
b. My pocket was icked in Penn Station.
숨겨진 수동(The Concealed Passive)
-Need/require/want + -ing (본동사의 현재분사형)
-영국영어에서 빈번하게 사용
This essay needs careful checking by the editor.
(=This essay needs to be carefully checked by the editor.)
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Quiz Test
A. 다음 각 예문이 get-수동문인지 “어떤 상태로 되다(become)”의 get-수동문과 흡
사한 것인지 구분하시오.
예: She got examined by a specialist.
답: get-수동문
1. Calm down! You’re getting all worked up about a very trivial matter.
2. The situation is getting more and more complicated.
3. He got stuck in traffic on the freeway.
4. He got promoted last week.
5. He got increasingly frustrated by all the petty politics in his department, so he
resigned.
6. She got hungry, so she stopped working and had something to eat.
7. He got reprimanded for not following company policy.
B. 다음 예문에서 사역동사 + 수동의미의 보충어, 불의의 사고 수동문, 숨겨진 수동
인지 구분하여 밝히시오.
예: Mika got her laptop fixed, and it’s as good as new.
답: 사역동사 ‘get’ + 수동의미의 보충어
1. Last year, Phil had his tax return audited by the International Revenue Service.
2. Al had his tax return prepared by a certified public accountant.
3. I got my car serviced at a gas station near the mall.
4. They had their house in Oakland completely destroyed by that huge fire that burned
out of control for so many days.
5. This house really needs painting.
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Lesson 4 형용사와 부사(Adjectives and Adverbs)
Lecture 1 형용사의 특성
형용사의 특성(Characteristics of Adjectives)
명사가 가리키는 대상의 특성을 묘사
색: green, blue …
크기: big, tiny…
무게: light, heavy…
나이: young, old…
질: good, awful…
-여러 개의 형용사가 하나의 명사를 수식할 수 있으며 배열의 규칙적인 순서를 보
임
an ugly, old, yellow tin bucket stood beside the stove.
평가판단-척도-색-재료
?an old, ugly, yellow tin bucket
?an ugly, yellow, old tin bucket
?an ugly, old, tin yellow bucket
형용사의 정도성(Gradability of Adjectives)
-대부분의 형용사는 정도성을 보여 비교급과 최상급의 형태를 가짐
형용사 단어형태변화 More/Most
비교급 최상급 비교급 최상급
lively
private
good
livelier
*privater
better
liveliest
*privatest
best
more lively
more private
*more good
most lively
most private
*most good
-부정적인 방향의 정도성은 ‘less’/’least’ + 형용사로 표현
a. The result was less successful than anticipated.
b. His third campaign was the least successful of all his attempts.
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절대 형용사의 정도 표현(Gradability of Absolute Adjectives)
정도로 표현될 수 없는 절대적인 의미의 형용사(absolute, complete, correct,
essential, impossible, perfect, pregnant, ultimate, unique…)의 정도표현
a. He has the most complete game of the top 10 pros.
b. It’s the most perfect copier ever invented.
-분사형 형용사의 정도성(Gradability of Participial Adjectives)
a. That was really an interesting lecture.
b. He was standing around with a bored expression on his face.
That was the most amazing performance I’ve ever witnessed.
*That was the amazingest performance I’ve ever witnessed.
When she heard that the plane was overdue she became even more worried.
*When she heard that the plane was overdue she became even worrieder.
I couldn’t be less concerned.
Of the many solutions to this problem, his is the least promising.
형용사의 수식(Modification of Adjectives)
-형용사는 부사의 수식을 받음
These shrimp are [unusually] large.
They appear to be [remarkably] happy.
This meeting is [incredibly] boring.
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Quiz Test 다음 예문의 비교급 혹은 최상급 형태가 문법적인지 비문법적인지 구분하고 비문법
적이라면 그 이유를 밝히시오.
예: That was the interestingest lecture that I have heard in a long time.
답: 비문법적(분사형 형용사는 ‘-est’가 아니라 ‘most’와 결합 최상급을 표현한다.
1. The test they used to measure the students’ proficiency is less reliable than the one
that is usually used.
2. This is the most unique example of iconography that I have ever seen.
3. She supplied a less convincing alibi than the other suspect.
4. As it got darker, the two children became worrieder and worrieder.
5. That puppy over there is a lot more lively than the others.
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형용사의 위치(Positions of Adjectives)
-형용사는 명사 바로앞에 놓이는 한정적 형용사(Attributive Adjectives)와 동사 바로
다음 서술부에 놓이는 서술적 형용사(Predicative Adjectives)로 분류
a. That big car is his.
b. They chose a young man for the job.
c. She is insane.
d. She found him dreadfully dull.
한정적
한정적
서술적
서술적
-상당 부분의 형용사는 한정적/서술적 두 위치 모두에서 사용 가능
a. That elephant has a really big trunk.
b. That elephant’s trunk is really big.
c. He gave an interesting talk.
d. His talk was interesting.
