EA 023 681 AUTHOR Gordon, Stephen P. TITLE INSTITUTION · 2013. 8. 2. · DOCUMENT RESUME. EA 023 681. Gordon, Stephen P. How To Help Beginning Teachers Succeed. Association for Supervision

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EA 023 681

Gordon, Stephen P.How To Help Beginning Teachers Succeed.Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment, Alexandria, Va.ISBN-0-87120-189-591

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Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment, 1250 Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA22314-1403 (Stock No. 611-91172; $6.95).Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) -- Tests/EvaluationInstruments (160)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Beginning Teacher Induction; *Beginning Teachers;Elementary Secondary Education; Mentors; NeedsAssessment; Teacher Morale; *Teacher Orientation

Many beginning teachers leave the profession afteronly 2 years. In an effort to help beginning teachers succeed, theBeginning Teacher Assistance Program (BTAP) was created to combatunforseen difficulties. The main difficulties are environmental innature: (1) difficult work assignments; (2) unclear expectations; (3)

inadequate resources; (4) isolation; (5) role conflict; and (6)reality shock. The Beginning Teacher Assistance Program is a formal,systematic effort to provide ongoing assistance to the new teacherduring the induction period (usually 3 years). The program relies onthe use of mentors and direct needs assessments. Many types ofassistance cannot be planned ahead of time, and each program isindividualized with the help of the mentor and support group. Initialassistance may include providing helpful information about specificresponsibilities, the school, the community, school district policiesand procedures, and the curriculum. Celebrating the beginner'sarrival, establishing rapport, and providing an orientation are alsovery helpful. The program also provides for ongoing assistance,ranging from providing moral support to conducting seminars. Toassess the overall value of the program and to make necessarychanges, an evaluation is suggested. (72 references) (LAP)

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How toHelpBeginningTeachersSucceedStephen P. Gordon

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How toHelpBeginningTeachersSucceedStephen P. Gordon

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II

How to Help BeginningTeachers Succeed

1. The Problem: Unforeseen Difficulties 1

2. Th3 Solution: A Beginning Teacher 8Assistance Program

3. Developing an Assistance Program 17

4. Mentors 28

5. Needs Assessment 39

6. Forms of Initial Assistance 45

7. Forms of Ongoing Assistance 51

8. Summative Program Evaluation 64

References 68

Resources for Practitioners 74

1

The Problem:Unforeseen Difficulties

I sat by the same person every single day at lunch, and Inever really talked to him. He wouldn't even say hello tome. Sometimes I would walk into the faculty lounge, andit was just like there was a wall between me and the olderteachers.

A beginning teacher

In the coming year, thousands of college graduates willenter the nation's classrooms to begin their teachingcareers. Most of these teachers will have received highgrades in their teaching methods courses and studentteaching experiences. Most will have a genuine affection foryoung people and will be committed to making a differencein the lives of their students. Despite the good intentionsand high expectations of these beginners, 40 to 50 percentof them will drop out of teaching within the first sevenyears (New Mexico State Department of Education 1988,Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction 1984), mostwithin the first two years (Schlechty and Vance 1983). Ofthose who survive, many will have such negative initialexperiences that they may never reach their full potential aseducators (Romatowski, Dorminey, and Voorhees 1989;

Huling-Austin 1986).

Six Environmental Difficulties

What is the cause of the alarming attrition rate in theearly years of teaching? Some blame the quality of those

61

How TO HELP BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

wlio enter teaching, others point to the teacher educationprograms that prepare them. The literature, however,indicates that many of the difficulties beginners encounterare environmental in nature: they are grounded in theculture of the teaching profession and the conditions of theschool as a workplace. Let's look at six environmentaldifficulties that await our novice teachers.

1. Difficult Work Assignments

Other professions gradually increase the novice's workresponsibilities over time. In the teaching profession,beginners often start out with more responsibilities thanveteran teachers and are expected to perform all of theirduties with the same expertise as experiencedprofessionals. Returning teachers usually choose to teachthe best courses, leaving the least interesting and mostdifficult courses to beginners (Kurtz 1983). New teachersare often given the most time-consuming and leastrewarding assignments (Kurtz 1983) as well as largerclasses, more difficult students, and more duties thanexperienced teachers (Romatowski, Dorminey, andVoorhees 1989).

2. Unclear Expectations

Schools have myriad formal rules and procedures thatare new and unclear to beginning teachers. Beyond formalexpectations, there are many informal routines and customsthat are even more difficult for new teachers to learn.Tomake matters still more complicated, different groupsexpect different things from beginners. Conflictingexpectations of administrators, other teachers, students,and parents contribute to what Corcoran has refer od to asthe "condition of not knowing" (1981, p. 20). A study offirst-year teachers (Kurtz 1983) revealed that a commoncomplaint of novice teachers was: "I never knew what wasexpected of me." This complaint was most common amongthose who left teaching early.

7

2

THE PROBLEM: UNFORESEEN DIFF1CULTIFS

3. Inadequate ResourcesEntry-year teachers often find their classrooms lacking

instructional resources and materials. In many cases this isdue to the traditional summer raid on classrooms belongingto recently resigned teachers:

When a teacher resigns, the remaining teachers oftendescend upon the classroom and remove any materials,equipment, or furniture of value and replace them withtheir discards. The new teacher enters a classroomequipped with leftovers (Glickman 1984-85, p. 38).

The effects of such raiding on beginning teachers canbe frustrating and harmful. When teachers are most in needof quality instructional resources and materials they oftenhave the worst ir, the school.

4. IsolationBeginning teachers often suffer from emotional

isolation when they are assigned to the most physicallyisolated classrooms (Kurtz 1983). They may also suffer fromsocial and professional isolation. Experienced teachers arenot likely to offer assistance to beginning teachers, evenwhen beginners are clearly experiencing severe difficulties(Houston and Felder 1982, Ryan 1979, Newberry 1978). Whydo experienced teachers avoid assisting new teachers?Some believe that beginning teachers need to go throughtheir rites of passage alone, just as the veterans did in theirfirst years (Ryan 1979). Others would like to offer assistanceto new teachers but feel their efforts would be viewed asinterference. Many experienced teachers feel that theprincipal alone is responsible for assisting new teachers.

Beginning teachers contribute to their own isolationwhen they hesitate to ask for help. Many consider seekinghelp as an admission of failure and incompetence. In fact,beginning teachers studied by Newberry (1978) went togreat lengths to cover up serious problr ,s with studentdiscipline.

3

11.11YEarlii

How TO Hi:u, BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

5. Role Conflict

It is true that growing numbers of adults in their latetwenties, thirties, and beyond are now entering orreentering teaching but the majority of beginning teacherscontinue to be young adults. Conflict often exists betweenthe roles of teacher and young aduR. The new teacher maybe living away from home or the safety of college for thefirst time and may have just moved to a new community. Hemay ne opening bank or charge accounts, renting andfurnishing an apartment, or buying a car for the first time.He may be beginning a marriage or starting a family. Anonteaching spouse may be unable to relate to the teacher'sconcerns about what is happening at school or understandwhy he spends so much more time and energy onschoolwork than on the family. The conflict between theroles of teacher and young adult often leads new teachersto perceive that neither role is being given sufficient timeand attention. This perception can lead to strong feelings ofguilt (Gehrke 1982) and unhappiness.

6. Reality Shock

According to Veenman, "reality shock" is "the collapseof the missionary ideals formed during teacher training bythe harsh and rude reality of classroom life" (1984, P. 143).It is caused by the beginning teacher's realizations aboutthe world of teaching and her lack of preparation for manyof the demands and difficulties of that world. Manybeginners embark on their first teaching assignments withhighly idealized perceptions of teaching: they tend toenvision themselves spending the entire day fostering theirstudents' academic growth. Early on, they find that teachingactually includes a wide range of nonacademic duties,including disciplining students, collecting money and forms,completing administrative paperwork, and serving asparent-substitutes. Additionally, teachers who have lookedforward to being autonomous, creative professionals mayfind their orientation toward teaching in conflict withprescribed curriculums, instructional programs, textbooks,or materials (Broga 1972). The discrepancy between thebeginning teacher's vision of teaching and the real world ofteaching can cause serious disillusionment (Armstrong

4 9

THE PROBLEM: UNFORESEEN DIFFICULTIES

1984, Broga 1972, Campbell 1972). Corcoran (1981) foundthat "transition shock" can lead to a state of paralysis,which renders teachers unable to transfer to the classroomskills they learned during teacher education. Reality shockcan make the other five environmental difficulties moresevere by reducing a beginning teacher's ability to cope.

Twelve Potential Needs

There have been numerous studies about the specificproblems and needs of beginning teachers (Boccia 1991,1989; Odell, Loughlin, and Ferraro 1986-1987; Veenman 1984;Grant and Zeichner 1981; Johnston and Ryan 1980). No twostudies have produced precisely the same li.Jts of problemsor needs. However, if we compare studies that have yieldedprioritized lists of problems or needs, the same items tendto appear at the top of each list (although the specific ordervaries). Thus, a set of potential high-priority needs ofbeginning teachers is suggested by the research. Manybeginning teachers need help with:

1. Managing the classroom2. Acquiring inforrro,4ion about the school system3. Obtaining instructional resources and materials4. Planning, organizing, and managing instruction and

other professional responsibilities5. Assessing students and evaluating student progress6. Motivating students7. Using effective teaching methods8. Dealing with individual students' needs, interests,

abilities, and problems9. Communicating with colleagues, including

administrators, supervisors, and other teachers10. Communicating with parents11. Adjusting to the teaching environment and role12. Receiving emotional support

Many of these specific needs are rooted in one or moreof the environmental difficulties discussed earlier. At thesame time, insufficient knowledge, skill, experience, andsocialization can contribute to these needs. Therefore, both

1 05


the environmental difficulties and specific needs ofbeginners must be addressed.

These needs should not be adopted automatically asthe needs list for your district's assistance program. Yourteachers may have vital needs that differ from those of thegeneral population of beginning teachers. In reality, eachnew teacher probably has some needs similar to mostbeginning teachers everywhere, some needs unique to thegroup of beginners in the same specific work setting, andsome needs unique to that teacher alone. Your beginningteacher assistance program development committee shouldconduct a local needs assessment before defining andprioritizing beginners' needs. Also, the induction team (seeChapter 2) for each beginner should be given the flexibilityto identify and meet individual needs.

Effects of Unmet Needs

If the environmental difficulties and specific needs ofbeginning teachers are not addressed, negative emotional,physical, attitudinal, and behavioral problems may result.The beginner may suffer from insomnia or nightmares(Applegate et al. 1977), leading to fatigue and physicalexhaustion or a sense of failure and depression (Ryan et al.1980). Outbursts of crying, loss of temper. and occasionalvomiting are not uncommon (Ryan 1974).

Novice teachers' early experiences are likely to lowertheir self-esteem, make them less optimistic, and causethem to develop more negative attitudes toward children(Earp and Tanner 1975). They tend to view themselves asless happy, less relaxed, less confident, less perceptive,more controlled, and more blaming than they were beforethey started teaching (Wright and Tuska 1968), They oftenfeel they possess less knowledge about teaching at the endthan at the beginning of their first year (Gaede 1978) andsee themselves as becoming more authoritarian,dominating, and custodial in their treatment of students(Day 1959; Hoy 1969, 1968; McArthur 1978). Beginnersreport that they become more impukAve, less inspiring,louder, less responsive, more reserved, and make school

I 1.6

THE PROBLEM: UNFORESEEN DIFFICULTIES

more boring as a result of their early teaching experiences(Wright and Tuska 1968).

The ultimate effect of the negative experiences of manybeginning teachers is an exit from the profession. Theattrition rate for each of the first two years of teaching hasbeen reported to be approximately 15 percent, compared toa normal turnover rate of 6 percent (Schlechty and Vance1983). Moreover, indications show that it is the mostpromising teachers who leave teaching in the early years(Harris and Co !lay 1990, Schlechty and Vance 1983) andmany teachers who survive the induction period andremain in teaching develop a survival mentality, a set ofrestricted teaching methods, and a resistance to curricularand instructional change that may last throughout theirteaching careers (Romatowski, Dorminey, and Voorhees1989; Hu ling-Austin 1986).

* * *

Many of the problems associated with beginningteachers in the literature may not be present in your schoolsystem. However, those charged with developing programsto assist beginning teachers have a responsibility to take ahard look at the beginning teacher literature and compare itto the environment and experiences of beginning teachersin their schools.

7

2The Solution: ABeginning TeacherAssistance Program

She's very understanding and compassionate. I know thatwhenever I have a problem, I can call her at home or I

can see her after school and she'll always take the timeto talk to me. She always gives me that positive reinforce-ment, that pat on the back.

A beginning teacher discussing her mentor

Adiscussion of what a beginning teacher assistanceprogram (BTAP) is usually leads to a discussion of thedefinition of "beginning teacher." Is the experiencedsubstitute teacher who has just been hired to her firstregular teaching assignment a beginner? What about theperson who is returning after several years? How about theexperienced teacher who is new to the dii;trict, building,content area, or grade level? Most likely, all of theseteachers need some special assistance, but the supportthey require is different than the support needen by thetrue novice. Questions like "What should be ,ne goals of theassistance progr .rn?" "Who will bc :;erved by the program?""How long will individuals be part of the program?" and"What types of support are most appropriate for differenttypes of 'beginners'?" are best dealt with at the local level.When answering these questions, the local developmentteam must consider such variables as the goals of theschool district's staff development program, the uistrict'sresources, and the types and numbers of beginningteachers in the district.

t38

THE SOLUTION: A BEGINNING TEACHER ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

What a BTAP Is and Is Not

A BTAP can be defined as a formal, systematic effort toprovide ongoing assistance to a new teacher during theinduction period. Many would argue that it takes up to t1--ee

years to fully induct a beginning teacher, and that sometype of formal assistance should be provided to thebeginner throughout that time.

