English for English for Academic Academic Purposes Purposes

Dr. Muslim Suardi, MSi., Apt. Dr. Muslim Suardi, MSi., Apt. Faculty of Pharmacy University of Faculty of Pharmacy University of AndalasAndalas

Writing in the Academic World

Writing in the Academic Writing in the Academic WorldWorld

The most common pieces of writing in The most common pieces of writing in the academic world are: the academic world are:

EEssaysssays&&

RReportseports

Essays in EnglishEssays in English

Almost all students will at some Almost all students will at some time be expected to write an time be expected to write an essay, or some other kind of essay, or some other kind of argument, e.g. a review or argument, e.g. a review or discussion section, in a longer discussion section, in a longer piece of writing. piece of writing.

EssayEssay

““a piece of argumentative writing a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long written several paragraphs long written about one topicabout one topic””

UUsually based on your reading.sually based on your reading. The aim of the essay should be The aim of the essay should be

deduced strictly from the wording deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, of the title or question, && needs to needs to be defined at the beginning. be defined at the beginning.

The The PPurpose of urpose of AAn n EEssay ssay To say something on yourself ideas of the To say something on yourself ideas of the

subject subject To present ideas that you have learned in To present ideas that you have learned in

your own way. your own way. The emphasis should be on working with The emphasis should be on working with

other people’s ideas, rather than other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. should show clearly.

The ideas & people that you refer to need to The ideas & people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing.made explicit by a system of referencing.

Containing of An EContaining of An Essay ssay

AA. Preliminaries. Preliminaries Title pageTitle page BB. Main text. Main text Introduction Introduction

Main body Main body ConclusionConclusion

CC. End matter. End matter ReferencesReferences

AA. Preliminaries. Preliminaries TTitle pageitle page is the first part of an essay is the first part of an essay. .

It It should containshould containeded information to enable information to enable your lecturer & departmental office to your lecturer & departmental office to identify exactly what the piece of work is. identify exactly what the piece of work is.

It should include your name & course; the It should include your name & course; the title of the assignment & any references; title of the assignment & any references; the lecturer it is for etc.the lecturer it is for etc.

BB. Main . Main TTextext

English essays are linearEnglish essays are linear..

TThey start at the beginning & finish at the hey start at the beginning & finish at the end, with every part contributing to the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. or repetition.

Writers are responsible for making their Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear & presenting it in an line of argument clear & presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. follow.

Main textMain text

Each paragraph discusses one Each paragraph discusses one major point major point

It It should lead directly to the next. should lead directly to the next.

The paragraphs are tied together The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction & a with an introduction & a conclusion.conclusion.

3 3 MMain ain TText of the ext of the EEssay ssay

An introduction An introduction A main body A main body A conclusion A conclusion

1.1. The introduction The introduction

““It should introduce the central idea or It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writingthe main purpose of the writing” ”

CConsists of onsists of 22 parts parts

1.1. The introduction The introduction

Part 1Part 1

– It should include a few general It should include a few general statements about the subject to statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay provide a background to your essay && to attract the reader’s attention. to attract the reader’s attention.

– It should try to explain why you are It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. writing the essay.

– It may include a definition of terms It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc. in the context of the essay, etc.

1.1. The The IIntroductionntroduction

Part 1Part 1

--It should also include a statement of It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question. specifically address the question.

2. 2. The The MMain ain BBodyody

Consists of one or more Consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas & arguments. paragraphs of ideas & arguments.

Each paragraph develops a Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. subdivision of the topic.

The paragraphs of the essay The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas & contain the main ideas & arguments of the essay together arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. with illustrations or examples.

2. 2. The The MMain ain BBodyody

The paragraphs are linked in The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. order to connect the ideas.

The purpose of the essay must be The purpose of the essay must be made clear & the reader must be made clear & the reader must be able to follow its development.able to follow its development.

33. The conclusion. The conclusion

The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.– It should recall the issues raised in the It should recall the issues raised in the

introduction & draw together the points made introduction & draw together the points made in the main body in the main body

– Explain the overall significance of the Explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the essay as a whole? drawn from the essay as a whole?