한정적
서술적
한정적
서술적
한정적으로만 쓰이는 형용사(Attributive-Only Adjectives)
명사 바로 앞에서만 쓰이는 형용사(drunken, erstwhile, eventual, future, mere,
principal, utter..)
a. At last night’s party, he saw one of his former wives.
b. *At last night’s party, he saw one of his wives who is former.
c. She thought that he was an utter fool.
d. *In terms of being a fool, he was utter.
-정도 형용사(Adjectives of Degree)
명사가 나타내는 특성의 정도를 표현
an absolute hero
a complete ballplayer
a total moron
sheer nonsense
-수량 형용사(Quantifying Adjectives)
명사의 수, 양, 빈도를 표현
the only way
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the entire crew
an occasional cloud
the usual suspects
-시간과 장소 형용사
명사의 공간/위치 나 시간적인 배경 표현
a future appointment
an old friend
his former girlfriend
a previous version
her left arm
the northeastern provinces
-연관 형용사(Associative Adjectives)
a mathematical journal
urban planning
a gothic novelist
a public official
a moral dilemma
-복합 형용사(Adjective Compounds)
grayish-blue adjective + adjective
big-name adjective + noun
street-smart noun + adjective
He was driving a grayish-blue foreign sports car.
There were a number of big-name Hollywood producers at the party.
He has just produced his fifth best-selling novel and is on tour promotiong it.
Mr. Stenson turned out to be a clean-shaven young man dressed in a white flannel suit.
He is a world-renowned physicist.
서술적 으로만 쓰이는 형용사(Predicative-Only Adjectives)
특정 동사 다음 서술부에서만 쓰임
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-접두사 ‘A-‘로 시작하는 형용사: afloat, afraid, aghast, alive, asleep, awake..
The young girl was asleep, so she did not hear the storm outside.
*The asleep girl did not hear the storm outside.
The rescue squad finally discovered a man who was still alive.
*The rescue squad was happy to discover an alive man.
-보충어를 동반하는 형용사(Adjectives That Take Complements)
부정사나 혹은 전치사구 형식의 보충어를 취하는 형용사
She is liable to make a scene. infinitive
*The liable person has to pay.
He is devoid of any humor. prepositional phrase
*He was a devoid comic.
의학적인 상태 혹은 건강을 나타내는 형용사(Adjectives Referring to Medical
Conditions or Health)
의학적인 상태나 건강을 표현하는 형용사: faint, ill, poorly, unwell, well…)
He feels faint.
*They revived the faint patient.
My mother is ill.
*They took the ill woman to the hospital.
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Quiz Test
다음 각 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 구분하고 비문법적이라면 그 이유를 설명
하시오.
예: The alive man was taken to the hospital.
답: 비문법적(‘alive’는 접두사 ‘-A’로 시작하는 형용사로 서술적인 위치에서만 사용
됨)
1. Susan turned out to be the eventual winner.
2. The fireman picked up the afraid child and carried him out of the blazing building.
3. The audience was aghast when the president admitted that he was wrong.
4. The nurse helped the ill woman to a chair and called the doctor on duty.
5. He has a full-time job now.
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형용사구(Adjective Phrases)
형용사구의 구성
형용사구 →
형용사
부사 + 형용사
형용사 + 전치사구
부사 + 형용사 + 전치사구
The customers were [angry].
He was [ [extremely] [upset] ].
He was [ [upset] [about the poor service] ].
He was [ [extremely] [upset] [about the poor service] ].
-일부 형용사는 특정 전치사와 동반
-형용사 + about
angry, annoyed, concerned, delighted, gald, happy, mad, pleased, upset…
They were concerned about the possibility that he might refuse.
-형용사 + at
adept, aghast, alarmed, amazed, angry, awful, clever, disgusted, gifted, great,
hopeless, indignant, mad, pleased, skilled, talented, terrible…
The author was amazed at the reaction he received from the critics.
I am really terrible at sports.
-형용사 + for
answerable, anxious, bad, difficult, eager, easy, good, grateful, greedy, necessary,
prepared, responsible, sorry…
Everyone knows that smoking is not good for you.
We are very sorry for the inconvenience.
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-형용사 + with
angry, bored, busy, cautious, careful, conversant, cross, disappointed, enchanted,
familiar, fed up, fraught, furious, happy, impatient, pleased, obsessed, riddled, satisfied,
strict, tinged…
Yes, I am familiar with that term.
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Quiz Test
다음 각 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 구분하고 비문법적이라면 문법적인 문장
으로 수정하시오.
예: We were amazed with his reaction to our suggestion.