Hu ling-Austin (1988) identified five commonly acceptedgoals of teacher induction programs:

1. To improve teaching performance2. To increase the retention of promising beginning

teachers3. To promote the personal and professional well-being

of beginning teachers4. To transmit the culture of the system to beginning

teachers5. To satisfy mandated requirements related to

induction and certification

These five goals are laudable. However, should the lastgoal be the only one adopted by a school district, then thereis a good chance that a perfunctory program will result,aimed at satisfying the letter rather than the spirit/of themandate. The first four purposes are interrelated Sndinterdependent. They could and should all be integratedinto a BTAP that would also satisfy a state mandate for aninduction program.

It's important to understand also what a true BTAP is

not./t is not a beginners orientation alone. Some

individuals still consider an orientation the primarycomponent of a BTAP. While an orientation to the schooland community is vital, it should be viewed as the entrypoint, not end point, of teacher induction. It is thelong-range, ongoing assistance that is the most importat:taspect of an effective program.

/t is not merely the assignment of a buddy. In manyschools I have visited, beginning teachers are assigned abuddy who may show the new teacher where to procuresupplies and materials and how to fill out variousadministrative forms, and who is generally available should

49


the beginner seek advice. Usually these buddies have nopreparation in the skills needed to assist a beginner. Afterthe first few weeks, interaction between buddy andnewcomer tends to be infrequent. The buddy may nevereven visit the beginner's classroom to observe a lesson.While such buddy systems are better than no support at all,they should not be confused with a comprehensive BTAPinvolving an induction team or even with the ongoingassistance provided by a well-prepared mentor. In a studyby Klug (1988), participants preferred a highly structuredprogram with an inducilon team including a mentoi,administrator, and representative from higher educationover a loosely structured buddy system.

/t is not an evaluation program. The purpose of a BTAP

is purely supportive in nature. It should never be used to"weed out" incompetent teachers. New teachers must beevaluated, and incompetent teachers without potential forimprovement should not be allowed to remain in theprofession, but the trust-building, nurturing, and supportthat are at the core of BTAPs do not mix with thegatekeeping furiction.

ft is not a cure-all. Huling-Austin (1986) reminds usthat a 13TAP cannot be expected to overcome majorproblems within the school such as misplaced teachers,overloaded teaching schedules, and overcrowded classes.Nor can the assistance program be expected to turnteachers without potential into competent professionals. Itis important that those involved with BTAPs understand thelimitations as well as the potential of such programs.

The Induction Team

The most important ingredients in any beginningteacher assistance program are the people who give theirtime and energy as part of the induction effort. An inductionteam is more likely to provide the best chance for abeginner's success than any single support personoperating alone. A iiumber of agencies and individuals canbe significant players on the induction team. For example:

School Board Members and the Superintendent. Theseindividuals are central to the school district's commitment

10


to the BTAP. They provide the political base and moralsupport for the program. The superintendent can assist theBTAP development team in finding necessary human andmaterial resources. The school board and superintendentare also in the best positions to publicly acknowledge thosewho devote time and energy to assisting beginning teache'..s.

The Local Education Association. The support of thelocal education association is important. Because both theschool district and the association benefit from a successfulBTAP, gaining the support of the association is usually not aproblem if the association is involved from the very beginningand if the school district is willing to provide appropriateresources for the BTAP.

The education association can appoint a representativeto the BTAP development team and assist in providingpreparation and support for mentors. It can also help planand deliver information and support activities for beginningteachers. Finally, association representatives should be partof the monitoring, evaluation, and revision of the BTAP.

The Principal. The principal's leadership is essential tothe BTAP. A common practice is for principals to have theright of approval over mentor appointments andassignments. By attending mentor preparation sessions,principals provide support for the mentors and refine theirown knowledge and skills. By attending orientations,workshops, and seminars for beginning teachers, buildingadministrators communicate to participants the highpriority they assign to beginning teachers and theassistance program. Building principals should not let thefact that mentors have been assigned to beginning teachersdeter them from observing and conferring with individualbeginners on a regular basis.

The Mentor. ln many assistance programs the beginneris assigned a mentor who has primary responsibility forproviding direct assistance to the new teacher. Sheehy(1976, p. 31) defines a mentor as a "nonparental careermodel who actively provides assistance, support, andopportunities for the protege." Alleman, Cochran,Doverspike, and Newman (1984, p. 329) define mentoring as"a relationship in which a person of greater rank orexpertise teaches, guides, and develops a novice in anorganization or profession." Schmidt and Wolfe (1980) list

11

6


three broad functions of mentors: role model,consultant-advisor, and sponsor. Schein (1978) hasproposed eight possible mentor functions: confidant,teacher, sponsor, role model. developer of talent, opener ofdoors, protector, and successful leader.

In BTAPs, the mentor is usually an experiencedpracticing teacher, but others can serve as effectivementors. For example, retired teachers serve as mentors insome assistance programs. The role of the mentor is tosupport and challenge, but not to evaluate the beginner.This means that the mentor should not be in a linearrelationship with the beginner on the school district'sorganizational chart.

Central Office Supervisors. A central office supervisor isa likely candidate for coordinator of the district's beginningteacher assistance program. Curriculum development andsubject matter coordinators can provide information on thescope and sequence of the curriculum and availablecurricular resources. Coordinators of special educationprograms can help beginners to better serve chiliken withspecial needs. Finally, instructional supervisors can coachmentors in interpersonal, observation, conferencing, andproblem-solving skills.

Other Teachers. The department chairperson orinstructional team le, r can work with mentors to provideassistance to beginnii Leachers. These instructionalleaders may have areas of expertise different from andcomplementary to the mentor's. Teacher-leaders canencourage other teachers in the department or on theinstructional team to form a support network for the newteacher_

Regular teachers can go a long way toward reducing thebeginning teacher's isolation by making a point of regularlyinteracting with the newcomer. Effective, experiencedteachers can allow beginners to visit their classrooms andobserve them teaching. All of the teachers in proximity tothe beginner can make a commitment to the caring,supportive environment that will give the beginner theoptimal chance for success. The idea here is that oneteacher is the assigned mentor, but all teachers are supportteachers.

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Teacher Educators. Teacher educators from collegesand universities may be called on for assistance during theplanning, implementation, or evaluation phase of thebeginning teacher assistance program. The most effectiveassistance is probably provided by university or collegeconsultants who work with the school district through all ofthese phases. Specific functions of teacher educators areconsulting the assistance program development team,training and consulting mentors, facilitating group seminarsfor mentors or beginning teachers, and conducting researchon teacher induction. The teacher preparation institutionsalso benefit from their involvement in the BTAP.Involvement can keep professors current with schoolpractice and teacher educators can acquire feedback onhow well their programs are preparing students forteaching.

State Agencies. State agencies can provide guidelines,resources, and consultation to school districts developingBTAPs. They can offer preparation programs for programcoordinators and mentor trainers and they can disseminateinformation about model programs. Intermediate units canfacilitate consortiums of school systems wishing tocombine resources in order to offer services to mentors orbeginning teachers that individual school systems would beunable to provide.

Team Members' Levels of Involvement

We've taken a look at several potential members of aBTAP development team. All of these persons and agencieshave potential to assist as well as benefit from a BTAP. It is

the local school district that should decide whichstakeholders will be part of the assistance program, as well

as the extent to which each participant will be involved.Clear communication between the principal, mentor,

and other support persons is essential. The principal andmentor need to meet with other instructional leaders andteachers who will be working with the newcomers beforethe school year begins to set up procedures forcoordinating support efforts. Continued coordination

I s 13


throughout the school year is vital to the success of theprogram.

Effects of BTAPs in General

An effective BTAP can eliminate many of the problemsencountered by beginning teachers. In a cooperativeventure between Indiana State University and ten schooldistricts located in West Central Indiana, twenty first-yearteachers were assigned an experienced support teacher,received monthly visits from a university supervisor,attended monthly peer-support seminars, and were sent anewsletter. The interns involved in the program displayedsignificantly better performance than a control group in

forty teaching skills. The beginners "completed the yearwith significantly healthier attitudes and perceptions aboutteaching than did a similar group of beginning teachers whodid not have the ... support program" (Henry 1988, p. 15).

All of the new teachers enrolled in the program chose to

stay in teaching.Parker (1988) studied the Wisconsin-Whitewater

Teacher Induction Program, a regional teacher inductionprogram for rural schools. Beginning teacher assistAnceincluded peer support from other new teachers, s.tminars,and an induction team including mentors, schooladministrators, and university personnel. All sixty-nineteachers who completed questionnaires over a three-yearperiod said they benefitted from their involvement in theprogram, from new ideas and techniques, and the help theyreceived with problem solving. In thk program, theinduction team worked with first-year teachers to identifyareas of concern and needed growth and to set goals. Theteachers reported problems similar to those in a controlgroup, but were better able to motivate students, torespond successfully to student misbehavior, to developpositive relationships with their students, and to view theirfirst year of teaching in positive terms. Administrators saidthey had fewer student referrals, parent calls, and studentcomplaints involving teachers in the induction programNarah, Theune, and Parker 1986). A series of follow-upstudies on the Wisconsin-Whitewater program shows that

14


teachers in the program have a higher retention rate andmore positive attitudes toward teaching than members of acontrol group (Manley, Siudzinski, and Varah 1989).

Beginning teachers who took part in a teacherinduction program in the Richardson, Texas, IndependentSchool District reported that the program enhanced theirprofessional competence and motivat (Brooks 1986).Such positive BTAP outcomes appeat ye lasting effects.Experienced teachers surveyed in fol. ..,, studies byOdell (1990) and Rossetto and Grosenick (1987) continuedto report positive influences of their participation in a BTAP.

Liduction team members report that BTAPs arebeneficial to them as well as the beginners they work with.Administrators in three induction programs (Hawk 1987)reported that being a team member helped them growprofessionally and better understand the qualities of goodteaching, made them more aware of teachers' needs, andimproved principal-teacher relations. Principals in aprogram studied by Odell (1990, p. 15) reported that "thepresence of the program positively influenced theatmosphere in their schools by emphasizing teacherinteraction and collaboration."

Effects of Mentoring on Beginning Teachers

After conducting research on induction programs ineight states, Hu ling-Austin and Murphy (1987) concludedthat:

The assignment of a support teacher may well be the mostpowerful and cost-effective induction practice available toprogram developers. First-year teachers who wereassigned designated support teachers consistentlyreported that those persons were who they relied uponmost heavily for assistance (pp. 35-36).

Other studies agree with the conclusions drawn byHu ling-Austin and Murphy. Huffman and Leak (1986) foundthat 95 percent of teachers in one beginning teacherprogram considered mentoring an important element ofteacher induction. Teachers in the Wisconsin-WhitewaterTeacher Induction Program considered the mentor to be the

0 1.1u 15

How To HELP BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

key person in the success of that program (Smith-Davis andCohen 1989). Another group of researchers who studiedstate-mandated beginning teacher programs concluded that:

For many of our beginning teachers the most significantpositive force on their experience was the peer or supportteacher. The peer or support teacher was typically ratedas highly influential eaey in the year and increasinglyinfluential as the year progressed.... They were valuedprimarily as sources of practical information andsecondarily as sources of psychological support (Hoffman,Edwards, O'Neal, Barnes, and Paulissen 1986, p. 19).

In a mentoring program in Minnesota, a large majorityof beginning teachers reported that they had examined andimproved their teaching behaviors and had received socialand emotional support, and that their mentors wereeffective role models who demonstrated the qualities ofexcellent leadership (Warring 1989). Additionally, 85 percentof the administrators in the schools where the mentoringtook place said that the program was helpful to beginningteachers, and 78 percent of the administrators reportedthat the mentoring program benefitted students.

Hu ling-Austin and Murphy (1987, P. 36) found thatbeginning teachers believed they "received the most helpfrom support teachers in the areas of lociting materials,student discipline, lesson planning, grading, establishingrealistic expectations of student work and behaviors, andhaving someone to talk to/listen." F'agon and Walter (1982)reported that the majority of beginning teachers in theirstudy gave their mentor credit for helping them gain self-confidence, encouraging their creativity, and familiarizingthem with the school administration.

16

3Developing anAssistance Program

There's no handbook. Nothing's written down. You don'thave a clue what's going on. Just simple things. How towrite a hall pass . . . absentee lists . . . the dress code forteachers. flow are you supposed to know that without ahandbook?

A beginning teacher

Before discussing the BTAP model, we need to placeBTAP development in perspective. First, the BTAP shouldbe designed as part of the school system's staff develop-ment program. It should be consistent with the goals of thelarger program, and related to other staff developmentefforts whenever possible. Both the BTAP and other com-ponents of the total staff development program, in turn,should be consistent with the philosophy and goals of theschool district.

Second, a cautionary note about program developmentis in order. Those who have been involved in educationalprogram development know that the actual process usuallystrays from the clear, sequential path represented by theboxes and arrows on a flow chart. Developing a BTAP canbe a messy business. Sometimes the components ofprogram development overlap or must be rearranged.Problems are a given, and problem solving is a natural partof the program development process. Yet many problemscannot be predicted and thus are not accounted for inprogram development models. Despite the problemsinhereni with program models, they can be useful as broad

17


guidelines for program development. They suggestconcepts and processes to be considered and adapted bypractitioners. With the above caveat mind, I propose theprocess illustrated in Figure 3.1 as a working model fordeveloping a BTAP.