It should clearly signal to the reader that the It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished & leave a clear impression that essay is finished & leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.the purpose of the essay has been achieved.

The Organization The Organization of of the the EEssayssay

I. I. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

II. II. MAIN BODYMAIN BODY

III. CONCLUSIONIII. CONCLUSION

I. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTION

General StatementGeneral Statement Organisation StatementOrganisation Statement

II. MAIN BODYII. MAIN BODY

A. Introductory SentenceA. Introductory Sentence

B. Introductory SentenceB. Introductory Sentence

C. Introductory SentenceC. Introductory Sentence

A. Introductory SentenceA. Introductory Sentence

Point 1Point 2Point 3...Concluding Sentence

B. Introductory SentenceB. Introductory Sentence

Point 1Point 2Point 3...Concluding Sentence

C. IntrC. Introoductory Sentenceductory Sentence

Point 1Point 2Point 3...Concluding Sentence

Recall issues in introduction; Recall issues in introduction; draw together main points;draw together main points;final comment.final comment.

III. CONCLUSIONIII. CONCLUSION

CC. End Matter. End Matter

At the end of the essay, there At the end of the essay, there should be a list of references. should be a list of references.

This should give full information This should give full information about the materials that you have about the materials that you have used in the assignment.used in the assignment.

Writing Writing PParagraphsaragraphs

IntroductionIntroduction

Essays are divided into paragraphs. Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece If your essay is one continuous piece

of text, it will be very difficult for any of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. reader to follow your argument.

Therefore essays need paragraphs. Therefore essays need paragraphs. Essays are divided into paragraphs in Essays are divided into paragraphs in

a meaningful way. a meaningful way. A paragraph is a group of sentences A paragraph is a group of sentences

that develop one topic or idea. that develop one topic or idea.

Writing Writing PParagraphsaragraphs

The topic of one paragraph should The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. the topic of the next paragraph.

The paragraphs have different The paragraphs have different functions, but all functions, but all developdevelop an idea - an idea - that is, they add information, that is, they add information, explanation, examples and explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully idea until the theme is fully developed.developed.

Divide the following text into paragraphs. Divide the following text into paragraphs.

Remember that each paragraph should develop a Remember that each paragraph should develop a

particular theme.particular theme.

EXERCISEEXERCISE

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of

the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. This is usually due to the loosening of the This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the reasons why this should occur are varied. The reasons why this should occur are varied. The most common are smoking, obesity and the most common are smoking, obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping pills. sleeping pills.

As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if you can halt the snoring before adopting steps to see if you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes can be the most more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed. before you go to bed.

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring Beyond this, try to change your Beyond this, try to change your

regular sleeping position. Raise the regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with a brick, or tie head of your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to encourage back of your pyjamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you. thus make breathing easier for you. It is also important to keep your It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. nasal passage clear and unblocked.

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring Allergies, colds and hay fever can Allergies, colds and hay fever can

temporarily cause you to snore; nasal temporarily cause you to snore; nasal decongestants may help, but you are decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for not advised to use such remedies for long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a to 30 per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative. long-term alternative.

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring If this fails, then you may wish to If this fails, then you may wish to

look at the varied snoring aids that look at the varied snoring aids that are on the market. They range from are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through to mandibular-tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper gumshields) which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. retaining devices.

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring You can also buy essential-oil products You can also buy essential-oil products

that are added to warm water and that are added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. infused or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal passage. Finally, if unblock your nasal passage. Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring and Sleep contact the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 997) for Apnoea Association (01737 557 997) for advice. If you do not, your partner advice. If you do not, your partner might.might.

How to stop yourself How to stop yourself snoringsnoring Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of

your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to pyjamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you.easier for you. It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. unblocked.

Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative.long-term alternative.

If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids that are on If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can also buy upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused or consumed essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal passage.passage.

Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 557 997) for advice. If you do not, your 997) for advice. If you do not, your partner might.partner might.