답: 비문법적 수정: at his reaction
1. Linda is terribly worried at this situation..
2. He was afraid about the possibility that his remarks might have been misunderstood.
3. Yes, I’m familiar with the program.
4. He’s responsible with this mission, so he’ll have to come up with a solution.
5. We were glad at the response we received.
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Lesson 4 형용사와 부사(Adjectives and Adverbs)
Lecture 2 부사의 특성
부사의 특성(Characteristics of Adverbs)
부사는 형용사, 부사, 동사, 절을 수식
a. She had a surprisingly high score.
b. He comes relatively often.
c. He behaved abominably.
d. Surprisingly, she had a high score.
e. She had a high score, surprisingly.
형용사 수식
부사 수식
동사 수식
절 수식
절 수식
-ly 부사와 여타의 부사(-ly and Other Adverbs)
대부분의 부사는 형용사 + -ly (부사형 접미사)로 형성
형용사
quick
fine
accurate
dangerous
부사
quickly
finely
accurately
dangerously
-형용사와 부사의 형태가 같은 경우
fast, hard, high, late, low…
a. He is a fast worker.
b. He works fast.
-형용사와 부사의 형태가 같지만 의미가 다른 경우
a. She cried when she saw the dead dog. (deceased)
b. You’re dead right. (completely or absolutely)
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부사의 유형(Types of Adverbs)
의미에 따라 몇몇 유형으로 구분
-방법 부사(Manner Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 어떻게 이루어지고 있는지를 설명
erratically, hesitatingly, loudly, methodically, quickly, quietly, slowly…
He walked quickly across the plaza.
-정도 부사(Degree Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 어느정도 얼마나 이루어지고 있는지를 설명
awfully, barely, completely, dreadfully, enormously, extremely, greatly, hugely, infinitely,
minutely, really, relatively, slightly, somewhat, thoroughly…
a. The price of stocks has increased enormously.
b. I agree completely with everything that has been said.
-기간 부사(Duration Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 얼마동안 이루어 지는지를 설명
briefly, momentarily, permanently, temporarily…
He’s temporarily staying with his cousin until he finds a new place.
-빈도 부사(Frequency Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 얼마나 자주 이루어지는지를 설명
always, constantly, continually, never, occasionally, often, regularly, sometimes,
usually…
She often comes in over an hour late.
-시간 부사(Time Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 언제 이루어졌는지를 설명
already, earlier, later, now, subsequently, then
He has already spoken to her about it.
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-수단 부사(Instrumental Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 어떤 수단으로 이루어졌는지를 설명
It has been mathematically proven to be correct.
-장소 부사(Place Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동이 어디에서 이루어졌는지를 설명
abroad, inside, here, outside, there…
The grapes are grown locally.
The owner of the restaurant told them to take their argument outside.
-추가 그리고 제한 부사(Additive and Restrictive Adverbs)
추가: also, as well, even, too..
제한: exclusively, just, merely, only, purely, solely..
a. The thief also took the VCR.
b. The thief took the VCR too.
c. You can only get off at this stop.
추가 부사
추가 부사
제한 부사
-동기 혹은 의도 부사(Act-Related Adverbs)
동사가 표현하는 행동의 배경 혹은 의도 표현
deliberately, expressly, knowingly, voluntarily, willfully…
She deliberately left the gas on.
-입장 부사(Stance Adverbs)
절이 표현하는 내용에 대한 화자 혹은 필자의 태도 혹은 판단 표현
arguably, assuredly, decidedly, definitely, incontestabley, incontrovertibly, conceivably,
imaginably, maybe, perhaps, possibly, allegedly, apparently, purportedly, reportedly…
a. He will undoubtedly experience some feelings of remorse when he hears the
bad news about his old friend.
b. It is probably not as luxurious as the car he owned.
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generally/ in general, largely, mainly/in the main, typically
a. Young children typically utter their first words near their first birthday.
b. New assistant professors generally have a teaching load of two courses per
semester.
in fact, for a fact, really, truly
In fact, there is no scientific evidence that any one race is superior to any other.
In our opinion, in our view, from our perspective
In our view, his proposal is a step in the wrong direction.
sort of, kind of, roughly
a. I ain’t seen this series. I just sort of remember from the last series.
b. The ratio of clerks to total employees in the same manufacturing industries
roughly averages 9 percent.
-연결 부사(Connective Adverbs)
문장과 문장을 연결하는 기능
additionally, alternatively, moreover, therefore..
a. The use of hydrogen would reduce the price of fuel for vehicles. Additionally, it
would be good for the environment.
b. It has been reported that the company has received several new orders from
Asian countries. However, company officials would not confirm this.
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Quiz Test 다음 예문의 부사의 유형(방법, 정도, 시간, 빈도, 수단, 장소, 추가, 동기나 의도, 입
장, 연결)을 밝히시오.
예: She often spends hours in front of her computer.