Hgure 3.1BTAP Development Model

Creation of BTAPt)t. -elopment Team

PreliminaryNeeds Assessment

IfIentific.ation ofAvailable Reslurces

Stimmative Prograin Raluation

1

Program Impk,mentation

18

Deelopmunt of \A/ritten Plan

DefinitionsPurposeRational('(;oals ani I ()hjectivi sRoles an(I ResponsibiesMentorsI)iref t Needs AssessmentsI orms of AssktamProgram FAlloationI)isseininationNeeded Resources

DENELOPING AN ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

Organize the BTAP Development Team

It makes sense for school districts with staffdevelopment planning councils to place BTAP developmentunder the auspices of those councils. School districtswithout such councils must start from scratch byappointing a BTAP development team. The BTAPdevelopment team can include, along with staffdevelopment council members where appropriate, anyeducators who are knowledgeable and concerned about theproblems of beginning teachers. The central office, buildingadministrators, the local teachers' association, andteachers at-large should be represented on the team.Representatives from nearby teacher preparationinstitutions or state intermediate units who have expertisein assisting beginning teachers can also be asked to serveas consultants to the team.

Conduct a Preliminary Needs Assessment

The program development team will probably want tobegin its work early in the school year plor to the year thatthe BTAP is to be put into place. The need for advancedplanning provides the team with a curious dilemma. Theyare charged with planning an assistance program forbeginning teachers who have not been identified. At thispoint it is impossible to know the specific needs of thoseteachers. Moreover, the nientors who will assist beginnershave not yet been selected. Thus, the BTAP developmentteam will not know the specific preparation and supportneeds of future mentors.

Numerous sources of information can help the teampredict some general needs of beginning teachers andmentors. The team can begin with a review of the literatureon teacher induction and interview current first- andsecond-year teachers to determine problems theyexperienced. Principals and supervisors can describeproblems encountered by beginners they have worked with.The team can visit school districts with similar populatkmsof teachers and students that have already implementedBTAPs to find out needs the beginning teachers andmentors in those programs reported. And representatives

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How TO HELP BECINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

from higher education and state agencies who have worked

with beginning teachers in comparable school systems can

also report about the typical needs of beginners andmentors. A preliminary needs assessment relying on these

sources can serve as a basis for a broad, tentative plan for aBTAP. The plan can then be revised and made more specific

once mentors and entry-year teachers are available for

direct needs assessments.

Identify Available Resources

Before the BTAP development team begins designing

the program, they should think about available human and

material resources. Potential human resources includeeducators within.the school district who have special

expertise and responsibilities associated with beginners'typical needs as well as representatives from teachereducation institutions, state and community agencies, the

local parent-teacher association, the chamber of commerce,

and government service agencies. Potential material

resources include available funding, t7urricular and staffdevelopment materials, and facilities and equipment that

can be used for the BTAP.

Development of a Written Plan

20

r/

The next step in BTAP development is to plan theprogram itself, and to put the plan in writing. According toFigure 3.1, the written plan consists of several components.

Definitions

The program development team needs to define for

their own use a number of key terms typically associated

with BIAPs. These definitions should be consistent with the

purpose, goals, roles, and responsibilities of the localprogram, not simply pulled from the literature or otherschool districts' BTAPs. A list of definitions might includeterms such as beginning teacher, induction team, mentor, and

mentoring as well as terms uffique to the school system'sBTAP. The team must make sure that references to those

r4,

DEVELOPING AN ASSLSTANCE PROGRAM

terms are consistent with the definitions throughout thewritten plan.

Purpose

The statement of purpose declares the BTAP's intent. ltcan be as brief as a single sentence, but it represents thevision on which the entire BTAP is based. Some samplestatements of purpose include:

The purpose of the School District'sBeginning Teacher Assistance Program is to facilitatethe growth of the beginning teacher toward the highestlevels of professional and personal developmentpossible during the initial years of teaching.

The purpose of the School District'sTeacher Induction Program is to help the beginningteacher acquire the knowledge and develop the skillsand attitudes necessary to experience a successfulinduction period.

The purpose of the School District's&ginning Teacher Support Program is to identi51 needsof the beginning teacher and to meet these needsthrough the collaborative effort of an induction teumconsisting of the beginning teacher, a mentor teacher, auniversity consultant, and the school principal.

The purpose of the School District'sTeacher Induction Program is to facilitate thesociailzation of beginning teachers and to increase theretention of promising beginners.

Rationale

The program rationale is a statement that explains theneed for the BTAP. Two examples of rationales are:

The primary goal of Sclwol Districtis to develop students to their fullest academic, social,and personal potential. One way to try to cchieve thisgoal is to help teachers develop to their fullest potentialas educators. A long line of research tells us thatbeginning teachers experience problems during theinduction period, which, if unaddmssed, can lead tonegative attitudes, poor instructional performance, and

G21


22

departure from the teaching profession. One group ofstudies tells us that beginning teacher assistance

programs can solve or reduce the problems faced by

new teachers, improve the quality of their instructionand their students' learning, and help us retainpromising teachers. The beginning teacher assistance

program described in this document is a research-based

program designed to facilitate the optimal developmentof beginning teachers and the students they teach.

Preservice teacher preparation programs aredesigned to provide teachers with the generalknowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for effective

teaching. Even the best preservice programs cannottotally prepare beginning teachers for many of thespecific problems they must deal with during theirtrunsition to inservice teaching. Many new teachers, for

instance, need assistance with adjusting to their newprofessional environment, organizing and managingtheir classrooms, understanding the curriculum, andobtaining instructional resources. TheSchool District's Teacher Induction Program calls for aninduction team to work with the beginning teacher toidenti61 problems the new teacher is experiencing and

to help the beginner solve those problems. We believe

that the assistance of an induction team including a

mentor teacher, tile school principal, and arepresentative from higher education gives thebeginning teacher the best chance of making asuccessful transition from preservice to inservice

teaching.

Goals and Objectives

The results of the preliminary needs assessment allowthe BTAP development team to state broad goals andgeneral objectives for the initial year of the BTAP. A few

examples are given below.

Goal 1. Mentors will develop the skills necessary toprovide professional and personal assistance to

beginning teachers.

2 7

DEVELOPING AN ASSISTANCE PRM,RAM

Related Objectives. Mentors will develop:

1.1 needs-assessment skills1.2 communication skills1.3 problem-solving skills1.4 coaching skills1.5 conflict-management skills1.6 skills necessary to facilitate adult learning1.7 skills necessary to facilitate reflective practice

Goal 2. Beginning teachers will acquire the knowledgenecessary to become oriented to the school andcommunity.

Related Objectives. Beginning teachers will acquireknowledge of:

2.1 community history2.2 community demographics2.3 community resources2.4 students served by the scitool district2.5 school policies, procedures, and routines2.6 the school curriculum2.7 school curricular and instructional resources2.8 the school building where the beginner will be

teaching2.9 the professional colleagues the beginner will be

working with

Goal 3. The beginning kacher will develop or enhanceeffective teaching skills.

Related Objectives. The beginning teacher will developor enhance skills necessary for:

3.1 managing tiv? classroom3.2 planning, organizing, and managing work3.3 designing effective lessons3.4 motivating students3.5 diagnosing and meeting the needs of individual

students3.6 using effective teaching methods3.7 evaluating student work

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The goals and objectives in the initial written planshould be viewed as tentative. In fact, the programdevelopment team may decide to delay setting someobjectives until after the specific needs of the first group ofbeginners and their mentors are assessed. Once directneeds assessments are made, some revisions in programgoals and objectives and corresponding revisions in theremainder of the BTAP will almost certainly be necessary.

Roles and Responsibilities

A comprehensive BTAP involves a number of supportgroups and individuals as well as beginning teachers. Theresponsibilities of each member of the induction team needto be agreed to ahead of time and coordinated on acontinuous basis. The BTAP development team can use achart like the one in Figure 3.2 to relate BTAP goals, roles,and responsibilities. Goals are written in the first column.The name of the group or individual who will coordinateassistance efforts for each goal is listed in the secondcolumn. Other groups and persons who will assist in effortsto meet each goal are written in the third column. Thespecific responsibilities of each party are listed ir columnfour. The program development team should remember toinclude on the chart the beginning teacher's responsibilitiesrelative to each goal.

Figure 3.2Sample Chart Showing

Relation of BTAP Goals, Roles, and Responsibilities

BTAP Goal ! Coordinator '

3

4.

6.

7.

24

Contributing Gnawsor Individuals

0 (

-

Specitir

Responsibililies

DEVELOPING AN ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

Mentors

The development team must decide on criteria andprocedures for mentor selection and must plan a programfor preparing mentors for their new roles. Guidelines mustbe established for assigning mentors to beginning teachersand provisions must be made for ongoing support andrewards for mentors. These topics are presented in detail inChapter 4.

Direct Needs Assessments

The tentative written plan for the BTAP is based on thepreliminary needs assessment. Once entry-year teachershave joined the faculty their needs can be directly assessed.Once mentors have begun to carry out their support roles,they too will develop needs that must be assessed andaddressed. More information about specific ways to assessbeginning teachers' and mentors' needs is presented inChapter 5.

Forms of Assistance for Beginning Teachers

The heart and soul of the BTAP is the support providedto beginning teachers. Many types of assistance cannot beplanned ahead of time. But many can anddue to practicalconsiderationsmust be determined in advance. Chapters6 and 7 present a variety of options for assisting beginningteachers.

Program Evaluation

There are two types of program evaluation: formativeand summative. Formative evaluation takes place while theprogram is being implemented. It provides information forcontinuous program improvement. Major program revisionsare not usually made as a result of formative evaluation.Summative evaluation is comprehensive and is done at aparticular time, probably at the end of the first year of theprogram arid again every three to five years. The summativeevaluation determines the overall value of the program andwhether or not major revisions in the program arenecessary. Both formative and the first summativeevaluation should be designed during the BTAP planning

025


process. If this is done, data for both types of evaluationcan be gathered from the beginning of programimplementation, Additional ;nformation on programevaluation is presented in Chapter 8.

Dissemination

Four types of dissemination need to be provided for inthe written BTAP plan. First, information about the need fora BTAP must be provided to the community and educatorswithin the school system. Second, the plan itself should bemade available in various forms and explained to interestedparties. Third, provisions should be made to report onprogram activities that take place after the program hasbegun. Finally, there should be a plan for disseminatingprogram outcomes to the school system and community. Byproviding appropriate information to the school and largercommunity, the BTAP development team increases thelikelihood of receiving support for the program and helpsensure program success.

Needed Resources

A BTAP need not be an overly expensive staffdevelopment program, but it should not be an add-onprogram. Human and material resources already availablemust be developed, and new resources must be identifiedand procured. Resources needed for each component of theprogram should be identified in the written plan andbudgeted for. Hard rather than soft money will be necessaryto make the program a long-term success.

Begin Program Implementation

The fifth component of the BTAP development model isprogram implementation. Successful implementation doesnot consist of merely carrying out the written plan in linearfashion. It involves a continuous cycle of implementation,evaluation, needs assessment, and program revision. Thismeans that the BTAP development team should stay inplace after the plan has been approved in order to sustainprogram development. Also, the initial program must have

263 i

DEVELOPING AN ASSISTANCE PROGRAM

sufficient flexibility to allow for necessary change withoutprogram disruption or participant confusion.

Conduct a Summative Program Evaluation

The last component of the BTAP development model isthe summative evaluation. A formal evaluation can indicatethe need for minor revisions in the program or can lead intoa new program development cycle resulting in majorprogram revisions (see Figure 3.1). Chapter 8 discusses thesummative evaluation component in detail.

327

4Mentors

Being a mentor keeps me current. When I have to answermy mentee's questions, it makes me ask, "Why am I doingwhat I'm doing?" In discussing philosophy, problems, ortech,liques with this new teacher, I find out what I reallybelieve. That makes me a stronger person and a betterteacher.

A beginning teacher mentor

Mentoring is the cornerstone of many successfulbeginning teacher assistance programs. While it is possibleto develop a successful program without mentors,mentoring's track record is so positive that I advise anyteam developing a BTAP to include a mentoring component.

Recruiting Mentors

Prospective mentors should be made aware of the needfor and purpose of the school district's BTAP, and the rolethey could play in it. It is especially critical that service as amentor be voluntary. Potential mentors should be madefully aware of the responsibilities they will assume if theybecome mentors. They should also be told of the rewards ofmentoring and the support mentors will receive from theschool system.

Numerous studies have documented the positiveeffects of mentoring on the mentors themselves. Warring(1989) reported that mentors in one program refined theirown teaching styles and strategies as a result of theirinvolvement in the program. These mentors reportedreceiving social and emotional support from colleagues

28

MENTORS

including building administrators and other mentors. All thementors believed that mentor/mentee activities wereproductive.

Odell (1990) found that mentors perceived that theirexperience as support persons increased their confidence,broadened their perspectives concerning the schooldistrict, hOped them gain knowledge about teaching andlearning, and improved their communication skills.Additionally, Godley and others (1986-1987) found thatmentors believed mentoring enhanced the experience ofbeing a professional and improved their collegial andprocess skills. These mentors felt that they had beenrecognized for their professional expertise and that theyhad made an important contribution to their entry-yearcommittees.

And in a preliminary analysis of an induction programfor experienced teachers, mentors reported that theyexperienced professional growth both through reflecting ontheir own teaching and through tnentoring inexperiencedteachers. These mentors also reported appreciation for thepublic recognition they received as mentors, theirenhanced roles as teacher educators, and the increasedcollegiality with other educators (Killian 1990).

The best way to introduce the BTAP and the mentoringconcept is at a school or district faculty assembly. A moredetailed awareness session can then be provided for thoseinterested in learning more. One possibility is to invitementors and beginning teachers from school districts withsuccessful mentoring programs to discuss their BTAPs ingeneral and mentoring in particular. Be-orning a mentorshould be represented as a prestigious tole awarded tothose who possess outstanding credentii Is.

Mentor Selection

There are a variety of ways to select mentors, includingnominations by principals or other teachers orself-nominations. Those nominated by others should havethe opportunity to accept or (icline the nomination veryearly in the process. A committee should be set up toscreen nominations and applications.I refer self-

29

3 4


30

nominations and a selection committee made up of part orall of the BTAP development team. In this system, mentorselections are made in consultation with the schoolprincipal.