How to stop yourself snoring. Snoring is caused when the airway at the How to stop yourself snoring. Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. This is usually back of the nose and throat becomes partially obstructed. This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but the reasons why this should occur are varied. The most common are smoking, reasons why this should occur are varied. The most common are smoking, obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping pills.pills.

As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" cures As with any common ailment, there are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if you can advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop smoking and to reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed.try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed.

Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of of your bed with a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will your pyjamas to encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you.breathing easier for you.

It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven for long periods. Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative.as a long-term alternative.

If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids that are If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock your nasal passage.unblock your nasal passage.

Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 557 997) for advice. If you 997) for advice. If you do not, your partner might.do not, your partner might.

Exercise 2Exercise 2

Look at the following text about growing Look at the following text about growing cotton in India. The paragraphs have cotton in India. The paragraphs have not been printed in the correct order. not been printed in the correct order. Arrange the paragraphs in the correct Arrange the paragraphs in the correct order. Remember that the topic of one order. Remember that the topic of one paragraph should follow logically from paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.paragraph.

Pesticide Pesticide SSuicideuicide Most of the farmers are extremely poor. Attracted by cheap loans from Most of the farmers are extremely poor. Attracted by cheap loans from

pesticides traders and the prospect of a quick buck, they borrowed pesticides traders and the prospect of a quick buck, they borrowed heavily to raise cotton on small plots of land. heavily to raise cotton on small plots of land.

According to the Ministry of Agriculture, the crop losses and According to the Ministry of Agriculture, the crop losses and destruction in Andhra Pradesh arose from the repeated application of destruction in Andhra Pradesh arose from the repeated application of excessive amounts of chemicals - a practice actively encouraged by excessive amounts of chemicals - a practice actively encouraged by pesticides traders. The suicide of Samala Mallaiah in Nagara village pesticides traders. The suicide of Samala Mallaiah in Nagara village grabbed media headlines. He owned one acre of land, leased two grabbed media headlines. He owned one acre of land, leased two more and grew cotton on all three. After making a loss in the first more and grew cotton on all three. After making a loss in the first year, he leased yet more land in an attempt to recover. Confronted year, he leased yet more land in an attempt to recover. Confronted with falling prices, mounting debts and pest attacks, he committed with falling prices, mounting debts and pest attacks, he committed harakiri. harakiri. ‘Cotton has given us shattered dreams,’ said one old farmer ‘Cotton has given us shattered dreams,’ said one old farmer in Nagara village. in Nagara village.

As many as 60,000 small farmers in the region of Andhra Pradesh, As many as 60,000 small farmers in the region of Andhra Pradesh, southern India, have taken to farming cotton instead of food crops. southern India, have taken to farming cotton instead of food crops. Some 20 of them have recently committed suicide by eating lethal Some 20 of them have recently committed suicide by eating lethal doses of pesticide. doses of pesticide.

Whitefly, boll weevils and caterpillars multiplied and destroyed their Whitefly, boll weevils and caterpillars multiplied and destroyed their crops, despite the constant application of pesticides. The average crops, despite the constant application of pesticides. The average yield of cotton fields in Andhra Pradesh fell by more than half in just yield of cotton fields in Andhra Pradesh fell by more than half in just one year. Now the farmers are in no position to repay the loans or feed one year. Now the farmers are in no position to repay the loans or feed their families. their families.

Nearly half the pesticides used in India go into protecting cotton, the Nearly half the pesticides used in India go into protecting cotton, the most important commercial crop in the country. However, pests have most important commercial crop in the country. However, pests have shown increased immunity to a range of pesticides. Last year there shown increased immunity to a range of pesticides. Last year there were heavy crop losses due to leaf-curl, which is caused by the were heavy crop losses due to leaf-curl, which is caused by the dreaded whitefly. This nondescript, milky-white fly sucks sap from the dreaded whitefly. This nondescript, milky-white fly sucks sap from the cotton leaves, making them curl and dry up. The fly struck first in cotton leaves, making them curl and dry up. The fly struck first in Pakistan and north-western India. Then it turned south. Pakistan and north-western India. Then it turned south.