답: often = 빈도 부사
1. Investments in technology stocks have decreased sharply.
2. I kind of think that he said something derogatory about her.
3. He rarely comes in on Friday.
4. She wisely decided to talk to her husband before accepting their offer.
5. Assistant professors are typically expected to pruduce one article per year.
6. She backed slowly away from the snake, which was coiled and ready to strike.
7. He deliberately sabotaged our efforts.
8. She now lives in a small apartment.
9. He only goes there on Friday.
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부사의 위치(Positions of Adverbs)
-형용사 와 부사수식(Modifying Adjectives and Adverbs)
부사는 수식하는 부사 혹은 형용사에 선행
a. It was a really beautiful ceremony.
b. He gave her a really incredibly beautiful ring.
c. *He got her a really, fantastically, incredibly beautiful ring.
부사-형용사
부사-부사-형용사
-동사 수식(Modifying Verbs)
부사가 동사를 수식할 때 문장의 여러 위치에 놓일 수 있으나 동사와 그 목적어 사
이에 올 수 는 없다.
a. He often takes the metro.
b. *He takes often the metro.
c. She sometimes reads deteictive novels.
d. *She reads sometimes detective novels.
동사 수식 부사의 문장 내 위치: 문두/본동사 앞/본동사와 후속하는 전치사구 사이/
문미
모든 유형의 부사가 본동사 앞에 올 수 있다.
a. He quickly slipped the key into his pocket.
b. He really enjoyed the concert.
c. He briefly considered the proposal before he rejected it.
d. She often takes the bus to work.
e. They have already seen it.
f. It was arithmetically confirmed.
g. They expressly asked him to do it.
방법
정도
기간
빈도
시간
수단
동기 혹은 의도
-동사와 전치사구 사이
a. He tiptoed quietly out of the room.
b. The price of stocks rose enormously in the late 1990s.
c. He’s staying temporarily with this parents.
방법
정도
기간
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d. He’s standing outside in the rain.
e. ?She works always in the afternoon.
f. ?He will come conceivably on Tuesday.
장소
빈도
입장
-문미
a. He left the room quickly.
b. She enjoyed the party tremendously.
c. He lost his balance momentarily.
d. He comes in late sometimes.
e. She’s done that already.
f. Today navigation is done electronically.
g. *She will leave definitely.
방법
정도
기간
빈도
시간
수단
입장
-문두
a. Earlier he told us a different story.
b. Sometimes she comes in over an hour late.
c. *Always she speaks English to her mother.
d. Contentedly they would watch TV for hours.
-부정 빈도부사가 문두에 올 때 어순 변화(주어-동사 어순 도치)
never, scarcely ever, hardly ever, seldom, rarely..
a. Never have I seen anything as brilliant as that.
b. Seldom does John forget to do this taxes on time.
c. *Never I have seen anything as brilliant as that.
d. *Seldom John forgets to do his taxes on time.
주어-동사 어순 도치
주어-동사 어순 도치
절 수식(Modifying Clauses)
절 전체의 내용을 수식
a. He answered the question foolishly.
b. Foolishly, he answered the question.
a. Regrettably, he had a previous engagement.
b. He is not available just now, unfortunately.
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c. There is, in fact, no basis whatsoever to his claim.
d. Reportedly, he will announce his candidacy sometime next week.
-종속절(that-절/부정사 보충어)에서
a. John hopes [that he will eventually have his own business].
b. John hopes [to eventually have his own business].
c. John hopes eventually to have his own business.
회화체나 문어체에서 특히 이와 같은 부사(actually, even, further, really, utterly)들이
to와 동사 사이에 놓인다. (*분리부정사)
a. It’s possible to actually reduce the image to the size of a pinhead.
b. They had intended to even add a third section to the study.
c. She doesn’t want to further exacerbate the problem.
부사구(In Adverb Phrases)
형용사와 마찬가지로 부사도 보충어로 전치사구가 이어질 수 있다.
a. A duel resolves disputes [independently] [of the law]
b. These purchases were handled [similarly] [to all state purchases].
부사 + from/of/to/with 로 시작하는 전치사구
a. This branch operates separately from the rest of the company.
b. He made his decision independently of the other members of the board.
c. It is done almost identically to the method that is currently preferred.
d. The information was released simultaneously with a description of the new
plan.
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Quiz Test 다음 각 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 구분하고 비문법적이면 그 이유를 밝히시
오.
예: Never we have witnessed such a daring rescue.
답: 비문법적(부정 빈도부사 표현 ‘never’가 문두에 올 때 주어-동사 어순 도치가 적
용되어야 한다.)
1. I was so dizzy that I fell down almost.
2. She gently set the baby in the crib and ran into the next room to answer the phone.
3. Seldom I have seen a performance as good as that one.
4. John doesn’t drive to work every day. He takes sometimes the bus.
5. Always he has to take out the trash.
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Lesson 5 전치사(Prepositions)
Lecture 1 전치사의 사용
전치사의 위치(Positions of Occurrence)
-전치사구(P + NP)
a. I was reading [ [in] [the garden] ]. 전치사구
b. The cat hid [ [under] [a bench] ]. 전치사구
-전치사 수반 동사(타동사 + 전치사)
a. They finally [ decided on] [the boat]. 전치사 수반 동사
b. They finally [decided] [on the boat]. 동사 + 전치사구
a. What did you finally decide on? Answer: The boat.
b. On what did you finally decide? Answer: The boat.