Prerequisite criteria and selection criteria arenecessary when choosing mentors. Prerequisite criteriaindicate whether an individual is eligible for considerationby the selection committee. Examples of prerequisitecriteria are years of teaching experience, years with theschool system, level of education, and type of certification.Selection criteria are used to choose mentors from the poolof eligible candidates. It seems logical to make those criteriaconsistent with the literature on mentoring. Let':; take abrief look at what scholars say about the characteristics of

effective mentors.Schmidt and Wolfe (1980) concluded that the most

important characteristic of a successful mentor is acommitment to provide personal time and attention to thebeginner. They also found that mentors should be of highprofessional achievement and have diversified interests andactivities. Little, Galagat an, and O'Neal (1984) reported thateffective mentors have personal and professional respectfor those they are assisting; they are more interested infacilitating beginners than controlling them. Clawson (1980)found that those chosen as mentors were consistent,informal, willing to share information, and demanding.Positive traits of mentors revealed in a study by Gehrkeand Kay (1984) were genuine interest in the advisee,helpfulness, caring, willingness to take time, dedication,professionalism, friendliness, outgoing natures, patience,and influence within the system. A study by Bova andPhillips (1984) suggests that effective mentors tend toevaluate situations from many points of view and examinemultiple options fot dealing with problems. Odell (1990)proposed that characteristics of effective mentors areteaching excellence; ability to work with adults; respect forothers' viewpoints; willingness to engage in acve, openlearning; and social and public relations skills. DMolt (1989,p. 19) used The Delphi Technique to have mentorsthemselves rate characteristics helpful to the mentoringprocess. The characteristics rated most helpful were:

tr

approachabilityintegrityability to listensinceritywillingness to spend timeenthusiasmteaching competencetrustworthinessreceptivitywillingness to work hard

MENTORS

positive outlookconfidencecommitment to theprofessionopennessexperience in teachingtactfulnesscooperativenessflexibility

Ways of determining whether potential mentorspossess positive characteristics include reviews of letters ofnomination or completed application forms; interviews withprospective mentors and their supervisors; examination ofcurric Wu:a vitae or portfolios; and reviews of written essaysin which prospective mentors are asked to state theirbeliefs about beginning teachers, induction, and mentoring.

It is not recommended that a mentor be chosen onlywhen it is known for sure that a new teachei is going to behired to fill a specific position. Rather, a pool of mentorsshould be selected and prepared, with the understandingthat they will each be assigned a beginning teacher when anappropriate match can be made. If a mentoring assignmentis not available immediately, the mentor-to-be might hegiven other support responsibilities, such as assignment asa cooperating teacher, staff developer, or advising teacher.

Mentor Preparation

The single greatest problem I have observed inmentoring programs that aren't functioning well is a lack ofmentor preparation. A basic preparation program should becarried out well in advance of the arrival of the newteachers to be served by the RTAP. There are severalsuggested topics for initial mentor preparation.

Knowledge About Teacher Induction

Mentors should be acquainted with the knowledge baseon teacher induction. This includes becoming aware of

; 0 31

HOW TO HELP BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

M111111MIIMINIMI=111MIIMIN

typical problems experienced by beginning teachers; andthe purposes, content, and effects of BTAPs, The schoolsystem's BTAP and mentoring component should bediscussed in detail. Characteristics of effective mentorsand typical mentoring functions can be reviewed sothat provisions can be made to identify and addressany concerns participants have about the BTAP ortheir responsibilities as mentors.

Developing Trust and Rapport

Trust and rapport are the foundation of a fruitfulrelationship between mentor and beginning teacher.Mentors can learn how to establish a positive relationshipby using open and supportive communication skills torespond to concerns beginning teachers may have aboutthe mentor-mentee relationship.

Classroom Management and Effective Teaching

BTAP coordinators are often surprised when I suggestthat mentor preparation include sessions on classroommanagement and effective teaching. After all, one canassume that individuals would not have been chosen to bementors unless they were already effective teachers andclassroom managers. Yet mentors themselves are usuallygrateful that these topics are addressed during thepreparation program.

Mentors know that they will be called on to modeleffective techniques for beginners. Many mentors havereached the stage of their craft at which they are"unconsciously" using effective management and teachingstrategies. They often express the need to "brush up" onparticular techniques. Analyzing these strategies duringmentor preparation can help them to better articulate tobeginning teachers why, how, and when they use particulartechniques in the classroom.

The classroom management phase of mentorpreparation should address ways to prevent classroommanagement problems and ways to respond to problemsthat may surface despite the use of preventive techniques.The effective teaching phase can include topics such asdiagnosing student needs, lesson design, motivating

32 ()

MENTORS

students to learn, student learning styles, alternativeinstructional strategies, and assessing student learning.

Adult Learning

The same methods a teacher has successfully used toteach children may not work when that teacher is trying topromote the growth of beginning teachers. The preparationprogram should address what motivates adults to learn andhow to organize adult learning activitiPs. Mentors can learnhow to use the beginner's classroom experience as aresource for learning and how to make learning a matter ofmutual inquiry by mentor and beginner. Finally, mentorscan learn about adult learning styles and how to adaptmentoring to beginners' preferred modes of learning.

Adult and Teacher Development

Research has shown that cognitive, ego, and socialdevelopment do not stop when a person reaches adulthood.Like children, adults pass through common stages ofgrowth at different rates. Teachers progress through stagesof professional development in addition to the cognitive,ego, and social developmental stages that all adults movethrough. An example of teacher professional development isstages of concern (Fuller 1969). Teachers at the earliest stageof concern, the self-adequacy stage, are concerned aboutdoing well when a supervisor is present, gating favorableevaluations, and being accepted and respected by otherteachers. They are also concerned with whether theirstudents like them and how their students evaluate them asteachers (Adams and Martray 1981). The next stage ofconcern is the teaching tasks stage. At this stage, teachersbecome more concerned with issues related to instructionand student discipline (Adams and Martray 1981). Teachersat this stage are concerned primarily with their teachingenvironment and their teaching responsibilities. The higheststage of concern is the teaching impact stage. At this stage,teachers are more concerned with student learning andstudents' general well-being. Academic concerns at thisstage inc lude diagnosing and meeting individual needs,sparking unmotivated students, and facilitating students'

33

How TO HELp BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

intellectual and emotional development (Adams andMartray 1981).

Beginning teachers function at different adult andprofessional developmental levels, need different types ofassistance, and respond positively to different styles ofmentoring. Mentor preparation should include study ofadult and teacher developmental variables, stages of growthrelative to each variable, and characteristics of beginningteachers operating at each developmental stage. Mentorscan learn how to diagnose the stage at which a beginner isfunctioning and adapt support behaviors appropriately.

Observation Skills

If problems develop that are going to cause thebeginning teacher to leave the profession, the odds are thatthose problems are going to originate in the beginner'sclassroom. The classroom is "where the action is," and thementor needs to regularly visit and collect informationabout what is h wpening there. Here we are not talkingabout checklists or rating scales used for summativeevaluation, but rather the gathering of objective,nonjudgmental data that can identify the beginningteacher's needs and serve as a basis fo.: instructionalimprovement.

One problem mentors and beginners frequently have istranslating concerns the beginner may have about a lessoninto observable, measurabie behaviors. Mentor preparationfor classroom observation should include practice linkinggeneral instructional concerns with specific teacher andstudent behaviors that can be observed by the mentor. An

extension of this training is practice in choosing ordesigning observation systems that allow the mentor tosystematically collect data on the selected behaviors. It isrecommended that mentors develop skills for using a few,

simple, common, observation systems. When there is noexisting observation system that can be used to gather datarelevant to beginning teacher concerns mentors also needpractice constructing "tailor-rnade" observation systems.

I) (.1

t.0

34

MENTORS

interpersonal Skills

Glickman's (1990) developmental supervision modellists three general interpersonal approaches used byinstructional leaders. In a nondirective approach, the leaderrelies primarily on listening, clarifying, and reflectingbehaviors. In a collaborative approach, the leader doesmore presenting, problem solving, and negotiating. Theleader using a directive approach emphasizes directing andstandardizing behaviors. Additionally, Glickmandistinguishes directive informational from directivecontrolling behaviors. The leader using the directiveinformational approach provides the teacher withconsiderable information and restricted choice. The leaderdisplaying the directive controlling approach determinesthe specific actions the teacher is to follow.

Glickman's model holds that there is no one bestinterpersonal approach to use when supervising teachers.Rather, the developmental model calls for the instructionalleader to develop a repertoire of interpersonal approachesand to match approaches to teachers' developmentalcharacteristics. In this model, the leader uses anondirective approach with teachers functioning at higherdevelopmental levels, a collaborative approach withteachers performing at moderate levels of development,and a directive approach with teachers operating at lowerdevelopmental levels.

The long-range dimension of the developmental modelcalls for the instructional leader to foster the teacher'sdecision making. This is done by gradually shifting from adirective to a collaborative approach or from acollaborative to a nonciirective approach duringproblem-solving sessions with the teacher.

Three of Glickman's interpersonal approaches seemapplicable to mentoring beginning teachers: thenondirective, collaborative, and directive informationalapproaches (the directive control approach does not seemappropriate for use by mentors in staff relationships withbeginning teachers). Preparation for mentors wishing toapply the developmental model can include the followingphases:

4 tl

35


1 . Skill development in each of the three interpersonalapproaches (nondirective, collaborative, and directiveinformational).

2. lnstructioa in matching particular approaches tobeginners' developmental levels and educational situations.

3. Development of skills necessary to facilitatebeginning teacher growth toward more complex decisionmaking and self-direction.

Problem-Solving Skills

One of the mentor's primary functions is to helpbeginning teachers solve problems they are bound toexperience during the induction phase. Problem solving hasbeen represented as a process involving several steps(Johnson and Johnson 1982; Schmuck and Runkel 1985). A

six-step version of the problem-sOving model includes:

1. Gathering information about the perceived problem.2. Defining the problem in specific terms.3. Generating and considering alternative strategies for

solving the problem.4. Designing an action plan for solving the problem.5. Implementing the action plan.6. Assessing the action plan and revising the plan if

necessary.

Mentor training can involve participants in simulationsin which they use the process outlined above to solveinduction problems. The simulations and post-analysis ofproblem-solving exercises will, however, reveal that dealingwith difficult problems is a far more complex undertakingthan the linear six-step process suggests. The processshould be viewed as a starting point for examining problemsolving, not as a cure-all for problems encountered bybeginning teachers or mentors.

Specialized Training

A few examples of formal structures for assistingbeginning teachers are coaching, action research,demonstration teaching, and co-teaching. Assuming thatsome formal structures are selected by the BTAPdevelopment team for the assistance program, mentors

36

MENTORS

need to be prepared for their involvement in thosestructures. For instance, if the BTAP calls for mentors tocoach beginning teachers, the mentors need to becomefamiliar with the phases of the coaching cycle and learnhow to apply the interpersonal and observation skills of thecoaching cycle. If the BTAP will involve mentors andbeginning teachers in action research, mentors need to bs,taught about the action research process. Specializedtraining, then, is tailored to specific structures planned forthe BTAP.

Planning and Time Management

Those who volunteer to be mentors accept a significantincrease in professional responsibilities. A session onpersonal planning and time management skills can be avaluable addition to mentor preparation. Toward the end ofthe preparation program mentors should be provided timeto des' -_;ri and share tentative action plans for providingassistance to beginning teachers.

Matching Mentors with Beginning Teachers

In a study by Huffman and Leak (1986), 93 percent ofbeginning teachers indicated that mentors should teach thesame grade or subject matter as the beginning teachersthey are matched with. However, these same teachers saidthey would prefer more competent mentors who did notteach the same grade or subject matter to less competentmentors who did. There are obvious advantages to having amentor who is located in the same school as the beginner,and additional advantages if the mentor and beginner workin the same area of the school building. Perhaps the twomost desirable "matches" between mentor and beginner arethose of personality and educational philosophy. The needfor personal and philosophical compatibility suggests thatmentors and beginning teachers should be providedopportunities for informal interaction before mentoringassignments are made, and that matching preferences ofmentors and beginners should be considered.

37


Support and Rewards for Mentors

Mentors need ongoing organizational, technical, andaffective support. A regularly scheduled seminar formentors is an excellent way to provide such assistance.Mentors can share problems, concerns, and successfulstrategies at the support seminars. Seminars also provideopportunities for consultation with outside experts or theBTAP coordinator. Finally, training beyond the mentorpreparation program can be provided during seminars assuch training becomes necessary.

Mentors also need released time. Mentors need time toplan support activities, visit the beginner's classroom,gather resources to share with the beginner, and so on. Tomerely load mentoring responsibilities onto an already full

work schedule is a disservice to the mentor and thebeginning teacher, and will almost surely lower the qualityof support provided to the beginner.

Rewards for mentors might include extracompensation, stipenas for innovative projects orprofessional travel, or release from nonacademicresponsibilities. Perhaps the most important reward theschool system can provide is public, formal recognition of

the contributions made by mentors.

38

5Needs Assessment

When you're a student teacher, if you have a majorproblem, you have the cooperating teacher right there todeal with it. You don't really have to confront the problem.Then when you're thrown out there to teach on your ownand a problem comes up, you're stuck with it. You mighthave a student come right up to you and say somethingvulgar. What are you supposed to do? And later, how doyou deal with their parents?

A beginning teacher

lihe preliminary assessment (see Chapter 3) providesinformation for a broad, tentative plan for assistingbeginning teachers. Once the BTAP is under way, thedevelop team can assess specific needs of beginners andmentors, make revisions in the BTAP, and individualizeassistance.

Informal Discussion

Regular opportunities for informal discussion betweenthe mentor and beginning teacher facilitate ongoingassessment of the beginner's needs. Through activelistening, the mentor can help clarify concerns or problemsthe beginner is experiencing. The mentor will often need toprobe the beginner's perceptions in order to clarify the newteacher's needs. For example, a beginner's perception thatstudents are unmotivated to complete seatwork becausethey are more interested in socializing than working mayprove to be only partially correct. In this situation, thementor could gather additional information by asking

4 4 39


questions such as, "Are all students given the sameseatwork or are assignments individualized?" "What specifictypes of seatwork are given?" "How often is the type ofseatwork changed?" and "What do you do while thestudents are doing seatwork?" Based on answers toquestions like these, the mentor and teacher may determinethat students are indeed unmotivated to completeseatwork, but that the real problem stems from assignmentsthat are at the wrong level of difficulty and lack variety, orstudents' need for more individualized assistance. Thissituation would call for the mentor to help the beginningteacher select appropriate assignments or develop skills toactively monitor and assist students engaged in seatwork.

Another form of informal discussion can take placeduring group sessions with beginning teachers. Discussionsof beginners' problems and concerns at these sessions canhelp the program coordinator, development team, andprincipal assess school and district induction needs.

Informal discussion can also reveal mentor needs. TheBT'AP coordinator, development team, and school principalshould meet with mentors on a regular basis. Groupmeetings often take the form of brainstorming sessiols inwhich mentors contribute ideas for improving both theI3TAP and the support they are receiving from the school

system.

Interviews

The interview is a formal way to collect needsassessment data. It allows for more systematic collectionand analysis of information about beginning teachers' andmentors' needs than informal discussion. Patton (1990,

p. 280) distinguishes between the "general interview guideapproach" and the "standardized open-ended interview."The general interview guide approach involves a set oftopics chosen prior to the interview. The interviewer usesher own words to raise the topics during the interview, andasks those interviewed for their perceptions concerning thetopics. The interviewer need not address topics in the orderthat they appear in the interview guide as long as all of thetopics are addressed during the interview. The generalinterview guide approach allows the interviewer to ask

40

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

probing and clarifying questions in addition to questions onpredetermined topics. Advantages of the general interviewguide approach are its spontaneity and flexibility.

The standardized open-ended interview, in contrast,"consists of a set of questions carefully worded andarranged with the intention of taking each respondentthrough the same sequence and asking each respondent thesame questions with essentially the same words" (Patton1990, p. 280). An advantage of the standardized open-endedinterview is that it tends to provide more systematic andcomprehensive data.

Regardless of the approach used, the interviewerrecords responses to questions either by taking writtennotes or taping the interview. Analysis of one-to-oneinterviews with beginning teachers or mentors can identifyindividual needs. Analysis of group interviews orcomparison of data from a representative number ofone-to-one interviews can identify needs common to aschool or district.

Needs assessment interviews of beginning teachers canbe designed by the BTAP development team and conductedby team members or mentors. interviews of mentors can becarried out by the BTAP coordinator, BTAP developmentteam members, principal, or an outside consultant.

Observations

Perhaps the best way for a principal or mentor todetermine a beginning teacher's instructional needs is toobserve the beginner teaching. One distinction that shouldbe made is the difference between collecting and interpretingobservation data. Data collection should be based on thebeginning teacher's concerns and carried out by the mentorin an objective, nonjudgmental manner. Determining abeginner's needs requires that the mentor and beginningteacher interpret the meaning of the observation data andidentify differences between what the beginner wants tohappen during instruction and what actually is taking place.

41


QuestionnairesWritten questionnaires can also be used as part of

needs assessment. Questionnaires can includefixed-response and open-ended items. Data fromfixed-response questionnaires are easier to analyze thanopen-ended responses, but they force the respondent tochoose from a limited number of simple, sometimesartificial, responses. Open-ended responses are moredifficult to analyze, but allow respondents to providein-depth answers in their own words. Figure 5.1 is a sampleneeds assessment questionnaire for beginning teachers.Figure 5.2 is a sample needs assessment questionnaire formentors. Part A of each questionnaire consists of fixed-response items. Part B of each questionnaire consists ofopen-ended items.

A Combination of Needs Assessment Techniques

Each of the four needs assessment techniques(informal discussions, interviews, observations,questionnaires) has advantages and disadvantages. It maybe preferable to use a combination of all four techniques.Needs assessment questionnaires could be administered tobeginning teachers and mentors at the end of the firstmonth of the school year and again at midyear. Small-groupinterviews of beginning teachers and mentors can also be

held after the first month and at midyear, allowingcomparison of questionnaire and interview data. Classroomobservations of beginning teachers by mentors might takeplace approximately every two weeks. Informal groupdiscussions with beginning teachers and mentors can be

held every few weeks. Informal discussions betweenindividual mentors and beginning teachers can take placeon a daily basis provided the mentor and teacher are basedin the same school. Using a variety of needs assessmenttechniques at different intervals allows for comparison ofdata, which provides a more accurate picture of beginningteacher and mentor needs.

42

Figure 5.1Needs Assessment Questionnaire for Beginning Teachers

Part A. Please choose the response for each item that most nearly indicatesyour level of need for assistance in the area described in the item.

Possible Responses:

A. Little or no mpd for assistance in this areaB . Some need for assistance in this area

C. Moderate need for assistance in this area

D. Iligh need for assistance in this areaE. Very high need for assistance in this area

1. Finding out what is expec led of me as El teacher

2. _Communicating with the principal3. Communicating with other teachers4. _Communicating with parents5. Organizing El nd managing my lassroom

6. Maintaining student discipline_

7. Obtaining instructional resources a Ild materials

B. Planning for instructionManaging my time and work

10. Diagnosing student needs

11. Evaluating student progress12. Motivating students1 _____Assisting students with spe c. ial needs

14. Dealing with individual differences among students15. Understanding the curriculum

16. Completing administrative paperwork17. Using a variety of teaching methods18. Facilitating group discussions

Grouping for effective instniction20. Administering standardized achievenwnt tests

11 . Understanding the school system's teacher evaluation process

22. Understamling my legdl rights and responsibilities as a teacher

23. Dealing with stress24. Pealing with union-related issues25. j3e coming aware of spec al services provided by the sc hool

distrid

Part U. Please respond to the following items.

26. List any professi(mal needs you have that are not addressed by the

preceding items:

27. What types ot support that are not urrently amlable should the st bond

district provide to you and other beginning lean hers?

43 43

Figure 5.2Needs Assessment Questionnaire for Mentors

Part A. Please choose the response for each item that most nearly indicates

yourIevel of need for assistance in the area described in the item.

Possible Responses:

A. I.ittle or no need for assistance in this area

t3. Some need for assistance in this area

C. Moderate need for assistance in this area

D. High need for assistance in this area

E. Very high need (or assistance in this area

____Learning more about what is expected of me as a mentor

2. Collecting classroom observation data

.3. Diagnosing needs of my menteets)

4. _Interpersonal skills5. Assisting my mentee(s) with classroom managenwnl

6. Helping my mentee(s) develop a variety of effective teaching

strategies

7. Using principles of adult learning to facilitate the professional

growth of my mentee(s)Socialiing my mentee(s) into the school c ulture

Helping my menteeN maintain student discipline

10. Helping my mentee(s) design a long-range professional

development plan

11 . Finding resources and materials for my menteeist

1 2. Providing emotional support for my mentee(s)

1Co-teaching with my mentee(s)

14. Managing my time and work

1 5. Probleni-solving strategies_

I h. Helping my menteets) motivate students

1 7. Helping my menk..ets) assist students with spec ial needs

Helping my menteew diagnose student needs

19. tielping my mentedst deal with individual differences among

studentsflelping my mentee(s) evaluate student progress

21. Engaging in expert coaching of my mentectst

l'art I3. Please respond to the following itenis:

22 1 ist any needs you have s a mentor that are not athlressed by the

preceding items:

2 3. What types of support that are not c urrently available should the sc hool

distric t provide to you and other mentors?

44

6Forms of InitialAssistance

They just gave us our books and said, "Here you go."

A beginning teacher whowas not provided an orientation

They went through the manual with us, instead of justthrowing it at us and saying "Here you are." It reallyhelped.

A beginning teacher whowas provided an orientation

The initial assistance provided beginners is an importantpart of the fou. 'ation upon which their careers will be set.There are three .ems that are not part of a MAP but mustbe addressed '..,cfore beginning teachers arrive if they are tohave any real chance for success. These items are teachingassignment, workload, and work environment. Newteachers must be assigned to students and content areascompatible with their preparation, experience, and abilities.Reasonable schedules, class sizes, and co-curricularresponsibilities are all factors in an appropriate workload.And the beginner deserves a work environment withadequate space, furniture, equipment, and materials. Themost well-intentioned and carefully planned BTAP may not

be able to overcome inappropriate teaching assignments,workloads, and work environments. If these items are taken

care of, an effective BTAP can help ensure success fornewcomers from the beginning.

45


Celebrating the Beginner's Arrival

The hiring of a new teacher should be tied tocelebration and demonstration that the professionalcommunity welcomes the beginner. Hirsh (1990)recommends that the teacher be invited to acontract-signing ceremony with district VIPs present andthat a commemorative photograph be taken. Otherexpressions of support include luncheons, dinners, andreceptions in honor of new teachers with thesuperintendent, principals, and mentors. The purpose ofholding ceremonies or socials is to express to the newteacher that the beginner's entrance into the profession isconsidered a significant and welcome event by the schooldistrict and the beginner's new colleagues.

Establishing Rapport and Building Trust

The principal, mentor, and other support persons mustestablish rapport and build trust with the beginner at theearliest opportunity. Rapport can be established throughopen communication, clarifying and dignifying thebeginner's concerns, and accepting the new teacher as acolleague. The beginner's trust can be earned by displayingcompetence and professionalism as a support person,maintaining confidentiality, keeping commitments, andhelping the beginner experience success during the initialdays of teaching.

Orientation

46

Beginning teachers can benefit from attendance at ageneral orientation for all teachers at the start of the newyear but they should also receive a special orientation thatprovides information pertinent to them that may not bedealt with at "kick-off" inservice days for all teachers. Aspecial orientation for beginning teachers can provideinformation on several topics.

FORMS OF INITIAL ASSISTANCE

The Community

New teachers from outside the community need tobecome aware of prevailing community norms, customs,and values. They should acquire an understanding ofsocioeconomic conditions in the community. They shouldalso be made aware of community resources for teachersand students as well as special community needs that theschool is expected to help meet.

Many school districts offer community tours tobeginning teachers. Others arrange a communityorientation and social hosted by the PTA, school board, orchamber of commerce. A community resource file can bemade ava;iable, including a map of the community andinformation on housing, public utilities, transportation,shopping, medical facilities, social organizations, churches,and so on.

School District Policies and Procedures

Merely providing beginning teachers with handbooks isinsufficient. Teachers need to have policies and proceduresexplained to them, with rationales and examples. Beginningteachers need to be made aware of such things as:

attendance policiesalaries and benefitthe teacher evaluation processteachers' legal rights and responsibilitiesthe role of the local fAucational associationadminis:rative record-keeping responsibilities

The Curriculum

The orientation can include an introduction to thephilosophy, purpose, aims, and goals of the schoolcurriculum. An overvim of the curriculum's scope andsequence should be provided with supervisors orexperienced teachers leading small-group sessions on thespecific content that beginners will be teaching. The newteachers should be shown how to use the curriculum guideand "walked through" at least one unit of instruction fromthe guide. Finally, beginners need to learn about availablecurricular resources and how to request new resources.

1": 01.1

47

How To HELP BRANNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

Information About the BTAP

The BTAP's goals, mentors, and support activitiesshould be discussed during orientation. A written programdescription can be included with orientation materials.Without a proper introduction to the BTAP, beginningteachers may misconstrue the program. The BTAP might beconsidered just another set of hurdles to be overcome, andthe mentor just one more supervisor to be dealt with.Emphasizing the primary purpose of the BTAPto providesupport to the beginning teacherand giving specificexamples of the types of assistance available can help todispel misconceptions the beginner may have concerningthe program.

The School

The principal and school-based support persons maywish to design their own orientation in addition to thedistrict orientation. A tour of the school building isrecommended. A map of the school with key locations canbe valuable to the beginner during the first days of theschool year. Beyond learning about the building, beginnersneed to acquire a variety of information about the school,including information about:

locating, checking out, and operating instructionalmedia

finding various administrative forms (and who to givethe (orms to once they are completed)

school policies on student 0:sciplineschool guidelines on homeworkfire drill procedures

6 carrying out student supervision responsibilitiesresponding to student illness or injury during the

instructional daytaking lunch count and attendancesecuring parental permission for special activities or

field tripsthe school's student population

r,t.1

48

FORMS OF INITIAL ASSISTANCE

The Beginner's Specific Responsibilities

The department chairperson or team leader andmentor should be available to discuss the beginner'sspecific responsibilities. Beginners need to be given theirclass schedules, rosters, and information about students'past experiences add needs. Any co-curricular assignmentscan be explained dining this phase of the orientation. Eachbeginner's classroom(s) can be visited, and classroomresources such as texts, workbooks, learning kits, andequipment can be previewed.

Informal Interaction

Not all of the beginner's orientation should be technicalin nature. "Get acquainted" and recreational activities canbe planned as part of the orientation. Informal interactionwith experienced teachers and other beginning teachersshould be encouraged during meals, coffee breaks, or apost-session reception. Enjoyable group activities andinformal discussions can go a long way toward making thebeginner feel comfortable with new colleagues and reducingthe natural apprehension that is part of being the "new kidon the block."

Assistance for the First Week of Teaching

The first week of teaching is the most critical one forLeginning teachers. The best way to help new teachershave a successful first week is to help them prepare for thatweek well in advance. Mentors can help new teacherscreate seating arrangements that promote effectiveclassroom management and instruction. Classroomequipment and materials can be arranged for maximumutility. Rules and procedures for student behavior can becreated.