Where did you finally decide? Answer: On the boat.
a. They finally decided on the boat.
b. On the boat, they finally decided.
-형용사 + 전치사 조합(Adjective + Preposition Combinations)
a. The manager was very [sorry].
b. The manager was very [sorry] [for] [the inconvenience].
a. She is [afraid].
b. She is [afraid] [of] [frightening the child].
angry (about/at/with), capable (of), dependent (on), disappointed (about/at/with),
excited (about), furious (about/at/with), mad (about/at)…
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2개의 전치사로 이루어진 관용표현(Idiomatic Constructions with Two Prepositions)
in case of
in compliance with
at odds with
in view of
with regard to
on account of
in comparison with
in/with respect to
at the hands of
in contact with
at the behest of
for want of
under the auspices of
by dint of
in accordance with
a. In case of fire, break glass.
b. For want of a horse, the battle was lost.
c. Your house is not in compliance with the building code.
d. Their government’s policy is at odds with several important provisions in the
accord.
-전치사 + That – 절
a. You should notify my wife [in the event] [that something happens to me].
b. The lawyer asked for a reduced sentence [on the grounds] [that the crime he
had committed was his first offense].
in the event, on the basis, on the grounds, on (the) condition, to the effect..
-In Order + 부정사 절(In Order + Infinitive Clauses)
a. He did it [in order] ][to impress his girlfriend].
b. He did it to impress his girlfriend.
a. Why did he do it? In order to impress his girlfriend.
b. Why did they stop at the grocery store? In order to buy some eggs.
-전치사 + 전치사 조합
a. He took the package [from {behind/inside/beside} the box] and gave it to her.
b. She wandered [down {beside/around/by} the river].
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c. A strange vehicle suddenly emerged from behind the house.
d. From behind the house, a strange vehicle suddenly emerged.
-전치사 + 형용사 조합
a. Can I talk to you [in] [private]?
b. I tried in vain to get him to change his mind.
c. We can’t tell for certain.
d. Tell her what happened in full.
e. Of late he has been quite depressed.
In brief, at first, in full, in private, for certain, in short , in vain, for sure…
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Quiz Test
A. 다음 각 예문의 전치사가 전치사 수반 동사의 전치사 인지 장소를 나타내는 전
치사구의 전치사인지 구분하고 그 이유를 설명하시오.
예: He drove down the street.
답: down the street = 전치사구/의문사 ‘where’로 질문 할 수 있고 답할 수 있다.
(Where did he drive? Down the street.)
1. She depended on her neighbors.
2. They drove across the river.
3. The admissions committee looked at the new applications.
4. UAE stands for United Arab Emitates.
5. My key are on the table.
6. We walked around the plaza and stopped beside the monument.
B. 다음 예문의 밑줄친 전치사 포함 문장 성분의 구성(형용사+전치사 조합, 전치사
+형용사 조합, 전치사+명사구+전치사, 전치사 + that-절, 전치사+전치사 조합)을 구
분하시오.
예: They found it down beside the river.
답: down beside the river = 전치사 + 전치사 조합
1. I can assure you that he will be paid in full.
2. When she heard what he had done, she was furious with him.
3. The senator voted for the president’s bill in return for a favor.
4. The extension to the museum is not in compliance with the city building code.
5. He agreed to drop his lawsuit on the condition that our company would apologize.
6. From inside the house came a cry for help.
7. In brief, the performance was a success.
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Lesson 5 전치사(Prepositions)
Lecture 2 전치사의 의미와 의미확장
전치사의 의미(The Meanings of Prepositions)
의미역(Thematic Roles)
문장내 동사와 명사간의 의미 관계 즉 명사가 동사가 나타내는 행위에 대한 의미역
활
-행위자(Agent)
a. The goalie caught the ball.
b. The ball was caught by the goalie.
-대상(Theme)
행위의 영향을 받거나 변화의 과정을 경험한 대상
a. The basketball player bounced the ball.
b. The ball was bounced by the basketball player.
-도구/수단(Instrument/Means)
a. He sliced the salami with a knife.
b. The scarf was knitted by hand.
-출처(Source)
a. I took the book from the library.
b. He got the book off the shelf.
c. Fire gives off heat.
-목표(Goal)
a. He sent a birthday card to his wife.
b. He went upstairs.
c. We finally reached the coast.
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-장소(Location)
a. The wallet was under the bed.
b. Your application is next to those papers.
-시간(Time)
a. He came at ten o’clock.
b. He left on Wednesday.