Teachers should present classroom rules andprocedures on the first day of school. Rationales foe eachrule or procedure should be provided and examples of

compliance and noncompliance given. Rewards forcompliance and consequences for noncompliance shouldbe explained (Brooks and Shouse 1984). During the

r") 49


remainder of the first week students should be givenopportunities to rehearse classroom procedures andreceive feedback on their performance with reteachingprovided when necessary (Evertson, Wide, Green, andCrawford 1985). By creating a productive classroom climateduring the first days of teaching, beginning teachers lay thefoundation for a positive atmosphere for the entire schoolyear. Beginners will be far more likely to establish this typeof atmosphere with the assistance of mentors who haveexperience creating and teaching appropriate rules andprocedures.

Mentors can also help beginners prepare for teachingacademic content during the first week by collaborating inthe design of detailed lesson plans. New teachers canrehearse or describe critical elements of lessons tomentors. Mentors and beginners can discuss situationsthat might occur during lessons and alternative teacherresponses, Each mentor and new teacher can meet dailyonce the first week of school is under way to analyze thebeginner's teaching for the day and revise plans for thefollowing day The first week is the most important time ofthe school year for the mentor to be "on-call" for thebeginning teacher, ready to provide professional andemotional support.

50

7Forms of OngoingAssistance

Stress! You're teaching classes all day long. You're keep-ing students on task, you're testing, you're trying to followall the rules: every principle and guideline that's set outfor you. You're adhering to a scheduleyou must teachall the things in the course of study by the end of the year.After school you go home and take your job with you.Then you must face kids who have homework and ahusband who has had a tough day too.

A beginning teacher

Let them know that you've been there, that you've expe-rienced this too, and that they can survive!


The big thing is tc: be there, with an open ear, a shoulderto cry on, whatever they need.


Beginning teachers need support throughout theinduction period. BTAP development teams must choosefrom, adapt, and integrate a wide range of strategies toprovide this support. Forms of assistance to be included ina particular 13TAP depend on program goals, induction teamexpertise, available resources, and specific beginner'sneeds.

51


Providing Moral Support

Moral support is one of the most vital forms ofassistance the induction team can provide for the beginningteacher. This does not require sophisticated counselingskills. Just being available to listen to the new teacher'sconcerns and help the beginner keep matters in perspectivecan be of enormous benefit to the newcomer. Moral supportcan be provided during informal discussions between aninduction team member and the beginner, during inductionteam meetings, and during seminars that include otherbeginning teachers.

Providing System Information

The beginning teacher needs to acquire an enormousamount of system information throughout the school year.After the initial orientation, the principal and mentorbecome the logical conveyers of most system information.They can extend and reinforce information initially providedduring the orientation, and introduce new information asthe school year continues. Each month brings newinformation needs. The Pennsylvania State EducationAssociation has designed a calendar of topics for a BTAF,listing information and other needs and suggesting whichmonth each need should be addressed. A modified versionof the calendar is provided in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1Examples of BTAP Topics

MONTH TOPIC

August:

Sept-Mav:

SeptUmber:

52

Emewncy phone numbersSc heduleGetting StartedRole and Responsibility of the Beginning.Feacher as

of the Induction ProgramExpectations for Beginning Teachers

Importance of Teacher Self-lmage

Role and Responsibilities of the Induction Team

District Folic ics and ProceduresDistrict Philosophy

a Part

FORMS OF ONGOING ASSISTANCE

Grading and Retention PolicyBuilding Policies and ProceduresExtra Duties

Sept-Nov: Curriculum Guides and Planned Course DocumentsInformal Peer Interaction GuidelinesClassroom ManagementTime Management

October: Contractual ObligationsProfessional ObligationsInservice EducationProfessional OrganizationsCertification and InductionDiscipline PolicyAttendance ProceduresHome-School CommunicationParent-Teacher Conference ProceduresParent-Teacher Conterencing TechniquesCharacteristics of ProfessionalismConfidentialitySupport of School SystemSupport of ColleaguesEthicsAcademic FreedomProfessional DemeanorItc.cord Keel)ing

November: Textbooks, Resource Materials, Community Resources

I.ibrary Services"upil Support ServicesGuidanceNurset lonw, School VisitorSchool Psychologist

December: Held Trip ProceduresExtracurricular Activities

January: federal Programs, including Chapter I and IIOrgani/ation for InstructionStudent NeedsStudent Involvement and Motivation

February: Group Instruction

Mar h: Slow LearnersSpecial Education ReferralsGifted and Ta lvrikd StudentsParental Contacts and Involvement

April: Goal SettingDemographic and Social Structure of the Community

May: Materials Acquisition

his partial reprodw Wm i troni Steinhart teda I Iglito. huhu thm tanual.

State Edo( ation Assm iat ion, Coon( il on Instrut !ion and Protessional Development, 6-9.

5 s


One technique for delivering information to thebeginner is the induction notebook. The notebook can bedivided into sections, with a different section containinginformation and materials for each month. A monthlynewsletter for beginning teachers can provide timelyinformation. A beginning teacher bulletin board can also beused to remind beginners and mentors of upcoming eventsand responsibilities.

Socializing the Beginning Teacher

Beginners need to find out what is expected of them asprofessionals and faculty members, and how to meet thoseexpectations. Serving as positive role models is one of themost powerful ways other professionals can help socializethe beginning teacher. Additionally, the mentor can makethe beginner aware of do's and don'ts that have becomepart Gf the school culture over the years. The beginner alsoneeds to be taught how to "buck the system" whennecessaryhow to advocate needed change withoutprovoking negative responses from others.

Socialization is a two-way street. Professionals andnonprofessionals in the school need to do everythingpossible to break down the social isolation oftenexperienced by new teachers. Early in the year, theprincipal can arrange roundtable discussions about schoolnorms and routines involving beginners, mentors, and otherexperienced teachers. Beginners will be fully socialized onlythrough extended interaction with other members of theschool community.

Assisting with Planning, Organizing, and WorkManagement

Up-front planning and organizing for the school yearwill make the beginner's first teaching experiences asproductive and enjoyable as possible. Mentors can helpbeginners design topical outlines for the school year foreach content area they are responsible for teaching. Thebeginner and mentor can collaborate in writing the firstunits of instruction and daily plans, and the mentor can

545 t()


review the new teacher's lesson plans for the remainderof the first term.

Assistance with classroom organization should beprovided throughout the school year. The mentor can helpthe beginner t:!arrange classroom furniture and space,create new learning and resource centers, design systemsfor tracking student progress, and set up new classroomroutines to accommodate changing curriculum andinstruction.

One of beginning teachers' chief complaints is thetremendous workload they have, including a seeminglyendless flow of paperwork. Induction team members canshare with the beginners "tricks of the trade" for reducingthe time needed to create learning materials, plan lessons,grade student work, and complete administrativepaperwork. Also, mentors can help beginners track theamount of time they are spending on various out-of-classtasks so beginners can prioritize their schedules to devotemore time to essential work and less time to nonessentialactivities.

Helping Beginners Find Resources and Materials

The induction team should make sure at the beginningof the school year that the beginner has all the resourcesand materials generally required for implementing thecurriculum. The mentor can help the new teacher procurenecessary resources and materials for each new unit ofistruction. It may be necessary for the BTAP to provide

special funding to ensure that beginners have adequateresources for effective teaching.

Holding Team Meetings

The induction team should meet on a regular basis toreview the new teacher's progress and discuss thebeginner's needs. Regular meetings allow team members toreview prior support activities and coordinate future teamefforts. These meetings can also be used to design aprofessional development plan for the beginning teacher.The plan should not be formulated until the beginner hashad several weeks of teaching experience. The beginner,

6 () 55

56

How TO HUP BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEID

1111111011111,

with the assistance of other members of the induction team,should set long-range professional improvement goals andobjectives. The team must agree on activities that eachmember will carry out to help meet the goals and set astandard of achievement. Figure 7.2 is a form for organizinga professional development plan. As the team continues tomeet throughout the school year, progress toward theprofessional development goals can be discussed and, ifnecessary, revisions can be made in the action plans.

Figure 7.2Beginning Teacher Professional Development Plan

Beginning Teacher

Mentor

Prim ipal

Outside Consultant

Date

Professional Improvement Goal

Objectives

Action Plan

Beginning -I-eac her's Resjmnsibilities

Mentor's Responsibilities

Principal's Respom, es

Outside Consultant's Responsibilities

Standard of Achievement

FORMS OF ONGOIN6 ASSISTANCE

Providing Skills Training

Topics for training programs include classroommanagement skills, instructional skills, and skills forcollaborating with parents. Joyce and Showers (1982) havedeveloped a research-based model for skills training, whichincludes the following phases:

1. Presentation of the theory or rationale underlyingthe skill

2. Demonstration of the skill3. Skill practice in protected conditions, accompanied

by kedback4. Coaching within the clinical setting

School districts with insufficient numbers of beginnersfor skills training workshops may wish to join a BTAP

consortium, which can provide training for beginners fromseveral school districts at the same workshops. An

interesting variation of a beginner training program is aseries of workshops attended by new teachers andmentors, with beginners and mentors in the role of trainee.

Coaching the Beginner

The beginning teacher can be coached by either theprincipal or mentor, although the mentor is more likely tocoach the beginner on a regular basis. The following is afive-phase coaching model based on the clinical supervisionmodel developed by Goldhammer (1969).

Pre-Observation Conference

The coach and beginner start the pre-observationconference by discussing the learning objectives, plannedactivities, and student evaluation st-ategies for anupcoming lesson the beginner will be teaching. Next thecoach and beginner discuss concerns or interests the new

acher may have about the lesson. The parties agree onspecific teacher and student behaviors the coach willgather data on during the lesson and select or design adata-collection system.

57


Classroom Observation

The coach observes the beginner's lesson using theobservation system selected or designed in thepre-observation conference. Because the pre-observationconference agreement represents a contract between thecoach and beginner, the coach collects only theagreed-upon data.

Analysis and Strategy

The coach analyzes the observation data and decideshow to best report the information to the beginner. Thecoach also decides what interpersonal approach to useduring the post-observation conference.

Post-Observation Conference

The coach shares the data collected during theclassroom observation, and the coach and beginnerinterpret the data. The beginner may then choose aninstructional improvement goal. At this point thepost-observation conference can shift into a newpre-observation conference as the beginner and mentorplan changes in the beginner's teaching and structure a newobservation to collect data on the improvement effort.

Post-Analysis

The post-analysis consists of the coach collecting andanalyzing data about his own coaching performance for thepurpose of future improvement. Post-analysis includes oralfeedback from the beginner, or the coach may tape thepost-observation conference and review the tape.

Arranging Observations by Beginning Teachers

One of the most helpful benefits provided to abeginning teacher is the opportunity to observe effectiveteaching. The principal and mentor can arrange for thebeginning teacher to visit effective teachers' classrooms. It'sa good idea for the beginner to collect information onparticular aspects of observed lessons. Some examples of

58(3 3


things the new teacher might focus on are classroomorganization, how the teacher opens the lesson, howdirections are given, teacher questioning, student learningactivities, and lesson closure. lt is helpful to arrangevisitations that allow the beginner to observe differentcontent areas, grade levels, and a variety of teaching styles.

Demonstration teaching allows the beginner to observea master teacher using a particular instructional strategy.The master teacher can be the mentor or another teacher.The demonstration can take one of two forms--the newteacher can visit the master teacher's classroom or themaster teacher can visit the beginner's room and teach alesson to the students. The demonstration need not belimited to the delivery of instruction. The master teachercan also model what is done to prepare for and evaluate theobserved lesson.

Co-Teaching

The beginning teacher and mentor are natural partnersfor co-teaching. An advantage of co-teaching for the newteacher is that the beginner not only observes a skilledteacher in action but is actively involved with theexperienced colleague throughout the entire process ofdiagnosing student needs, setting learning objectives,planning the lesson, and evaluating results. The beginnerand mentor can co-teach a single lesson or an entire unit ofinstruction.

Videotaping

Videotape is a powerful tool for improving thebeginner's classroom management and instruction. Ademonstration lesson can be taped so that the beginningteacher and mentor can review and imalyze key elements ofthe lesson. Videotaping can also be used to collectclassroom observation data on the begimer's instructionduring a coaching cycle. The new teacher and principal ormentor can review videos of the beginner's teaching,freezing the tape to discuss instructional strengths andproblems revealed by the video. One especially effective

59

4


technique is to tape the beginner's instruction before andafter implementation of an action plan for instructionalimprovement. The "before" and "after" videos can be usedto observe the beginner's progress toward the improvementgoal.

Fostering Reflection

One way to promote beginning teachers' personal andprofessional development is to provide opportunities forbeginners to reflect on experiences, problems, successes,and future alternatives. There are several ways to promotereflection.

Journal Writing

Journal writing is an ongoing means of reflection.Critical events, emotions, concerns, and future plans can all

be subjects for reflective writing, which can be done daily.The beginning teacher and mentor need to establish at thebeginning of the school year whether the new teacher'sjournal entries will be private or shared with the mentor.

Nonevaivative Portfolios

A nonevaluative portfolio is a collection of items thatform a record of the beginner's personal and professionalgrowth. Student papers, photographs, especially effectivelesson plans, and even videotapes may be included in theportfolio. Items in the portfolio reflect incidents, milestones,and successes experienced by the beginner. Reviewing theportfolio gives the new teacher an opportunity to reflect onpast events and become more aware of how concerns,attitudes, values, and behaviors develop and changethroughout the school year.

Student Case Studies

All teachers have some students that are more difficultto teach than others. One way that the beginner can turnfrustration into objective inquiry aimed at student growth isto carry out an intensive case study of an at-risk student. Acase study involves gathering considerable information

60


from a variety of sources on the student's behaviors and thereasons for those behaviors. The study should culminate ina reflective report, including a description of actions thebeginner intends to carry out to foster the student's futurepersonal, social, and academic growth.

Review of Critical Incidents

Another way to encourage beginners to reflect is tohave them analyze critical events that occur at school.Beginners can describe events that have significantlyaffected them and consider the context of the event andwhy it had such a significant effect. Beginners can interpretcurrent feelings and concerns about the event and, finally,reflect on what they have learned from the event and waysto respond to similar situations in the future.

Collaborating on Action Research

Action research is a scientific approach to findingpractical solutions to problems occurring in the schoolsetting. It can be carried out by individuals or teams. Actionresearch occurs within a BTAP when a mentor and newteacher collaborate to solve a problem in the beginner'sclassroom. The mentor and beginner engaged in actionresearch should carry out the following steps:

1. Define a problem being experienced by the beginner.2. Gather and analyze all relevant data using original

sources (students, teacher and school records, classroomobservations, etc.) and secondary sources (theoreticaljournal articles, research studies, etc.).

3. Form a hypothesisa possible solution to theproblem.

4. Test the hypothesis by designing and carrying out asimple and practical research study in the beginner'sclassroom.

5. Analyze the data corected during the study todetermine whether or not the hypothesis is correct. If thehypothesis is shown to be Incorrect, a new hypothesis canbe formed, and a new stu,fI designed.

This cycle can be repeated until a correct hypothesis isfound.

61

HOW TO HELP BEGINNING TEACHERS SUCCEED

Helping the Beginner Evaluate Students

One key to helping the beginning teacher evaluatestudent progress is to collaboratively create learningobjectives that are relevant, at the correct level of difficulty,and written in measurable terms. Another important skillinvolves the use of varied, valid, and reliable methods formeasuring student progress. Initially, induction teammembers and the beginner can design measurableobjectives and corresponding evaluation methods. Theinduction team can also help the beginner interpretinformation on student progress. After the first academicterm, support persons can continue to review the newteacher's evaluation methods and grading procedures.Support persons can recommend methods of measuringstudent progress and guidelines for assigning grades but, asa professional, the beginning teacher must assume finalresponsibility for student evaluation.

Preparing the Beginner for Interactionwith Parents

The induction team can help the beginning teacherprepare for back-to-school night, parent-teacher conferencedays, and conferences requested by the beginner or parentsto discuss special problems. If a problem is serious or if thesituation is emotionally charged, one strategy is for thementor and beginning teacher to role-play a conferenceprior to the meeting with parents. This allows the beginnerto practice dealing with issues that might come up duringthe conference, and allows the mentor to provide correctivefeedback on the beginner's interpersonal style.

Preparing the Beginner for Summative Evaluation

I have suggested that mentors should not participatein sumrnative evaluation of beginning teachers. This doesnot mean that mentors shouldn't help the beginnerunderstand the district's summative evaluation system.The mentor can review the school system's evaluationinstruments with the beginner, and even carry out

62 6 7


"practice" observations to familiarize the beginner withwhat will take place in actual summative evaluationobservations.

Conducting Seminars

The beginning teacher seminar can incorporate manyforms of assistance. The seminar can be a structure forsharing information, discussing concerns, or planning forthe future. It can be conducted by a mentor or mentor team,principal, the BTAP coordinator, or a representative ofhigher education Seminars can be held weekly, bi-weekly,or monthly. Despite the wide variety of topics that can beaddressed at seminars, perhaps their greatest advantage isthe opportunity they provide for beginning teachers toengage in professional dialogue, sharing their experiencesand providing emotional support for one another.

63

8Summative ProgramEvaluation

The purpose of evaluation is to improve, not to prove.

Daniel Stufflebeam

Be ready to listen to suggestions. Be open to change.

An experienced mentor advising novice mentors

Acomprehensive plan for assisting beginning teachers isthe beginning rather than the end of successful BTAPdevelopment. Effective program development can beviewed as a continuous cycle involving planning,implementation, evaluatiol, and renewed planning forprogram improvement. The BTAP development modelincludes both formative and summative evaluation. Bothcan be part of a continuous program development cycle.

Changes made in the program as a result of formativeevaluation usually involve selected elements of the programrather than major revisions. Eventually, a summativeevaluation will be necessary to assess the overall value ofthe program and to make any necessary major changes.Formative and summative evaluation should not be viewedas entirely discreet. Much of the data col+1 rt d forformative evaluation can be reanalyzed a, ,.art of asummative evaluation conducted later.

64

SUMMATIVE PROGRAM EVALUATION

Purposes of Summative Program Evaluation

There are severc.ii reasons for summative programevaluation. One is to judge the overall value of the BTAP

and to determine whether or not it should continue.Another is to determine minor or major revisions thatshould be made in the program. A third is to provideinformation about the BTAP to interested stakeholders. A

fourth is to satisfy state requirements calling for evaluationsof mandated BTAPs. Th- purposes of the evaluation will inlarge part determine the scope and breadth of the evaluation.

Who Should Conduct the BTAP Evaluation?

The BTAP development team is the logical choice tocoordinate the program evaluation. Team members mayrequire technical assistance from the district office, stateagencies, or university experts, but will probably be able todesign a great deal of the evaluation themselves. Beginningteachers, mentors, and principals participating in the BTAP

can take on major roles in data collection and analysis. Forinstance, program participants can be asked to designquestions for surveys or interviews, recommenddocuments or observations that could yield valuable data,and suggest alternative interpretations of collected data.

Evaluation Questions

The evaluation design depends largely on the questionsthat those authorizing the evaluation want answered. Somepossible evaluation questions are:

1. What effect has the BTAP context (schoolenvironment, professional relationships within the school,school-community relations, administrative support forstaff development) had on the program?

2. Have the needs of beginning teacher nd mentorsbeen correctly assessed?

3. Is the BTAP design adequate for meeting identifiedneeds?

4. Have adequate human and material resources beenprovided for the BTAP?

7 ()65


5. Have participants in the BTAP (including beginningteachers, mentors, and principals) been adequatelyprepared for their roles in the assistance program?

6. Has each component of the BTAP been implementedas planned? If not, how has BTAP implementation variedfrom the formal plan?

7. Have the intended outcomes of the BTAP beenaccomplished?

8. What positive or negative unintended outcomes haveresulted from the BTAP?

Data Sources and Data-Gathering Methods

A data source is a person, place, or thing from whichdata relevant to the evaluation can be gathered. Beginningteachers, their students, mentors, principals, otherinduction team members, other teachers, and school andclassroom documents are all potential sources of BTAPevaluation data. Questionnaires, interviews, observations,case studies, pre-post measures, and document review aremethods of gathering data from selected sources. Acombinat ion of various sources and data-gathering methodsusually yields richer information than any single source ormethod.

Measuring Outcomes

The last two of the potential evaluation questions listedabove focus on program outcomes. Intended outcomes arethe program goals and objectives. Unintended outcomes areany additional positive or negative changes that result fromthe BTAP. Categories of intended or unintended outcomesthat might be measured during a BTAP evaluation include:

66

Personal Changes imKnowledgeSkillsAttitudesValuesConcernsDaily performance

-IA.

Organizational Changes in:NormsCustomsValuesCommunicationLeadershipCooperation

SUMMATIVE PROGRAM EVALUATION

The individual change categories can apply tobeginning teachers, students, mentors, principals, andother program participants. Program evaluators may alsowish to measure BTAP's effects on the school as anorganization. A program focused on a specific populationmay have building-wide effects that are worth investigating.

What To Do With Evaluation Results

A variety of audiences are interested in BTAPevaluation reports, including state departments ofeducation, the school board, BTAP partidpants, educationalassociations, and other school districts. Different types of

reports may be required for different audiences, withreports varying in length, the types of informationprovided, and language (technical or nontechnical).Evaluation results may indicate that the BTAP is largelysuccessful and that only minor changes in the program arerequired. Should the evaluation results indicate seriousproblems with the BTAP, the program development teamwill need to begin planning for major program revisions.

* * *

Education today is facing a variety of complicatedproblems, many of which seem to have no clear solution.How to effectively assist beginning teachers is itself acomplex problem. Fortunately, Beginning TeacherAssistance Programs provide a viable solution. Those of uswho have seen the power of well-designed BTAPs have atwo-fold mission: First, to make educators and otherstakeholders aware of the serious need for assistanceprograms for beginning teachers, and second, to convincethem to commit the human and material resourcesnecessary to make effective fIl'APs a reality.

67

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Corcoran, E. (1981). "Transition Shock: The Beginning Teacher'sParadox." Journal of Teacher Education 32, 3: 19-23.

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DeBolt, GP. (1989). "Helpful Elements in the Mentoring of FirstYear Teachers." A report to the State Education Departmenton the New York State Mentor Teacher-Internship Programfor 1988-1989. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED

316 501)Earp, N.W., and FW. Tanner. (1975). "A Continuing Study of the

Classroom and Personal-Professional Attitude Developmentof NTSU Elementary Graduates in Their First Year ofTeaching." Research on Elementary Teacher Preparation.Monograph, No. 3. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 126 002)

Everts on, C., R. Wide, J. Green, and J. Crawford, (1985). EffectiveClassroom Management and Instruction: An Exploration ofModels: Final Report. (Contract No. NIE-G-83-0063).Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education.

Fagan, M,M, and G. Walter. (November-December 1982)."Meatoring Among Teachers." Journal of EducationalResearch 76,2: 113-118.

Fuller, RI'. (1969). "Concerns of Teachers: A DevelopmentalConceptualization." American Educational Research Journal 6,

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Gehrke, N.J (January-February 1982). "Teacher's Role Conflicts: AGrounded Theory-in-Process." Journal of Teacher Education33, 1: 41-46.

Gehrke, N.J. and R. Kay. (1984). "The Socialization of BeginningTeactrqs Through Mentor-Protege Relationships." Journal ofTeacher Educv:ion 35, 3: 21-24.

Glickman, C. (December-January 1984-85), "The Supervisor'sChallenge: Changing the Teachers Work Environment."Educational Leadership 42, 4: 82-84.

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Glickman, C. (1990). Supervision or Instruction: A DevelopmentalApproach. 2nd ed. Boston: 'ilyn and Bacon.

Godley, L.B., D.R. Wilson, and BJ. Klug, (1986-87). "The TeacherConsultant Role: hnpact on the Profession." Action in TeacherEducation 8, 4: 65-73,

Goldhammer, R. (1969). Clinical Supervision: Special Methods forthe Supervision of Teachers. New York: Holt, Rinehart, andWinston.

Grant, C.A., and K.M. Zeichner. (1981). "Inservice Support forFirst-Year Teachers: The State of the Scene." Journal ofResearch and Development in Education 14, 2: 99-111.

Harris, M.M., and M.P. Collay. (1990). "Teacher Induction in RuralSchools." Journal of Staff Developrnont 11, 4: 44-48.

Hawk, P. (1987). "Beginning Teacher Programs: Benefits for theExperienced Educator." Action in Teacher Education 8, 4: 59-63.

Henry, M.A. (1988). Project Credit: Certification RenewalExperiences Designed to hnprove Teaching. Terre Haute:Indiana State University, Department of Secondary Education.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 291 681).

Hirsh, S.A. (1990). "Designing Induction Programs with theBeginning Teacher in Mind." Journal of Staff Development 11,4: 24-26.

Hoffman, J.V., S.A. Edwards, S. O'Neal, S. Barnes, M. Paulissen.(1986). "A Study of State-Mandated Beginning TeacherPrograms." Journal of Teacher Education 37, 1: 16-21.

Houston, W.R., and B.D. Felder. (March 1982). "Break Horses, NotTeachers." Phi De/ta Kappa 63, 7: 457-460.

Hoy, W.K. (1968). "The Influence of Experience on the BeginningTeacher." School I?eview. 76, 3: 312-323.

Hoy, W.K. (September-December 1969). "Pupil Control Ideologyand Teacher Socialization: A Further Examination of theInfluence of Experience on the Beginning Teacher." School

Review 77, 3-4: 257-265.Huffman, G., and S. Leak. (1986). "Beginning Teachers' Perceptions

of Mentors." Journal of Teacher Education 37, !: 22-24.Huling-Austin, L. (1986). "What Can and Cannot Reasonably be

Expected from Teacher Induction Programs." Journal ofTeacher Education 37, 1: 2-5.

Huling-Austin, L. (April 1988). "A Synthesis of Research on TeacherInduction Programs and Practices." Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, New Orleans. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 302 546)

Huling-Austin, L., and S.C. Murphy. (April 1987). "Assessing theImpact of Teacher Induction Programs: Implications forProgram Development." Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research Association,

REFERENCES

Washington, D.C. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 283 779)

Johnson, DN., and F.P. Johnson. (1982). Joining Together GroupTheory and Group Skills. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall.

Johnston, J.M., and K. Ryan. (1980). Research on the BeginningTeacher: Implications for Teacher Education. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. Ed 209 188)

Joyce, B., and B. Showers. (1982). "The Coaching of Teaching."Educational Leadership 40, 1: 4-8, 10.

Killion, J.P. (1990). "The Benefits of an Induction Program forExperienced Teachers." Journal of Staff Development 11, 4:

32-36.Klug, B.J. (February 1988). "Teacher Induction in Southeastern

Idaho: Preliminary Report." Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the Association of Teacher Educators, San Diego.

Kurtz, W.H. (1983). "Identifying Their Needs: How the PrincipalCan Help Beginning Teachers." NASSP Bulletin 67, 459: 42-45.

Little, J.W., P. Galagaran, Lau R. O'Neal. (1984). ProfessionalDevelopment Roles and Relationships: Principals and Skills of"Advising." San Francisco: National Institute of Education.

McArthur, J.T. (1978). "What Does Teaching do to Teachers?"Educational Administration Quarterly 14, 3: 89-103.

Manley, M., L. Siudzinski, and L.J. Varah. (1989). "Easing theTransition for First-Year Teachers." NASSP Bulletin73, 515: 16-21.