전치사와 의미역(Prepositions and Thematic Roles)
공간 위치 관계와 관련한 역할(Roles Concerned with Spatial Relations)
전치사의 주요 기능은 명사가 가리키는 대상의 공간적 위치를 표현 :
정적인 위치(Static Location)와 위치의 변화(Change of location)
정적인 위치를 표현하는 전치사
전치사 예문
across
against
among
around
at
away (from)
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
in
inside
off
My classroom is across the hall.
He’s standing against the wall.
He stood among the trees.
He spent two hours walking around the park.
She’s been at the library for hours.
She’s away from her desk right now.
I can remember standing before that judge.
We waited behind the building.
I can feel something just below the surface.
There’s a door just beneath the stairs.
She sat beside the pool.
I found a quarter between the cushions.
The bridge is just beyond that tollbooth.
I love reading by the pool.
The letter is still in the envelop.
It’s inside the box.
Our favorite restaurant is just off the road.
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on
opposite
over
under
The dictionary is on the shelf.
The school is opposite a large park.
This painting will look great over the fireplace.
My keys were under the dresser.
원천을 표현하는 전치사
전치사 예문
away (from)
from
out (of)
off
The horse galloped away from its owner.
I got a call from my son today.
I walked out of the house at 6:00.
The stampeding cattle ran right off the cliff.
목표를 표현하는 전치사
전치사 예문
against
at
behind
beneath
between
beyond
in
inside
into
on
onto
to
toward
under
The boy was tossing a ball against the wall.
I shot at the target.
I dropped my wallet behind the dresser.
The ship quickly disappeared beneath the surface.
It felt great to slip between the warm sheets.
We traveled just beyond the border.
Can’t you put your dirty laundry in the hamper?
I ran inside the house and answered the phone.
He walked into the room amd slammed the door.
Please don’t throw things on my desk.
The entire team ran onto the court.
From Paris he flew to Berlin.
The troops marched toward the village.
The puppy crept under the chair.
정적인 위치(Static Location)
a. I met her in the United States/the Midwest/Illinois/Chicago.
b. I met her in Chicago at the Lyric Opera.
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a. The portrait of their mother hangs over the fireplace. 고정된 정적 위치
b. The house lies just over that hill. 종지점
-위치의 변화: 중간 위치
a. We went from Chicago to Zurich.
b. The ball fell off the table, onto the floor, and rolled under the bed.
a. When he awoke they were driving through the forest.
b. We drove from Frankfurt through Kassel to Hanover.
공간 전치사의 확장 의미(Extended Meanings of Spatial Prepositions)
-from
a. She drove from New York to Boston.
b. He died from pneumonia.
c. *The barn was destroyed from a tornado.
d. I heard it from her.
e. We learned a lot from Professor Kearns.
f. He dissuaded her from reporting him to the director.
g. They prevented her from leaving the meeting.
h. She abstained from casting a vote of no confidence.
-공간전치사에서 시간전치사로 확장
a. A compass is useless at the North Pole.
b. He said he was coming at four o’clock.
a. She was standing by the window.
b. The troops marched by the stand where the general and guests were seated.
c. Time is passing by.
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시간적인 관계를 표현하는 전치사
전치사 의미 예문
about
around
at
before
between
by
during
for
from
in
over
through
to
toward
under
approximately
approximately
fixed point
prior to/earlier than
in this interval
not later than
fixed duration
duration
staring point of
fixed duration
point in fixed period
spanning a period
in the course of/
for a period
end point in a time
period
sometime close to
less than
It was about 3:00 when we stopped.
We stopped around 3:30.
We are meeting at 8:00 p.m.
I can see you before 3:00.
She’s coming between 2:00 and 3:00.
I’ll be there by 4:00.
Hew works during the day.
They worked for three hours.
You will work from 8:00 to noon every day.
He came here in 2003.
Over the years, he became wiser.
Through the years, she became more proficient.
He worked from 3:00 to 4:00.
Toward morning, he fell asleep.
She completed the assignment in under an hour.
-도구역(Instrument Thematic Role)
a. They communicate by sign language.
b. The information was obtained by subterfuge.
c. She opened the door with a master key.
d. They ate with chopstics.
a. He opened the jar by unscrewing the lid.
b. They came by train.
c. The thief came in by the window.
d. It was sent to the wrong destination by accident.
instrumental
mode of transportation
route/access
causal
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a. The Bolivians won by two goals.
b. The boss wants it on his desk by two o’clock.
c. The living room is 25 feet long by 14 feet wide.
d. It’s sold by the kilo.
size of a gap or difference
time deadline
measurement of an area
unit of measurement
-관용표현
a. They walked down the aisle side by side.
b. I like doing things by myself.
c. They came ashore by night.
d. Day by day he sat in the library, taking notes for his book.