New Mexico State Department of Education (1988). PreliminaryReport: New Mexico Enrollment and Teacher Needs Projections.Sante Fe: New Mexico State Department of Education.

Newberry, J. (1978). "The Barrier Between Beginning andExperienced Teachers." The Journal of EducationalAdministration 16, 1: 46-56.

Odell, S.J. (1990). "A Collaborative Approach to Teacher InductionThat Works." The Journal of Staff Development 11, 4: 12-16.

Odell, S.J., C.E. Loughlin, and D.P Ferraro. (1986-87). "FunctionalApproach to Identification of New Teacher Needs in anInduction Context." Action in Teacher Education 8, 4: 51-57.

Parker, L.S. (1988). "A Regional Teacher Induction Program ThatWorks for Rural Schools." Journal of Staff Development 9,4:16-20.

Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods.2nd ed. Newberry Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Quisenberry, N.L., S. Massee-Fox, W. Norris, and DJ. McIntyre.(1989). Teacher Induction: An Annotated Bibliography, 1.985-8.9,Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. El) 288 820).

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Romatowski, J.A., J.J. Dorminey, and B. Van Voorhees. (1989).'Teacher Induction Programs: A Report." (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 316 525)

Rosseto, C., and J.K. Grosenick. (1987). "Effects of Collaborative'reacher Education: Follow-up of Graduates of a TeacherInduction Program." Journal of Teacher Education 38, 2: 50-52.

Ryan, K. (1979). "Toward Understanding the Problem: At theThreshold of the Profession." In Toward Meeting the Needs ofthe Beginning Teacher, edited by K.R. Howey and R.H. Bents.Lansing, Mich.: Midwest Teacher Corps Network, and St. Paul:Minnesota University.

Ryan, K. (1974). Survival is Not Good Enough: Overcoming theProblems of Beginning Teachers. Washington, D.C.: AmericanFederation of Teachers.

Ryan, K., K.K. Newman, G. Mager, J. Applegate, T. Lasley, R. Flora,and J. Johnston. (1980). Biting the Apple: Accounts ofFirst-YearTeachers. New York: Longman.

Scheehy, G. (1976). Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life. NewYork: Dutton.

Schein, E.H. (1978). Career Dynamics: Matching Individual andOrganizational Needs. Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley.

Schlechty, P.C., and V. Vance. (1983). "Recruitment, Selection, andRetention: The Shape of the Teaching Force." The ElementarySchool Journal 83, 4: 469-487.

Schmidt, J.A., and J.S. Wolfe. (1980)."The Mentor Partnership:Discovery of Professionalism." NASPA Journal 17, 3: 45-51.

Schmuck, R.A., and P.J. Runkel. (1985). The Handbook ofOrganizational Development in Schools. 3d ed. Palo Alto,Calif.: Mayfield Publishing.

Smith Davis, J., and M. Cohen. (1989). Preventing Attrition ThroughTeacher Induction and Mentoring and Entry-Year InductionPrograms and Practices: A Bibliography. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 314 923)

Varah, W.S. Theune, and L. Parker. (1986). "Beginning Teacher:Sink or Swim?" Journal of Teacher Education 37, 1: 30-34.

Veenman, S. (Summer 1984). "Perceived Problems of BeginningTeachers." Review of Educational Research 54, 2: 143-178.

Warring, D.F. (February 1989)."A Collaborative Mentor-MenteeProgram Based on the Bloomington, Minnesota, PublicSchools," Paper presented at the Meeting of the Associationof Teacher Educators, St. Louis. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No, El) 305 328).

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (1984). Final Reportof the State Superintendent's Thsk Ibrce on Thaching andTeacher Education. Madison, Ill.: Wisconsin Department ofPublic Instruction.

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Wright, B.D., and S.A. Tuska. (1968). "From Dream to Life in thePsychology of Becoming a Teacher." The School Review 76, 3:

253-293.

73

Resources forPractitioners

Chapter 1Unforeseen Difficulties

Marso, R.N., and F.L. Pigge. (1987). "Differences BetweenSelf-Perceived Job Expectations and .lob Realities ofBeginning Teachers." Journal of Teacher Education 38, 6:53-56.


Ryan, K. (1970). Don't Smile Until Christmas. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Ryan. K., K.K. Newman, G. Mager, J. Applegate, T. Lasley, R. Flora,and J. Johnston. (1980). Biting the Apple: Accounts of First-YearTeachers. New York: Longman.

Veenman, S. (Summer 1984). "Perceived Problems of BeginningTeachers." Review of Educational Research 54, 2: 143-178.

nhapter 2The Solution: A BTAP

Berman, P., ed. (1990). Theme issue on Teacher Induction. Journalof Staff Development 11, 4.

Henry, M.A. (1988). Project Credit: Certification RerwwalExperiences Designed to Improve Teaching. Terre Haute:Indiana State University, Department of Secondary Education.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 291 681).

Lasley, TV., ed. (1986). Theme Issue on Teacher Induction. Journalof Teacher Education 37, 1,

Manley, M., L. Siudzinski, and LI Varah. (1989). "Easing theTransition for First-Year Teachers." NASSP Bulletin73, 515: 16-21.

Quisenherry, N.L., S. Massee-Fox, W. Norris, and D.J. McIntyre.(1989). Teacher Induction: An Annotated Bibliography, 1985-89.Carbondale: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. El) 288 820).

Smith-Davis, J., and M. Cohen. (1989). Preventing Attrition ThroughTeacher Induction and Mentoring and Entry-Year Induction

74

RESOURCES FOR PRACTITIONERS

Programs and Practices: A Bibliography. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 314 923)

Chapter 3Developing a BTAP

ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Induction. (1986). Components ofTeacher Induction Programs. ERIC digest No. 4. Washington,D.C. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 407)

Hirsh, S.A. (1990). "Designing Induction Programs with theBeginning Teacher in Mind," Journal of Staff Development 11,4: 24-26.

Huling-Austin, L. (April 1988). "A Synthesis of Research on TeacherInduction Programs and Practices." Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, New Orleans. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 302 546)

Huling-Austin, L., and S.C. Murphy. (April 1987). "Assessing theImpact of Teacher Induction Programs: Implications forProgram Development." Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research Association,Washington, D.C. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 283 779)

Maryland State Department of Education. Research for BetterSchools, Inc. (1987). Perspectives on Teacher Induction: AReview of the Literature and Promising Program Models.Washington, D.C. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 288 857).

Romatowski, J.A., J.J. Dorminey, and B. Van Voorhees. (1989)."Teacher Induction Programs: A Report." (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 316 525).

Chapter 4MentorsAcheson, Keith (program consultant). Another Set of Eyes:

lechniques for Classroom Observation (videotape). (1988).Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Adams, R.D. and C. Martray. (April 1981). "Teacher Development:A Study of Factors Related to Teacher Concerns for Pre,Beginning, and Experienced Teachers." Paper presented atthe Annual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, Los Angeles.

Appalachia Educational Labora;.ory, Tennessee Educationssmiation. (1988). Bridges to Strength: Establishing a

Mentoring Program for Beginning Teuchem An A dr, i n iv Ivy tf 'c

Guide. Charleston, W.Va.: Appalachia Ed twat ionalLaboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED318 732),

75


Bas-lsaac, E. (November 1989) "Mentoring: A Life Preserver for theBeginning Teacher." Paper presented at The AnnualConference of The National Council of States on InserviceEducation, San Antonio. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 315 404).

Bowers, G.R., and N.A. Eberhart. (1988). "Mentors and theEntry-Year Program." Theory into Practice 27, 3: 226-230.

Costa, A., and R. Garmston (program consultants). Another Set ofEyes: Conferencing Skills (videotape). (1989). Alexandria, Va.:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Ellis, IR., and B.F. Radebaugh, eds. (1987), Theme Issue onMentoring for Teachers. Thresholds in Education 13, 3.

Glickman, C. (1990). Supervision of Instruction: A DevelopmentalApproach. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Hatwood-Futrell, M. (1988). "Selecting and Compensating MentorTeachers: A Win-Win Scenario." Theory into Practice 27, 3:223-225.

Howey, K. (1988). "Mentor-Teachers as Inquiring Professionals."Theory into Practice 27, 3: 209-213.

Krupp, IA. (1982). The Adult Learner: A Unique Entity. Manchester,Conn.: Adult Development and Learning.

Shulman, J.H., and J.A. Colbert, eds. (1987). The Mentor TeacherCasebook. Eugene, Ore.: ERIC Clearinghouse on EducationalManagement, and San Francisco: Far West Laboratory forEducational Research and Development.

Thies-Sprinthall, L. (December 1986). "A Collaborative Approachfor Mentor Training: A Working Model." Journal of TeacherEducation 37, 13-20.

Warren Little, J., and L. Nelson, eds. (1990). A Leader's Guide toMentor Training. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory forEducational Research and Development.

Warring, D.E. (February 1989)."A Collaborative Mentor-MenteeProgram Based on the Bloomington, Minnesota, PublicSchools." Paper presented at the Meeting of the AssociationW. Teacher Educators, St. Louis. (ERIC DocurneruReproduction Service No. El) 305 328).

Zimpho., NI., and S.R. Rieger. (1988). "Mentor Teachers: What Arethe Issues?" Theory into Practice 27, 3: 175-182.

Chapter 5Needs AssessmentCunningham, S., and G. Nieminen. (November 1986). "Teacher

Today: Identifying Staff Development Needs." Paperpresented at the Annual Conference of the National Council ofStates on inservice Education Nashville. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. Ed 275 659).

76

RESOURCES FOR PRACTITIONERS

Levy, J. (July 1987) "A Study of Beginning Teachers in Virginia."Paper presented at the World Assembly of the InternationalCouncil on Education for Teaching, Eindhoven, Netherlands.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 287 799).


Quisenberry, N.L., S. Massee-Fox, W. Nortis, and D.J. McIntyre.(1989). Teacher Induction: An Annotated Bibliography, 198.5-89.Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 288 820).

Chapter 6initial AssistanceBrooks, D.M. (1985). "The Teacher's Communicative Competence:

The First Day of School." Theory into Practice 24, 1: 63-70.

Emmet-, E., C. Evertson, and L. Anderson. (May 1980). "EffectiveClassroom Management at the Beginning of the School Year."The Elementary School Journal 80, 5: 219-231.

Kurtz, Wi-I. (1983). "How the Principal Can Help BeginningTeachers." NASSP Bulletin 67, 459: 42-45.

Littleton, P. and M. Littleton. (1988). "Induction Programs forBeginning Teachers." The Clearing House 62, 1: 36-38.

Chapter 7Ongoing Assistance

Acheson, Keith (program consultant). Another Set of Eyes:Techniques for Classroom Observation (videotape). (1988),Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevek Iment,

Bas-Isaac, E. (November 1989) "Mentoring: A Life Preserver for theBeginning Teacher." Paper presented at The AnnualConference of The National Council of States on InserviceEducation, San Antonio. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 315 404).

Berman, P., ed. (1987). Theme Issue cn Peer Coaching. Journal ofStaff Development 8. 1.

Brandt, R., ed. (February 1987). Theme Issue on the Coaching ofTeaching. Educational Leadership 44, 5.

Brandt, R., ed. (September 1982). Theme Issue on the Coaching ofTeaching. Educational Leadership 40. 1,

Carter, K. (1988). "Using Cases to Frame Mentor-NoviceConversations About Teaching." Theory into Practice 27, 3:

226-230.Emrick, W.S. (March 1989). "Mentoring and Peer Coaching: An

Action Model." Paper presented at The Annual Meeting ofThe American Association of School Administrators, Orlando.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 307 627).

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78


Hunter, J.H. (November 1988). "Induction 3f New Teachers: AnAnnotated Bibliography." South Bend, Indiana University.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 304 428).

Joyce, B., and B. Showers. (1982). "The Coaching of Teaching."Educational Leadership 40, 1: 4-8, 10.

Manley, M., L. Siudzinski, and L.J.Varah. (1989). "Easing theTransition for First-Year Teachers." NASSP Bulletin 73, 515:16-21.

Miller, D.M. and C.V. Pine. (1990). "Advancing Professional Inquiryfor Educational Improvement Through Action Research."Journal of Staff Development 11, 3: 56-61.

Oliver, B. (1980). "Action Research for Inservice Training."Educational Leadership 37 , 5: 394-395.

Wolfe. Pat (program consultant). Catch Them Being Good:Reinforcement in the Ciassroom (videotape). (1988).Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Wolfe, Pat (program consultant). Classroom Management(videotape). (1988). Alexandria, Va.: Association forSupervision and Curiculum Development.

Wolfe, Pat, and Pam Robbins (program consultants). OpeningDoors: An Introduction to Peer Coaching (videotape). (1989).Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Yinger, R.J. (January 1980). "A Study of Teacher Planning."Elementary School Journal 80,3:107-127.

Chapter 8Summative EvaluationBerman, P., ed. (1982). Theme Issue on Evaluation of Staff

Development Programs. Journal of Stuff Development3, 1

Epstein, A.S. (1988). "A No Frills Approach to Program Evaluation."High Scope Resources 7, 1: 1-12.

Hamilton, SF. (1980). "Evaluating Your Own Program." EducationalLeadership 37, 6:545-551.

Loucks-Horsley, S., C.K. Harding, MA. Arbuckle, L.B. Murray, C.Dubea, and M.K. Williams. (1987). "Evaluating ProfessionalDevelopment Programs." In Continuing to Learn. Andover,Mass.: The Regional Laboratory for Educational Improvementof the Northeast and Islands.

Quisenberry, S. Massee-Fox, W. Norris, and D.J. McIntyre.(1989), Teacher Induction: An Annotated Bibliography, 198.5-8,9.Carbondale: Southern Illinois University at Carlyndale. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 288 820).

Stufflebeam, D. (1981). Standards J.:or Evaluotions of EducationalPrograms, Projects, und Materials. New York: McGraw Hill.

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