동반 의미역(Comitatative Thematic Role)
Alice went to the ball with her old boyfriend, Bill.
a. I left the key to my house with my neighbor.
b. He works for a young Iranian with long black hair.
c. John always had a weakness for fast cars with
powerful engines.
d. She wrote about her cause with great passion.
e. I’m with you on this.
location
properties/characteristics
properties/characteristics
manner
agreement
유사한 의미의 전치사(Synonymous Prepositions)
a. She lives {next to/beside} the school yard.
b. I found it {behind/in back of} the house.
c. The family portrait was hanging {above/over} the fireplace.
d. We drove {by/past} the old house we used to live in.
e. He finally found it {under/underneath/beneath} the sink.
f. Right {below/under} the painting was a metal plaque that identified the artist.
g. He pointed {at/to/toward} the man and said, “That’s him.”
h. She said she would be here at a quarter {to/of} four.
i. They always take a trip to Europe {during/in} the summer.
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Quiz Test
A. 다음 예문의 밑줄친 전치사의 의미역(종지점, 고정된 위치, 원천, 목표, 중간지,
도구, 동반)을 구분하시오.
예: From where we are standing right now, his hosue is just over that hill.
답: over = 종지점
1. He opened the bottle with a corkscrew.
2. She fired her gun directly at him.
3. The panther leapt off the rock onto the horse.
4. She put her ring in the jewelry box.
5. He was standing by the water fountain.
6. On the way to the lodge, they had to drive through a tunnel.
7. He went to the movies with his wife.
8. He computed the total cost with an abacus.
B. 다음 예문의 밑줄친 전치사의 의미를 밝히시오.
예: I am meeting him at nine o’clock.
답: at = 고정된 시간 지점
1. His condition deteriorated hour by hour.
2. Over the years, he has mellowed.
3. He wants to leave by three o’clock.
4. Heleft his car with his brother.
5. Our team won by 15 points.
6. He finished the exam in just under an hour.
7. Fabric is sold by the yard.
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Lesson 6 조건문(Conditional Sentences)
Lecture 1 조건문의 형태
조건문의 형식(The Form of Conditionals)
If-조건문 + 결과절
Condition Result
[If John leaves now], [he will arrive at the airport in time to make his flight.]
조건절을 이끄는 접속사: if, provided (that), as long as, assuming (that)
a. As long as John leaves now, he will arrive at the airport in time to make his
flight.
b. John will arrive at the airport in time to make his flight provided that he leaves
now.
조건문의 유형
-실제적 조건(Real conditionals)
조건과 결과가 실현될 수 있는 조건문
-일반적 사실 조건문(Generic Conditionals)
과학적 사실인 것으로 간주되는 사실 표현
a. If a gas is heated, it expands.
b. If the temperature falls below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, water freezes.
-관행(습관) 조건문(Habitual Conditionals)
조건이 으레 어떤 특정 결과를 반복적으로 가져오는 경우
a. If/Whenever they go out to eat, they always go to a Chinese restaurant.
b. If he had business in Baltimore, he often stayed at the Hyatt.
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-추론 조건문(Inference Conditionals)
조건절의 내용으로부터 결과절의 내용을 추론해 낼 수 있는 경우
a. If we can clean up the pollution in this river, we can clean up the waterways all
over the world.
b. If that call is for Susan, it must be her new boyfriend. He’s been calling every
five minutes.
c. If the door was locked, then the thief must have come through the window.
There’s no other way to get in.
-미래 조건문(Future Conditionals)
조건절이 예측하는 미래의 결과를 표현
-미래의 결과 표현(Expressing Future Results)
a. If you don’t leave now, you will miss your plane.
b. If we get more rain, the river is going to flood.
a. If you start now, you should get there on time.
b. If you start now, you may get there on time.
c. If you start now, you might get there on time.
good probability
possibility
weak possibility
-특별한 사용: 지시 혹은 설명, 질문, 제안
If I’m late, don’t wait up.
a. If you should see him, tell him I want to talk to him. British English
b. If you see him, tell him I want to talk to him. American English
a. If he calls, what do I tell him?
b. If you intend to do it, you ought to do it soon.
c. If she agrees to our proposal, we should close the deal. If she doesn’t, we
should refuse to continue negotiating.
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Quiz Test 다음 각 예문이 일반적 사실, 관행(습관), 추론 혹은 미래의 조건인지 밝히시오.
예: If she’s in the lobby, the plane must have arrive early.
답: 추론 조건문
1. If Alice calls while I’m out, tell her I’ll be back in about an hour.
2. If he was in the room with her, he must have seen how she got out.
3. If they go on a trip, they usually get into a fight over where to stay.
4. If the air temperature is cooled to a point where it has 100 percent humidity, fog or
clouds form.
5. If we can eliminate air pollution in cities like Los Angeles and Mexico City, then we
can eliminate it everywhere.
6. if he’s an expert on impressionist art, then pigs can fly.
7. If it’s Tuesday, then this must be Belgium. It says in the brochure that we will cross
the border into Belgium on Tuesday.
8. If he hinishes the exam before the allotted time, take his paper and tell him that he
can leave.
9. If you touch me again, I’ll slap you silly.
10. If you’ve done a really good job on that paper, I’m sure you’ll get an A.
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비현실적 조건문(Unreal Conditionals)
상상의 조건과 상상의 결과로 이루어진 조건문: 가정적 조건문(hypothetical
conditionals)과 반대사실 조건문(counterfactual conditionals)
-가정적 조건문(Hypothetical Conditionals)
현재 혹은 미래의 상상 가능한 사건 혹은 상태 표현
a. If I found a wallet on the subway, I would return it to the owner.
b. If you drove to the city on Monday, you would miss all the weekend traffic.
-미래에 대한 가정적 조건
a. If I {happened to get/were to get/got/should get/shold happen to get/managed
to ge} enough money, I’d spend a year in Paris and study art.
-현재에 대한 추정
a. If you had the photographs with you, I could see my grandson.
b. If I knew Joan’s telephone number, we could call her.
c. If I understood that chapter, I would explain it to you.
If Mets were winning, I would be enjoying this game a lot more.
반대사실 조건문(Counterfactual Conditionals)
과거에 이루어지지 않은 행위, 사건에 대한 추정, 현재의 불가능한 상태 혹은 상황
표현
-과거에 이루어지지 않은 행위, 사건
If had + -ed(본동사의 과거분사형), {would/could/might} + have + -ed(본동사의 과거
분사형)
a. If I had seen you at the mall, I would have said hello.
b. If you had locked the side door before we left for the movie, the burglar would
not have gotten in.
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a. If you had left the party early, we might never have met.
b. If the voting machines hadn’t been rigged, we might have had a very different
outcomje.
c. If he hadn’t run in and pulled her out of the burning house, she could have
been killed.
-현재의 불가능한 상태 혹은 상황
a. If Mozart were living/alive today, he would be writing/would write music for the
movies.
b. If I were president, I would sell the White House’s Limoges china to fund
education.
If the French had won the battle of Quebec, we would probably be speaking French
today instead of English.
If의 생략과 주어-조동사 어순도치(Ellipsis of If and Subject-Aux Inversion)
가정적 조건문과 반대 사실 조건문에서 If 생략은 주어-조동사 어순도치 동반
a. If I had known you were coming, I’d have baked a cake.
b. Had I known you were coming, I’d have baked a cake.
c. If I were in your position, I wouldn’t say anything.
d. Were I in your position, I wouldn’t say anything.
e. If things should turn out badly, you could always try again.
f. Should things turn out badly, you could always try again.
If 생략과 주어-조동사 어순도치는 영국영어에서 빈번
회화체에서
a. Were I to live another 10 years, I would be 95.
b. Should I leave for only a minute to attend to something, I would be fired.
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Quiz Test A. 다음 각 예문이 가정적인 조건문인지 반대사실 조건문인지 밝히시오.
예: If I had enough time, I could probably get into shape. But I don’t, so I can’t.
답: 가정적 조건
1. If I were you, I would help her.
2. If I saw a crime being committed, I would call the police.
3. If we went and talked to the dean about the project, he would probably help us.
4. If the British had won the revolutionary War, the United States would probably have
a parliamentary system of government instead of the one we have.
5. If he hade broken the vase, I would have definitely have asked him to pay for it.
6. If he broke something valuable like that vase, he would definitely pay for it.
7. I would be feeling a lot better about the way this game is going if Brazil were leading
by two points.
8. If I knew how to fix it, I would fix it right now.
B. 다음 각 예문이 문법적인지 비문법적인지 구분하고 비문법적이라면 이를 정정하
시오.
예: If antibiotic drugs like penicillin were available during World War Ⅰ, many more lives
could be saved.
답: 비문법적/과거의 반대사실 조건문이 되도록 조건절의 동사를 바꿔야 한다.
수정: If antibiotic drugs like penicillin had been available during World War Ⅰ, many
more lives could have been saved.
1. If I happen to run into her, I would tell her where you live.
2. “He came at me with an ax over his head,” Webster said, “He would have chopped
my head off if I wouldn’t have been armed with a 12-gauge shotgun. This guy was
totally berserk.”
3. If I was in your position, I would probably agree to do it.
4. If Napoleon had won the Battle of Waterloo, a lot more people would be speaking
French in Europe today.
5. I wouldn’t have gotten so wet if I remembered to bring my umbrella.
6. Had she spoken to him earlier, he could have done something about the problem.
But it is too late now.
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7. If I see him, I wouldn’t speak to him.
8. I certainly wouldn’t have invited him to watch the Super Bowl on TV at my hous had I
known that he disapproves of contact sports.
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참고서적
The teacher’s grammar of English : a course book and reference guide / Ron Cowan.
Pass the TOEIC test : Introductory Course / Miles Craven
